Bacteria may develop antibiotic resistance due to unintentional DNA alterations that give them a survival advantage. Bacteria may develop antibiotic resistance due to unintentional DNA alterations that give them a survival advantage. Finding genetic changes and understanding how they enable bacteria to withstand antibiotic attacks will be crucial to our ability to develop new medications to combat them.
GaynesR. The discovery of penicillin—new insights after more than 75 years of clinical use. Emerg Infect Dis. 2017;23(5):849–53. doi: 10.3201/eid2305.161556
2.
DaviesJ, DaviesD. Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2010;74(3):417–33. doi: 10.1128/MMBR.00016-10
3.
VentolaCL. The antibiotic resistance crisis: Part 1: Causes and threats. P T. 2015;40(4):277-83. Munita JM, Arias CA. Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Microbiol Spectr. 2016;4(2):10.1128/microbiolspec.VMBF-0016-2015. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.VMBF-0016-2015
4.
UddinTM, ChakrabortyAJ, KhusroA, ZidanBRM, MitraS, EmranTB, DhamaK, RiponMKH, GajdácsM, SahibzadaMUK, HossainMJ, KoiralaN. Antibiotic resistance in microbes: History, mechanisms,therapeutic strategies and future prospects. Journal of Infectionand Public Health. 2021;14(12):1750–66. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2021.10.020
5.
PrestinaciF, PezzottiP, PantostiA. Antimicrobial resistance: A global multifaceted phenomenon. Pathog Glob Health. 2015;109(7):309–18. doi: 10.1179/2047773215Y.0000000030
6.
StasiakM, MaćkiwE, KowalskaJ, KucharekK, PostupolskiJ. Silent genes: Antimicrobial resistance and antibiotic production. Pol J Microbiol. 2021;70(4):421–9. doi: 10.33073/pjm-2021-040
7.
PartridgeSR, KwongSM, FirthN, JensenSO. Mobile genetic elements associated with antimicrobial resistance. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2018;31(4):e00088–17. Published 2018 Aug 1. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00088-17
8.
LernerA, MatthiasT, AminovR. Potential effects of horizontal gene exchange in the human gut. Front Immunol. 2017;8:1630. Published 2017 Nov 27. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01630
9.
PatelUR, GautamS, ChatterjiD. Unraveling the role of silent mutation in the ω-subunit of escherichia coli RNA polymerase: Structure transition inhibits transcription. ACS Omega. 2019;4(18):17714–25. Published 2019 Oct 14. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.9b02103
10.
LoeweL, HillWG. The population genetics of mutations: Good, bad and indifferent. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2010;365(1544):1153–67. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0317
11.
GonzalezMW, KannMG. Chapter Protein interactions and disease. PLoS Comput Biol. 2012;8(12):e1002819. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002819
AlbertsB, JohnsonA, LewisJ, et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. Studying Gene Expression and Function. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26818/
14.
DurlandJ, Ahmadian-MoghadamH. Mutagenesis. [Updated 2021 Sep 21]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560519/
15.
BurmeisterAR. Horizontal gene transfer. Evol Med Public Health. 2015;2015(1):193–194. Published 2015 Jul 29. doi: 10.1093/emph/eov018
16.
WatfordS, WarringtonSJ. Bacterial DNA Mutations. [Updated 2022 Apr 14]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459274/
17.
LoeweL, HillWG. The population genetics of mutations: Good, bad and indifferent. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2010;365(1544):1153–67. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0317
18.
HuangW, LymanRF, LymanRA, et al. Spontaneous mutations and the origin and maintenance of quantitative genetic variation [published correction appears in Elife. 2016 Oct 19;5:null]. Elife. 2016;5:e14625. Published 2016 May 23. doi: 10.7554/eLife.14625
Fernández-CaleroT, Cabrera-CabreraF, EhrlichR, MarínM. Silent polymorphisms: Can the tRNA population explain changes inprotein properties?Life (Basel). 2016;6(1):9. Published 2016 Feb 17. doi: 10.3390/life6010009
23.
VentolaCL. The antibiotic resistance crisis: Part Causes and threats. P T. 2015;40(4):277–83.
24.
FairRJ, TorY. Antibiotics and bacterial resistance in the 21st century. Perspect Medicin Chem. 2014;6:25–64. Published 2014 Aug 28. doi: 10.4137/PMC.S14459
25.
AhmedA, AzimA, GurjarM, BaroniaAK. Current concepts in combination antibiotic therapy for critically ill patients. Indian J Crit Care Med. 2014;18(5):310–4. doi: 10.4103/0972-5229.132495
PetersonE, KaurP. Antibiotic resistance mechanisms in bacteria: Relationships between resistance determinants of antibiotic producers, environmental bacteria, and clinical pathogens. Front Microbiol. 2018;9:2928. Published 2018 Nov 30. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02928
28.
BushK, BradfordPA. β-lactams and β-lactamase inhibitors: An overview. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2016;6(8):a025247. Published 2016 Aug 1. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a025247
ReygaertWC. An overview of the antimicrobial resistance mechanisms of bacteria. AIMS Microbiol. 2018;4(3):482–501. Published 2018 Jun 26. doi: 10.3934/microbiol.2018.3.482
