Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Textile finishing processes cover a variety of steps in which various chemicals and methods can be used to functionalize the fabrics. The objective of this study is to investigate the usability of tea and tobacco industrial waste as natural dye sources and antibacterial agents for cotton fabrics. These wastes were collected from the related mills and used directly without previous extraction, as well as in extracted form. Dyeings were conducted at two different temperatures and the dyed samples were analyzed in terms of obtained colors, fastness values, and antibacterial efficiencies. Useful coloration of the cotton fabrics with sufficient fastness values was achieved, with bacterial reductions dependent upon treatment conditions. In general, waste from tea processing yielded better results.

Keywords

Antibacterial Efficiency Cotton Fabric Fastness Natural Dyeing Tea Tobacco Waste

Introduction

Textile materials can offer various features to users. The dramatic increase in population and environmental pollution in recent years have forced researchers to find new health- and hygiene-related products.¹ Biomedical-purposed antimicrobial finishing of textiles has become one of the most important areas of research and one of the fastest growing sectors of the textile market.² The textile finishing industry is an important contributor to many national economies.³ Most textile finishing operational units use chemical specialties.⁴ In this study, industrial herbal wastes have been used for coloration and gaining antibacterial properties on cotton.

Natural fibers, such as cotton, viscose, and fax, are constantly subjected to microbial attacks⁵ because textile goods, especially natural-fiber based ones, present an excellent environment for microorganisms to grow due to their large surface area and ability to retain moisture.⁶ Control of microorganisms on textiles extends to various areas.⁷ Antimicrobial fabrics have an important market share in daily use and in special areas.⁸ The growth of microbes on textiles during use and storage negatively affects the user as well as the textile itself.⁹ Microbial infection is one of the most serious complications in many areas.¹⁰

To overcome these drawbacks, various chemical treatments, including nano-structured ones can be used. For example, Hebeish et al. synthesized nano-sized silver particles and applied them to cotton fabrics in the presence/absence of binder. Good antibacterial activities were reported, with the binder being important for durability during washings.¹¹ In another study, titanium oxide nanoparticles were synthesized in situ on cotton fabrics—excellent bacterial reductions, even after 20 washing, were obtained.¹² In another study, wound dressings were obtained by treating cotton fabrics with various concentrations of powdered silver nanoparticle aqueous suspensions and the antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory efficacy of the fabrics were tested.¹³

Use of many antimicrobial agents is avoided because of their possible harmful or toxic effects.¹⁴ Because of this, herbal industrial wastes from tea and tobacco processing were tested in terms of antibacterial activity. Tea (Camellia sinensis L.) is a cultivated evergreen plant and it is the second most-commonly consumed beverage after water.¹⁵ It is a complex mixture containing a range of compounds.¹⁶ Four types of tea—black or red, oolongs, green, and white— are used for tea infusion worldwide.¹⁷ Tobacco is one of the most talked about and debated agricultural products in the entire world.¹⁸ It belongs to the family Solanaceae.¹⁹ Oriental tobacco is one of the major traditional crops in Turkey.²⁰

Experimental

In this study, we investigated the usability of the waste from the tea and tobacco industries. To do so, the wastes from the factories were analyzed. Then, the waste extracts and the wastes without extraction were both used as natural colorants for the cotton fabrics. The antibacterial activities gained from these wastes were also investigated.

Materials

Fabric, Tea, and Tobacco Processing Waste

Cotton fabric (100%) was used in the study. It was pretreated and readied for the dyeing and finishing processes. The properties of cotton fabric are presented in Table I.

Table I

Fabric Properties

Property		Value
Weight (g/m²)		185
Fiber Type		100% Cotton
Density (yarn/cm)	Weft Yarn	26
Density (yarn/cm)	Warp Yarn	50
Yarn Count (Ne)	Weft Yarn	20
Yarn Count (Ne)	Warp Yarn	30
Woven Fabric Type		2/1 Twill
Whiteness (Stensby)		78.4
Hydrophilicity (mm/s)		47/90

The factory waste from tea processing used in this study, contained crumbled tea leaf, leaf fiber, pick-up mistakes, leaf stem, and waste from the fiber removing system during processing. The factory waste from tobacco processing was obtained from the sieve, which was un-aromated and minced, and included undersized tobacco. Examples of the tea and tobacco wastes used are shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Processing waste of tea and tobacco.

