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Abstract

Music educators typically use a variety of strategies to teach their subject matter, one core practice of which is modeling. Vocal modeling is a type of aural demonstration, with uses ranging from pitch matching and song instruction to vocal tone building and musicianship development. In early studies, researchers primarily studied the effects of gender and octave-varied vocal models with younger children. Over the years, researchers extended these investigations with more diverse populations and also explored the effects of vibrato, timbre, and mistuned stimuli. The purpose of this review of literature was to provide a summary of vocal model research with a discussion of findings and pedagogical implications for music educators. Recommendations for future research are also included.

Keywords

choral pedagogy modeling performance pitch accuracy singing vocal models

Music educators typically use a variety of strategies to teach their subject matter, one core practice of which is modeling (Millican & Forrester, 2019). Bandura (1977) defined modeling as a form of learning that occurs through observation and imitation, postulating that there are four conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur: (1) attention—the process of focusing on the modeled behavior, (2) retention—the opportunity to store and recall the learned behavior, (3) reproduction—the replication of the modeled behavior, and (4) motivation—the reinforcement of the modeled behavior. The foundation of Bandura’s theory is that learning by model is a reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavior, and environmental influences. Other scholars also support the idea of reciprocity (C. H. Madsen & Madsen, 2016), maintaining that modeling is an effective technique for teaching new behaviors, particularly when reinforcement occurs.

From a broad perspective, researchers have sought to define modeling in music. C. K. Madsen (1975) defined modeling in music as a demonstration that occurs through live or recorded performance, actions of which the student may later imitate. Kelly (1997) extended this research and proposed three categories in which modeling may specifically present inside the music classroom: (1) music modeling, (2) aural modeling, and (3) physical modeling. In a review of studies on modeling practices in the music classroom, Dickey (1992) observed that teachers used modeling with a wide age range of students and suggested that modeling contributed to the effective development of discrimination skills. Dickey further concluded that modeling was more effective than verbal instruction, particularly in teaching performance-based skills.

Although Dickey’s review of modeling studies provided meaningful analysis of research to date, several early studies in this line of research were not included and much of the reviewed research centered on modeling in the instrumental classroom. Since Dickey’s review, researchers have conducted considerable vocal model research in a variety of settings, and thus the need for an updated discussion. Although scholars have included several vocal model studies in their reviews on singing (Goetze et al., 1990; Hedden, 2012; Mizener, 2008), this analysis focused only on studies specific to the effects of vocal models. The scope of this review encompasses studies from peer-reviewed journals, as well as dissertation research examining vocal modeling as a pedagogical strategy. Early studies (Green, 1990; Hermanson, 1971; Small & McCachern, 1983) are purposely included in this review, as these were unique in design and/or the methodologies served as a springboard for later research. The reviewed body of research suggests that vocal modeling is a versatile teaching strategy that may influence singers’ use of vocal register, pitch accuracy, vocal timbre, and vibrato. Therefore, the purpose of this review of literature was to provide a summary of vocal model research from 1971 to 2021 with a discussion of findings and pedagogical implications for music educators. Suggestions for future research are also included.

Forms and Uses of Vocal Modeling

Researchers have examined the various forms and uses of vocal modeling with a diverse population of singers. These investigations range from studies conducted in the elementary music classroom to choral rehearsals with secondary level and/or older singers. The collective findings from this research support Dickey’s (1992) assertion that vocal modeling has a broad range of uses in which to develop skills with wide age range of singers.

Vocal Modeling in the Elementary Music Classroom

Some researchers were interested in how elementary age children responded to the use of vocal models as a teaching strategy. Persellin (2006) examined the effects of various vocal modeling strategies on the pitch accuracy of kindergarteners. Children participated in one of three treatment groups, in which teachers (1) sang for, but never with students; (2) sang with, but never for students; or (3) sang both for and with students. Although no differences occurred between treatments, children demonstrated significant pre–post gains in pitch accuracy within each group. Baker (1980) investigated the effects of appropriate and inappropriate vocal models on the listening preferences of third and fourth graders. After hearing female vocal models sing slow/soft lullabies and fast/loud sea chanties (appropriate models) or fast/loud lullabies and slow/soft sea chanties (inappropriate models), children indicated a greater preference for listening to appropriately sung performances. The results of these studies suggest vocal modeling may be an effective strategy for educators to develop pitch-matching and/or critical listening skills in the elementary music classroom.

Vocal Modeling in the Middle School Choral Classroom

The efficacy of vocal models has also been investigated with middle school age participants. Ebie (2004) examined the effects of four teaching methodologies on middle school singers’ ability to perform melodies expressively. Singers received verbal, aurally modeled, kinesthetic, and audio-visual treatments that the researcher designed to convey a specific emotion (happiness, sadness, fear, anger). After each treatment, participants sang a melody while attempting to demonstrate each of the specified emotions. Although participants indicated they preferred kinesthetic and audio-visual instruction, overall expressivity scores in response to aural modeling instruction were highest. These findings suggest that educators may find vocal modeling more effective than verbal instruction to demonstrate expressivity in middle school choral rehearsals.

