Neuro-Symbolic Artificial Intelligence – the combination of symbolic methods with methods that are based on artificial neural networks – has a long-standing history. In this article, we provide a structured overview of current trends, by means of categorizing recent publications from key conferences. The article is meant to serve as a convenient starting point for research on the general topic.
A.M.Alaa and M.van der Schaar, Demystifying black-box models with symbolic metamodels, in: Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 32: Annual Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019, NeurIPS 2019, Vancouver, BC, Canada, December 8–14, 2019, H.M.Wallach, H.Larochelle, A.Beygelzimer, F.d’Alché-Buc, E.B.Fox and R.Garnett, eds, 2019, pp. 11301–11311, https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper/2019/hash/567b8f5f423af15818a068235807edc0-Abstract.html.
2.
M.Allamanis, P.Chanthirasegaran, P.Kohli and C.Sutton, Learning continuous semantic representations of symbolic expressions, in: Proceedings of the 34th International Conference on Machine Learning, ICML 2017, Sydney, NSW, Australia, 6–11 August 2017, D.Precup and Y.W.Teh, eds, Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, Vol. 70, PMLR, 2017, pp. 80–88, http://proceedings.mlr.press/v70/allamanis17a.html.
3.
S.Amizadeh, H.Palangi, A.Polozov, Y.Huang and K.Koishida, Neuro-symbolic visual reasoning: Disentangling “visual” from “reasoning”, in: Proceedings of the 37th International Conference on Machine Learning, ICML 2020, 13–18 July 2020, Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, Vol. 119, PMLR, 2020, pp. 279–290, Virtual Event, http://proceedings.mlr.press/v119/amizadeh20a.html.
4.
F.Arabshahi, S.Singh and A.Anandkumar, Combining symbolic expressions and black-box function evaluations in neural programs, in: 6th International Conference on Learning Representations, ICLR 2018, Conference Track Proceedings, Vancouver, BC, Canada, April 30–May 3, 2018, OpenReview.net, 2018, https://openreview.net/forum?id=Hksj2WWAW.
5.
M.Asai and A.Fukunaga, Classical planning in deep latent space: Bridging the subsymbolic-symbolic boundary, in: Proceedings of the Thirty-Second AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, (AAAI-18), the 30th Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence (IAAI-18), and the 8th AAAI Symposium on Educational Advances in Artificial Intelligence (EAAI-18), New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, February 2–7, 2018, S.A.McIlraith and K.Q.Weinberger, eds, AAAI Press, 2018, pp. 6094–6101, https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/AAAI/AAAI18/paper/view/16302.
6.
M.Asai and C.Muise, Learning neural–symbolic descriptive planning models via cube-space priors: The voyage home (to STRIPS), in: Proceedings of the Twenty-Ninth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, IJCAI 2020, C.Bessiere, ed., ijcai.org, 2020, pp. 2676–2682. doi:10.24963/ijcai.2020/371.
7.
S.Bader and P.Hitzler, Dimensions of neural–symbolic integration – a structured survey, in: We Will Show Them! Essays in Honour of Dov Gabbay, Volume One, S.N.Artëmov, H.Barringer, A.S.d’Avila Garcez, L.C.Lamb and J.Woods, eds, College Publications, 2005, pp. 167–194.
8.
T.R.Besold, A.S.d’Avila Garcez, S.Bader, H.Bowman, P.M.Domingos, P.Hitzler, K.Kühnberger, L.C.Lamb, D.Lowd, P.M.V.Lima, L.de Penning, G.Pinkas, H.Poon and G.Zaverucha, Neural-symbolic learning and reasoning: A survey and interpretation, CoRR abs/1711.03902, 2017, http://arxiv.org/abs/1711.03902.
9.
F.Bianchi and P.Hitzler, On the capabilities of logic tensor networks for deductive reasoning, in: Proceedings of the AAAI 2019 Spring Symposium on Combining Machine Learning with Knowledge Engineering (AAAI-MAKE 2019), Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, USA, March 25–27, 2019, A.Martin, K.Hinkelmann, A.Gerber, D.Lenat, F.van Harmelen and P.Clark, eds, CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Vol. 2350, CEUR-WS.org, 2019, http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2350/paper22.pdf.
10.
S.Cao, W.Lu and Q.Xu, Deep neural networks for learning graph representations, in: Proceedings of the Thirtieth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Phoenix, Arizona, USA, February 12–17, 2016, D.Schuurmans and M.P.Wellman, eds, AAAI Press, 2016, pp. 1145–1152, http://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/AAAI/AAAI16/paper/view/12423.
11.
F.Charton, A.Hayat and G.Lample, Learning advanced mathematical computations from examples, in: 9th International Conference on Learning Representations, ICLR 2021, Austria, May 3–7, 2021, OpenReview.net, 2021, Virtual Event, https://openreview.net/forum?id=-gfhS00XfKj.
12.