Equipment

For the extraction of the tested herbal waste, the extraction equipment shown in Fig. 2 was used. The extracts were then used as a dye bath in dyeing of the cotton fabrics in a Thermal Marked laboratory type sample dyeing machine.

Fig. 2

Extraction system used in the study.

Methods

A three-step methodology was used in this study. First, the herbal extract from the herbal waste was prepared and the fabrics were dyed with the extract, as well as with the waste product without previous extraction. Finally, all the samples were evaluated.

Extraction of the Herbal Waste

For the extraction of the herbal waste, the system shown in Fig. 2 was used. A total of 40 g of herbal waste was extracted in 1 L of distilled water for 4 h during the extraction process.

Natural Dyeing of Fabrics

The natural dyeing of the fabrics was performed with the use of the herbal waste extracts and also by using these wastes directly without prior extraction. Fig. 3 shows the dyeing graph used for both dyeing methods. No mordanting agent was added to the dye bath.

Fig. 3

Dye graphs of the fabrics at 80 °C and 100 °C.

As mentioned previously, dyeing was performed using the herbal waste extract or by adding the herbal waste directly to dye bath containing only water at a concentration of 1:2 (weight of the fabric: weight of herbal waste). For both methods, dyeing was performed at two different temperatures (80–100 °C).

Evaluation of the Results

After dyeing, the fabrics were analyzed in terms of obtained colors, fastnesses, and antibacterial activity. First, the samples’ color efficiencies/yields (K/S) and CIE L*a*b*C*and h° color space values were obtained by a spectrophotometer (Konica Minolta 3600d). Next, the fastness value of the samples to washing (ISO 105-C10, 2006, Test A (1))²¹ and to light (ISO 105-B02, 1994)²² were obtained. Moreover, the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) views of the dyed samples were investigated using a Zeiss EVO LS-10 instrument to see if change had occurred on the surface of the fibers. Finally, the antibacterial activities of the samples against Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, ATCC 25922) and Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213) were tested using the ASTM E2149-01 standard.²³ The percentage of bacterial reduction (after 24 h of contact time) was obtained, as in our previous study in which olive tree leaves were tested.²⁴

For testing the durability of the antibacterial features during the washings, the antibacterial activities of the dyed samples were tested after one washing and five washing cycles. The washings were conducted according to ISO 105-C10:2006, Test A (1) in a laboratory type dyeing machine. After each washing cycle, the samples were rinsed at 25 °C for 2 min, 50 °C for 5 min, and 25 °C for 2 min. The samples were then squeezed and dried at room temperature (RT).

Results and Discussion

In the scope of the study, the usability of the tested herbal industrial wastes in natural dyeing of cotton fabrics was analyzed first, and then their antibacterial activities were tested after dyeing.

Natural Dyeing with Tea and Tobacco Industrial Waste

The tested wastes were used in coloration of the cotton fabrics at different temperatures and in different forms as detailed in the experimental section.

Color Measurements

The colors obtained by dyeing with the tested industrial wastes are summarized in Table II. The obtained colors from tea and tobacco industrial waste were brown, but dyeing with tea waste gave darker shades than dyeing with tobacco waste. The same behavior was observed from the CIE L*a*b*C* and h° values as well.

Table II

CIE L*a*b*C* and h° Values of Samples and Photographs

Natural Dye Source	Dyeing Temperature	CIE Lab* (D₆₅)					Obtained Colors
Natural Dye Source	Dyeing Temperature	L*	a*	b*	C*	h °	Obtained Colors
Tea processing waste	80 °C	73.25	4.14	12.88	13.53	72.17
Tea processing waste	100°C	71.92	3.86	12.08	12.68	72.29
Extract from tea processing waste	80 °C	70.13	5.15	15.22	16.07	71.31
Extract from tea processing waste	100°C	69.03	4.79	14.26	15.05	71.45
Tobacco processing waste	80 °C	84.09	0.65	11.28	11.3	86.7
Tobacco processing waste	100°C	81.84	1.32	12.19	12.26	83.82
Extract from tobacco processing waste	80 °C	84.99	0.44	9.62	9.63	87.41
Extract from tobacco processing waste	100°C	80.87	1.65	10.36	10.49	80.95