Vocal Modeling in the High School Choral Classroom

How vocal models presented within the high school choral classroom was also of interest to researchers. Grimland (2005) analyzed characteristics of teacher-directed modeling in the practices of three experienced high school choral directors and identified three forms of models in these choral classrooms: (1) audible models, (2) visible models, and (3) process models (i.e., demonstrations of the steps involved in the completion of musical tasks). Teachers used “audible” models during warm-ups, sight-reading, and rehearsal, models of which presented in several ways, including speech, chant, pitch and rhythm renderings, and dynamic/phrase demonstrations. In a study examining concurrent instructional practices in the high school choral rehearsal, Zrust (2017) also observed high school choral directors using audible vocal models in unpitched (e.g., chanting, counting) and pitched (e.g., humming, lip trilling, singing) forms, noting that singing was the most frequently used pitched behavior. These two studies extend prior research on how modeling may present within music (Kelly, 1997; C. K. Madsen, 1975) and provide more specifics on how modeling may present in high school choral rehearsals.

In another study using secondary-level participants, Mann (2008) investigated the effects of two modeling conditions on the music achievement of high school choral singers. Using sequential patterns of instruction (Yarbrough & Price, 1989), a high school choral director rehearsed their own SATB choir using sung vocal models or speech-directed models. Outside judges assessed individual singers for tone quality, intonation, rhythmic accuracy, and expression, and assessed overall group performance for aforementioned characteristics as well as balance and blend. Mann (2008) reported that the vocal modeling methodology had a positive effect on overall individual music achievement scores, whereas the effects of speech-directed modeling were negative. Significant gains in group ensemble achievement also occurred in the vocal modeling condition.

Researchers have also observed that high school teachers use vocal modeling to build tone and demonstrate a preferred choral sound. In a study of 10 high school choral educators, Fonza (2014) noted vocal modeling was a commonly used strategy that the majority of teachers used more often than visual imagery. All teachers indicated that they used vocal modeling to intentionally demonstrate “desired” and “undesired” sounds, often using extreme examples to communicate their ideas. Teacher modeling demonstrations included examples of breathing, phonation, vowel formation, and resonance, with appropriate models (desired sounds) consistently outnumbering inappropriate models (undesired sounds). Findings from both Mann (2008) and Fonza (2014) indicate vocal modeling may be an effective tool for high school choral educators to address technical and expressive elements within choral repertoire.

Vocal Modeling in Honor, Collegiate, and Community Choirs

At least one researcher documented how vocal modeling presented in choral settings outside the public school classroom. Babb (2010) studied four expert collegiate conductors in honor, collegiate, and community choir settings, noting that they used vocal modeling as a way to address vowel shapes, color, resonance, or tone placement. Like Mann (2008), Babb maintained that vocal modeling was effective in developing vocal technique with singers in choral settings. Parallel to Fonza’s (2014) findings, Babb also noted that collegiate conductors used exemplar models more often than nonexemplar models, suggesting that such demonstrations supported discrimination development with more experienced singers. Results from Babb’s research offer further support to Dickey’s (1992) premise that vocal modeling is effective in developing both performance and discrimination skills with a diverse population of singers.

Responses to Varied Types of Vocal Models

In many studies, researchers investigated singers’ response to varied vocal models, mostly with young children and adolescents. Some researchers studied how singers responded to vocal versus nonvocal stimuli, whereas other researchers were interested in how head and chest voice models influenced children’s use of singing voice. Other researchers examined singers’ response to gender and octave-varied models; these investigations represent the bulk of vocal model research to date. Some scholars also investigated the effects of vibrato, timbre, and/or mistuned models, findings of which may be of interest to educators who teach more experienced singers. The collective results of these studies hold important implications for music educators, particularly in the approach to developing and refining pitch accuracy skills.

Vocal Models Versus Nonvocal Stimuli

How children responded to vocal models over nonvocal stimuli was the topic of several investigations. Hermanson (1971) tested kindergarten and third graders’ ability to echo four-note patterns presented by child, adult female, piano, and oscillator models. Children responded with greater pitch accuracy to the female model over both the piano and oscillator stimuli, with responses to the piano being the least accurate. Tatem (1990) examined the pitch-matching abilities of K–3 children in response to six models (female voice, oboe, trumpet, violin, piano, and bells). Responses to the female model were more accurate than to all nonvocal stimuli, with responses being the least accurate to the resonator bells.

Researchers also examined singers’ response to various male and sine wave models with K–8 “inaccurate” singers, noting that pitch accuracy was higher to vocal models over sine wave stimuli (Price et al., 1994; Yarbrough et al., 1995). In a more recent study with older collegiate female participants, Moore et al. (2008) examined singers’ pitch-matching and discrimination abilities in response to a female voice, samples of the participant’s own voice, and nonvocal complex tones. Researchers observed no differences in pitch discrimination between the three models; however, singers matched pitch more accurately in response to recordings of their own voice over the other two stimuli. The shared findings of these five studies suggest that younger, less experienced singers may respond more accurately to vocal models over nonvocal stimuli.