D.Chen, Y.Bai, W.Zhao, S.Ament, J.M.Gregoire and C.P.Gomes, Deep reasoning networks for unsupervised pattern de-mixing with constraint reasoning, in: Proceedings of the 37th International Conference on Machine Learning, ICML 2020, 13–18 July 2020, Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, Vol. 119, PMLR, 2020, pp. 1500–1509, Virtual Event, http://proceedings.mlr.press/v119/chen20a.html.
13.
X.Chen, C.Liang, A.W.Yu, D.Song and D.Zhou, Compositional generalization via neural–symbolic stack machines, in: Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 33: Annual Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems 2020, NeurIPS 2020, December 6–12, 2020, H.Larochelle, M.Ranzato, R.Hadsell, M.Balcan and H.Lin, eds, 2020, virtual, https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper/2020/hash/12b1e42dc0746f22cf361267de07073f-Abstract.html.
14.
X.Chen, C.Liang, A.W.Yu, D.Zhou, D.Song and Q.V.Le, Neural symbolic reader: Scalable integration of distributed and symbolic representations for reading comprehension, in: 8th International Conference on Learning Representations, ICLR 2020, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, April 26–30, 2020, OpenReview.net, 2020, https://openreview.net/forum?id=ryxjnREFwH.
15.
X.Chen and Y.Tian, Learning to perform local rewriting for combinatorial optimization, in: Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 32: Annual Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019, NeurIPS 2019, Vancouver, BC, Canada, December 8–14, 2019, H.M.Wallach, H.Larochelle, A.Beygelzimer, F.d’Alché-Buc, E.B.Fox and R.Garnett, eds, 2019, pp. 6278–6289, https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper/2019/hash/131f383b434fdf48079bff1e44e2d9a5-Abstract.html.
16.
F.C.Chua and N.P.Duffy, DeepCPCFG: Deep learning and context free grammars for end-to-end information extraction, CoRR abs/2103.05908, 2021, https://arxiv.org/abs/2103.05908.
17.
W.W.Cohen, H.Sun, R.A.Hofer and M.Siegler, Scalable neural methods for reasoning with a symbolic knowledge base, in: 8th International Conference on Learning Representations, ICLR 2020, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, April 26–30, 2020, OpenReview.net, 2020, https://openreview.net/forum?id=BJlguT4YPr.
18.
D.Craandijk and F.Bex, Deep learning for abstract argumentation semantics, in: Proceedings of the Twenty-Ninth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, IJCAI 2020, C.Bessiere, ed., ijcai.org, 2020, pp. 1667–1673. doi:10.24963/ijcai.2020/231.
19.
M.D.Cranmer, A.Sanchez-Gonzalez, P.W.Battaglia, R.Xu, K.Cranmer, D.N.Spergel and S.Ho, Discovering symbolic models from deep learning with inductive biases, in: Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 33: Annual Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems, 2020, NeurIPS 2020, December 6–12, 2020, H.Larochelle, M.Ranzato, R.Hadsell, M.Balcan and H.Lin, eds, 2020, virtual, https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper/2020/hash/c9f2f917078bd2db12f23c3b413d9cba-Abstract.html.
20.
R.Dang-Nhu, PLANS: Neuro-symbolic program learning from videos, in: Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 33: Annual Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems 2020, NeurIPS 2020, December 6–12, 2020, H.Larochelle, M.Ranzato, R.Hadsell, M.Balcan and H.Lin, eds, 2020, virtual, https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper/2020/hash/fe131d7f5a6b38b23cc967316c13dae2-Abstract.html.
21.
A.S.d’Avila Garcez, L.C.Lamb and D.M.Gabbay, Neural-Symbolic Cognitive Reasoning, Cognitive Technologies, Springer, 2009. ISBN 978-3-540-73245-7. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-73246-4.
22.
L.de Penning, A.S.d’Avila Garcez, L.C.Lamb and J.C.Meyer, A neural–symbolic cognitive agent for online learning and reasoning, in: IJCAI 2011, Proceedings of the 22nd International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, July 16–22, 2011, T.Walsh, ed., IJCAI/AAAI, 2011, pp. 1653–1658. doi:10.5591/978-1-57735-516-8/IJCAI11-278.
23.
D.Demeter and D.Downey, Just add functions: A neural–symbolic language model, in: The Thirty-Fourth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, AAAI 2020, The Thirty-Second Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence Conference, IAAI 2020, The Tenth AAAI Symposium on Educational Advances in Artificial Intelligence, EAAI 2020, New York, NY, USA, February 7–12, 2020, AAAI Press, 2020, pp. 7634–7642, https://aaai.org/ojs/index.php/AAAI/article/view/6264.
24.