In CIEL*a*b* space, L* indicates the lightness; the perfect reflecting diffuser has L* = 100 and the perfect black has L* = 0. The colors with a* > 0 represent red and with a* < 0 green, and b* > 0 indicates yellow and b* < 0 blue.²⁵ The L* values of the dyeings with tobacco processing waste gave lighter colors, and although the hue angels (h°) of all samples were in the yellow-red region, the colors of the samples dyed with tobacco processing waste had less redness.

The use of tobacco processing waste in dyeings gave h° angles in the range of 80-87 depending on the dyeing temperature and application of the natural dye. The lowest chroma value (C* = 9.63) was from the sample dyed with the extract at 80 °C and h° was 87.41. The darkest shades, corresponding to the lowest L* value, were obtained from dyeings with the tobacco processing waste that were applied at 100 °C.

In dyeing with industrial tea waste, the h° angles of the samples were almost the same, showing that the colors were in the red-yellow region in color space. From the a* and b* values in Table II, it was also confirmed that the colors after dyeing with tea waste were nearly the same despite the different dyeing conditions. However, from the L* values, dyeing with the tea processing waste extracts gave darker shades when compared to the fabric dyed directly with the tea processing waste. In addition, darker colors were observed in dyeings at 100 °C with the tea processing extracts. For example, in dyeings at 100 °C with tea processing waste, the L* value was 71.92, and for dyeings at 80 °C, the L* value was 73.25.

The color efficiency (K/S) values of the dyed samples were examined to evaluate the dyeability of the cotton with the tested herbal wastes.

As shown in Fig. 4, the use of tea processing waste in dyeing the cotton fabrics yielded higher K/S values than the use of tobacco processing waste. While the K/S values of the samples dyed with tobacco processing waste were between 0.31 and 0.48, the values were in the range of 1.02 to 1.46 in the use of tea processing waste. On the other hand, while the dyeing temperature is of great importance in dyeings with tobacco processing waste, no effect of dyeing temperature on tea processing waste-based dyeings were found. For example, the K/S value was 0.31 in dyeing with the tobacco processing waste extract at 80 °C and it was 0.44 when dyeing at 100 °C. However, when dyeing with the tea processing waste extract at 80 °C, the K/S value was 1.46 and increased dyeing temperature had no positive effect on the color efficiency. It was also concluded from Fig. 4 that extraction prior to dyeing with the tea processing waste caused an increase in K/S values, whereas a similar deduction cannot be made for dyeing with the tobacco processing waste.

Fig. 4

K/S values of the dyed samples.

Fastness of Dyed Samples

Fastness of the dyed samples is another important parameter for the evaluation of dyeing with the tested herbal wastes.

Test results showed that the dyeing procedures and herbal wastes used gave nearly similar fastness values against washing and light. The staining on cotton value was excellent (5) and the color change after washing was good (4–5) in all test cases. The maximum color change after dyeing was observed from the sample dyed with tobacco processing waste from at 80 °C.

Light fastness test results are given in Table III. Sufficient light fastness values were obtained using these dye sources.

Table III

Color Fastness Properties of the Dyed Cotton Fabrics^a

Natural Dye Source	Dyeing Temperature	Washing Fastness		Light Fastness
Natural Dye Source	Dyeing Temperature	Sta.	C.C.	Light Fastness
Tea processing waste	80 °C	5	5	4
Tea processing waste	100 °C	5	4–5	3–4
Extract from tea processing waste	80 °C	5	4–5	4
Extract from tea processing waste	100 °C	5	4–5	3–4
Tobacco processing waste	80 °C	5	4	4
Tobacco processing waste	100 °C	5	5	4
Extract from tobacco processing waste	80 °C	5	4–5	4
Extract from tobacco processing waste	100 °C	5	4–5	4

Sta.: Staining on cotton, C.C.: Color change

Antibacterial Activity

Textile materials can serve a suitable environment for the survival and growth of bacteria. In this part of the study, the antibacterial activity of cotton fabrics dyed with tea and tobacco industrial processing wastes were evaluated. Cotton fabrics processed under the same conditions as the dyeing processes, but without the use of any herbal waste, were also tested as a control. The control did not show any bacterial reduction, and, as shown in Table IV, the dyed samples had different antibacterial activities depending on the application method and the type of the bacteria.

Table IV

Antibacterial Activity of the Dyed Cotton Fabrics

Natural Dyeing Source	Dyeing Temperature	Bacterial Reduction (%)
Natural Dyeing Source	Dyeing Temperature	S. aureus	E. coli
Dyeing without use of any waste (Control)	80 °C	–	–
Dyeing without use of any waste (Control)	100 °C	–	–
Dyeing with waste from tea processing	80 °C	99.99	90
Dyeing with waste from tea processing	100 °C	99.99	60
Dyeing with the extract from tea processing waste	80 °C	99.99	87
Dyeing with the extract from tea processing waste	100 °C	99.99	55
Dyeing without use of any waste (Control)	80 °C	–	–
Dyeing without use of any waste (Control)	100 °C	–	–
Dyeing with waste from tobacco processing	80 °C	98	65
Dyeing with waste from tobacco processing	100 °C	99.8	–
Dyeing with the extract from tobacco processing waste	80 °C	99.97	–
Dyeing with the extract from tobacco processing waste	100 °C	99.99	–

Table IV also shows that the naturally dyed samples gave the best antibacterial activity against S. aureus in all dyeing processes with both wastes. The source of the antibacterial activity was probably related to the chemicals found in the wastes.

Tea is an important source of dietary polyphenols. Their beneficial properties are thought to include antioxidant, antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, and antibacterial effects.²⁶ The main flavonols in tea are conjugates of quercetin and kaempferol, with lower levels of myricetin and triglycosides. Other related compounds found in tea are gallic acid, quinic esters of gallic, coumaric, caffeine, pro-anthocyanidins, and trace levels of flavones.¹⁶ Every part of the tobacco plant, except the seeds, contains nicotine.²⁷ Nicotiana tabacum is used as an insecticide and pesticide in the medical field.²⁸ In a study, the ethanol extract from tobacco leaf showed high antimicrobial properties and contained alkaloids, tannin, saponnin, flavonoids, cyanogenic glycosides, and minerals.²⁹

Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis of the extracts was performed and results are given in Table V. Various elements were found in the extracts. As a consequence, these minerals and chemicals transferred to the cotton fabrics by dyeing were most likely responsible for the bacterial reduction observed in this study. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) views showed that the materials in the extracts responsible for the bacterial reduction likely diffused into the fiber, resulting in surface views that were generally clean. On the other hand, some herbal wastes showed in the SEM view if the herbal wastes were used without prior extraction (Fig. 5).

Table V

ICP-MS Analysis of the Extracts

Element	Tea Processing Waste	Tobacco Processing Waste
Al	3.147 × 10⁴ ppb	1.063 × 10³ ppb
Cr	7.915 ppb	21.29 ppb
Fe	154.0 ppb	902.6 ppb
Cu	38.01 ppb	30.77 ppb
Zn	89.34 ppb	88.22 ppb
Sn	8.744 × 10–² ppb	<0.000 ppb

Fig. 5

SEM views of the fabrics.

The antibacterial activity against S. aureus were very good. However, the antibacterial activity against E. coli was variable depending on the type of waste and application method used (Table IV). In dyeings with tobacco processing waste, the only bacterial reduction observed was from the dyeings at 80 °C. Limited bacterial reduction (65%) was found for this test case. Antibacterial efficiency against E. coli was more pronounced in dyeings with the tea processing waste and the dyeing temperature has a major effect on the bacterial reduction. Dyeings with tea waste at 80 °C showed greater bacterial reduction than that obtained from the fabrics dyed at 100 °C. Moreover, the durability of antimicrobial properties was evaluated after one and five washings. Against S. aureus, the antibacterial activity remained after one and five washing cycles. Against E. coli, the limited antibacterial activity obtained by dyeing with tobacco processing waste at 80 °C disappeared after one washing. On the other hand, the samples dyed with tea processing waste caused bacterial reduction of E. coli even after five washings cycles, but bacterial reductions decreased somewhat after the washings (Table VI).