S.Deng, N.Zhang, W.Zhang, J.Chen, J.Z.Pan and H.Chen, Knowledge-driven stock trend prediction and explanation via temporal convolutional network, in: Companion of the 2019 World Wide Web Conference, WWW 2019, San Francisco, CA, USA, May 13–17, 2019, S.Amer-Yahia, M.Mahdian, A.Goel, G.Houben, K.Lerman, J.J.McAuley, R.Baeza-Yates and L.Zia, eds, ACM, 2019, pp. 678–685. doi:10.1145/3308560.3317701.
25.
H.Dhamo, A.Farshad, I.Laina, N.Navab, G.D.Hager, F.Tombari and C.Rupprecht, Semantic image manipulation using scene graphs, in: 2020 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, CVPR 2020, Seattle, WA, USA, June 13–19, 2020, IEEE, 2020, pp. 5212–5221. doi:10.1109/CVPR42600.2020.00526.
26.
B.Dhingra, M.Zaheer, V.Balachandran, G.Neubig, R.Salakhutdinov and W.W.Cohen, Differentiable reasoning over a virtual knowledge base, in: 8th International Conference on Learning Representations, ICLR 2020, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, April 26–30, 2020, OpenReview.net, 2020, https://openreview.net/forum?id=SJxstlHFPH.
27.
I.Donadello, L.Serafini and A.S.d’Avila Garcez, Logic tensor networks for semantic image interpretation, in: Proceedings of the Twenty-Sixth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, IJCAI 2017, Melbourne, Australia, August 19–25, 2017, C.Sierra, ed., ijcai.org, 2017, pp. 1596–1602. doi:10.24963/ijcai.2017/221.
28.
A.Eberhart, M.Ebrahimi, L.Zhou, C.Shimizu and P.Hitzler, Completion reasoning emulation for the description logic EL+, in: Proceedings of the AAAI 2020 Spring Symposium on Combining Machine Learning and Knowledge Engineering in Practice, AAAI-MAKE 2020, Volume I, Palo Alto, CA, USA, March 23–25, 2020, A.Martin, K.Hinkelmann, H.Fill, A.Gerber, D.Lenat, R.Stolle and F.van Harmelen, eds, CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Vol. 2600, CEUR-WS.org, 2020, http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2600/paper5.pdf.
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M.Ebrahimi, A.Eberhart, F.Bianchi and P.Hitzler, Towards bridging the neuro-symbolic gap: Deep deductive reasoners, Applied Intelligence51(9) (2021), 6326–6348. doi:10.1007/s10489-020-02165-6.
30.
M.Ebrahimi, A.Eberhart and P.Hitzler, On the capabilities of pointer networks for deep deductive reasoning, CoRR abs/2106.09225, 2021, https://arxiv.org/abs/2106.09225.
31.
M.Ebrahimi, M.K.Sarker, F.Bianchi, N.Xie, A.Eberhart, D.Doran, H.Kim and P.Hitzler, Neuro-symbolic deductive reasoning for cross-knowledge graph entailment, in: Proceedings of the AAAI 2021 Spring Symposium on Combining Machine Learning and Knowledge Engineering (AAAI-MAKE 2021), Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, USA, March 22–24, 2021, A.Martin, K.Hinkelmann, H.Fill, A.Gerber, D.Lenat, R.Stolle and F.van Harmelen, eds, CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Vol. 2846, CEUR-WS.org, 2021, http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2846/paper8.pdf.
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M.Fischer, M.Balunovic, D.Drachsler-Cohen, T.Gehr, C.Zhang and M.T.Vechev, DL2: Training and querying neural networks with logic, in: Proceedings of the 36th International Conference on Machine Learning, ICML 2019, Long Beach, California, USA, 9–15 June 2019, K.Chaudhuri and R.Salakhutdinov, eds, Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, Vol. 97, PMLR, 2019, pp. 1931–1941, http://proceedings.mlr.press/v97/fischer19a.html.
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S.Garg, A.Bajpai and Mausam, Symbolic network: Generalized neural policies for relational MDPs, in: Proceedings of the 37th International Conference on Machine Learning, ICML 2020, 13–18 July 2020, Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, Vol. 119, PMLR, 2020, pp. 3397–3407, Virtual Event, http://proceedings.mlr.press/v119/garg20a.html.
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J.Jiang and S.Ahn, Generative neurosymbolic machines, in: Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 33: Annual Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems 2020, NeurIPS 2020, December 6–12, 2020, H.Larochelle, M.Ranzato, R.Hadsell, M.Balcan and H.Lin, eds, 2020, virtual, https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper/2020/hash/94c28dcfc97557df0df6d1f7222fc384-Abstract.html.
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Z.Jiang and S.Luo, Neural logic reinforcement learning, in: Proceedings of the 36th International Conference on Machine Learning, ICML 2019, Long Beach, California, USA, 9–15 June 2019, K.Chaudhuri and R.Salakhutdinov, eds, Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, Vol. 97, PMLR, 2019, pp. 3110–3119, http://proceedings.mlr.press/v97/jiang19a.html.
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