Table VI

Bacterial Reduction (%) of the Samples after Washings

Bacteria	Natural Dyeing	Dyeing Temperature	Washing Cycle
Bacteria	Natural Dyeing	Dyeing Temperature	1 Washing	5 Washings
S. aureus	Dyeing without use of any waste (Control)	80 °C	–	–
	Dyeing without use of any waste (Control)	100 °C	–	–
	Dyeing with waste from tea processing	80 °C	99.99	99.99
	Dyeing with waste from tea processing	100 °C	99.99	99.99
	Dyeing with the extract from tea processing waste	80 °C	99.99	99.99
	Dyeing with the extract from tea processing waste	100 °C	99.99	97.5
	Dyeing without use of any waste (Control)	80 °C	–	–
	Dyeing without use of any waste (Control)	100 °C	–	–
	Dyeing with waste from tobacco processing	80 °C	99.99	99.99
	Dyeing with waste from tobacco processing	100 °C	99.99	99.99
	Dyeing with the extract from tobacco processing waste	80 °C	99.99	99.99
	Dyeing with the extract from tobacco processing waste	100 °C	99.99	99.7
E. coli	Dyeing without use of any waste (Control)	80 °C	–	–
	Dyeing without use of any waste (Control)	100 °C	–	–
	Dyeing with waste from tea processing	80 °C	75	65
	Dyeing with waste from tea processing	100 °C	60	55
	Dyeing with the extract from tea processing waste	80 °C	65	50
	Dyeing with the extract from tea processing waste	100 °C	55	50
	Dyeing without use of any waste (Control)	80 °C	–	–
	Dyeing without use of any waste (Control)	100 °C	–	–
	Dyeing with waste from tobacco processing	80 °C	–	–
	Dyeing with waste from tobacco processing	100 °C	–	–
	Dyeing with the extract from tobacco processing waste	80 °C	–	–
	Dyeing with the extract from tobacco processing waste	100 °C	–	–

As a result, the tested herbal wastes can be useful for the antibacterial finishing of the cotton fabrics, especially at a dyeing temperature of 80 °C. Dyeing with the tea processing waste (directly or using the extract) gave the best results against both tested bacteria.

Conclusions

Today, people socialize in public areas quite a lot. Therefore, the probability of bacterial species spreading and reproducing in textile products is a concern. In this study, it was found that a cellulose-based fiber (cotton) can be dyed using cellulosic-based wastes and that an antibacterial effect can be achieved by using them. In addition, the dyeability of cotton with these wastes, the resulting color properties, and the fastnesses of the samples were investigated as well. The dyed samples demonstrated different bacterial reductions depending on the tested bacteria, waste type, and dyeing procedure. In general, waste from tea processing gave better results. In future studies, it may be of interest to test these wastes against different pathogens and on different fiber types.

Use of these materials and methods can aid in the recycling of industrial wastes. Furthermore, it is also anticipated that new areas of use may emerge for these cellulosic herbal industrial wastes.

References

Giri Dev

V.R.

; Venugopal

; Sudha

; Deepika

; Ramakrishna

Carbohydrate Polymers 2009, 75, 646–650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.09.003

Zille

; Almeida

; Amorim

; Carneiro

; Esteves

M.F.

; Silva

C.J.

; Souto

A.P.

Materials Research Express 2014, 1, 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/1/3/032003

Wang

; Yediler

; Lienert

; Wang

; Kettrup

Chemosphere 2002, 46, 339–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(01)00086-8

Le Marechal

A.M.

; Krizanec

; Vajnhandl

; Valh

J. V.

Textile finishing industry as an important source of organic pollutants. In Organic pollutants ten years after the Stockholm convention environmental and analytical update; Puzyn

, Mostrag-Szlichtyng

, Eds.; Intech: Rijeka, Croatia, 2012; pp 29–54.

Orhan

; Kut

; Gunesoglu

Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2009, 111 (3), 1344–1352. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.25083

Lim

S.H.

; Hudson

S.M.

Journal of Macromolecular Science, Part C: Polymer Reviews 2003, 43 (2), 223–269. https://doi.org/10.1081/MC-120020161

Lee

H.J.

; Yeo

S.Y.

; Jeong

S.H.

Journal of Materials Science 2003, 38, 2199–2204.

Yıldız

; Öztaş

; Dumrul

; Yeşilyurt

; Atav

; Ağırgan

A. Ö.

; Aydın

; Kaya

A.D.

Industria Textila 2014, 65 (3), 140–144.

Gao

; Cranston

Textile Research Journal 2008, 78 (1), 60–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/0040517507082332

10.

Kenawy

E.R.

; Worley

S.D.

; Broughton

Biomacromolecules 2007, 8 (5),1359–1384. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm061150q

11.

Hebeish

; El-Naggar

M.E.

; Fouda

M.M.G.

; Ramadan

M.A.

; Al-Deyab

S.S.

; El-Rafie

M. H.

Carbohydrate Polymers 2011, 86, 936–940. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.05.048

12.

El-Naggar

M.E.

; Shaheen

T. I.

Zaghloul

; El-Rafie

M.H.

; Hebeish

Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 2016, 55, 2661–2668. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.5b04315

13.

Hebeish

; El-Rafie

M.H.

; El-Sheikh

M.A.

; Seleem

A.A.

; El-Naggar

M. E.

International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 2014, 65, 509–515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2014.01.071

14.

Dastjerdi

; Montazer

Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 2010, 79, 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2010.03.029

15.

Sharangi

A. B.

Food Research International 2009, 42, 529–535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2009.01.007

16.

Del Rio

; Stewart

A.J.

; Mullen

; Burns

; Lean

M.E.J.

; Brighenti

; Crozier

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2004, 52, 2807–2815. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0354848

17.

Karak

; Bhagat

R.M.

Food Research International 2010, 43, 2234–2252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2010.08.010

18.

Ko çtürk

O.M.

; Cebeci

A.N.

Journal of Agriculture Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics 2005, 106 (2), 167–176.

19.

Sharma

; Dua

; Nagar

; Srivastava

N.S.

International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research 2016, 7 (3), 1156–1167. https://doi.org/10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.7 (3).1156-67

20.

Gumus

S. G.

Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science 2008, 14 (5), 470–475.

21.

ISO 105-C10:2006, Textiles–Tests for color fastness-Part C10: Color fastness to washing with soap or soap and soda, Test Condition: Test A (1), International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland.

22.

ISO 105-B02:1994, Textiles–Tests for color fastness-Part B02: Color fastness to artificial light: Xenon arc fading lamp test, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland.

23.

ASTM E2149-01 Standard Test Method for Determining the Antimicrobial Activity of Immobilized Antimicrobial Agents Under Dynamic Contact Conditions, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2001. www.astm.org

24.

Yılmaz

; Bahtiyari

M. İ.

Journal of Cleaner Production 2020, 270, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122068

25.

Smith

K. J.

Colour order systems, colour spaces, colour difference and colour scales, In Colour Physics for Industry, 2nd ed.; McDonald

, Ed.; JSDC: Bradford, UK, 1997; pp. 121–208.

26.

Erol

N.T.

; Sarı

; Polat

; Velioğlu

Y. S.

Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi 2009, 15 (4), 371–378.

27.

Jude

C. A.

Chemistry and Materials Research 2013, 3 (2), 19–22.

28.

Malık

; Bokharı

T.Z.

; Sıddıquı

M.F.

; Younıs

; Hussaın

M.I.

; Khan

I.A.

Pakistan Journal of Botany 2015, 47 (4), 1587–1592.

29.

Okorondu

S.I.

; Okorondu

M.M.O.

; Oranusi

S.C.

Nigerian Journal of Microbiology 2015, 29, 3049–3061.

Use of Tea and Tobacco Industrial Wastes in Dyeing and Antibacterial Finishing of Cotton Fabrics

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Experimental

Materials

Fabric, Tea, and Tobacco Processing Waste

Equipment

Methods

Extraction of the Herbal Waste

Natural Dyeing of Fabrics

Evaluation of the Results

Results and Discussion

Natural Dyeing with Tea and Tobacco Industrial Waste

Color Measurements

Fastness of Dyed Samples

Antibacterial Activity

Conclusions

References