Head Voice Versus Chest Voice Models

Scholars also displayed a curiosity in how vocal modeling may affect children’s use of vocal registers. Rupp (1992) investigated the effects of head and chest voice models on 4-year-olds’ use of singing voice. Music teachers modeled in both head and chest voice register during interactive musical dialogue, vocal warm-ups, and song-singing. Results indicated that the number of children who sang in head voice after receiving lessons with head voice models was significantly higher than those receiving instruction with chest voice models. McGraw (1996) also explored the effects of modeling on second graders’ use of head voice. Teacher training sessions included both speech and singing activities to help children distinguish between chest and head voice registers. As a group, children who received vocal training sang more consistently in their head voice, made transitions between registers with more ease, and sang with greater pitch accuracy in a wider vocal range.

Rutkowski and Miller (2003) expanded previous investigations with head voice models by exploring the concurrent effects of vocal models and feedback on children’s use of singing voice. First graders in the treatment group received feedback in the form of head voice models and verbal responses, whereas children assigned to the control group received only verbal responses. The researchers observed no significant differences between groups, although children in the treatment group performed more consistently in their head voice register. Although results of these studies are somewhat mixed, findings do suggest that the use of head voice models may reinforce children’s use of singing voice in the elementary music classroom.

Adult Female Versus Male Vocal Models

As pitch matching in the elementary classroom is often problematic, several researchers studied children’s response to adult female and male models. In an early study, Sims et al. (1982) investigated the effects of adult female and male stimuli on the pitch accuracy of 6-year-old children. Children echoed varied length tonal patterns sung by both types of models, with results showing participants sang less accurately in response to male models. Similarly, Small and McCachern (1983) studied the effects of adult female and male models on the pitch-matching accuracy of first graders. Children received 30-min practice sessions on song fragments with a female or male model over 5 days, with reinforcement for participation given. In posttests using do-re-mi patterns, children displayed greater pitch accuracy in response to the female model. Mang (1997) also explored the effects of adult vocal models with first-grade students. Over the course of 5 weeks, a female and male model rote taught children a song in a major and minor key. A broad scoring scale assessed children’s accuracy of pitch, melodic contour, and tonal center, as well as their use of singing voice. Children who learned from the female model scored higher than those training with the male model, but for the major key song only. Results of these studies lend support to the premise that young children may respond with greater pitch accuracy to vocal models in the same octave and of a similar timbre.

Researchers also explored how middle and high school singers responded to adult vocal models. Yarbrough et al. (1991) examined the effects of male and female models with both elementary (K–3) and middle school (seventh- to eighth-grade) singers. Participants previously identified as “inaccurate” singers echoed minor thirds sung by adult female and male models. Researchers observed more correct pitches in response to the female model, with greater accuracy also observed with older singers. Williams (1994) investigated the effects of adult female and male models, this time with high school singers. Male and female students echoed male and female adult models singing a descending minor third on loo. Responses to models of the same gender and in the same octave were most accurate in pitch. The collective results of these five studies suggest that adolescent females and unchanged males may respond more accurately to like-timbre models in the upper octave, whereas adolescent males with changed voices may sing more accurately in response to models of a similar timbre in the lower octave.

Male Vocal Models

How elementary and/or adolescent singers responded to various types of male vocal models has been the focus of extant research. Montgomery (1988) compared the effects of male falsetto and lower register modal models on the pitch accuracy of elementary students. Two separate classes of third graders echoed pitch patterns and songs sung by a falsetto or modal model. Montgomery observed no differences in efficacy of instruction between models; however, children responded with greater pitch accuracy to the falsetto model in individual testing. Hendley and Persellin (1996) investigated the effects of a male models on the pitch accuracy of first-, third-, and fifth-grade children. Separate classes received 8 weeks of music instruction from a male tenor or falsetto model, with feedback provided. After treatment, children who received instruction from the falsetto model improved in pitch accuracy, whereas those who learned from the tenor model were less accurate in their ability to match pitch. Michaud (2014) also investigated the effects of male modal and falsetto models on children’s singing range development and pitch-matching ability. Two separate kindergarten classes received instruction from either a baritone or falsetto model. Contrary to Montgomery (1988) and Hendley and Persellin (1996) who observed that children matched more accurately to falsetto over lower octave male models, Michaud observed no differences in pitch-matching or range development in kindergartners’ response to either male model.

Price et al. (1994) examined the effects of tenor and bass falsetto and modal models on the pitch-matching skills of K–8 “inaccurate” male and female singers. Female participants responded more accurately to upper octave stimuli, whereas males sang more accurately in response to lower octave models. Yarbrough et al. (1995) conducted a follow-up study, but with K–8 “inaccurate” male singers only. Participants responded to the same models as in the initial study, with responses to all upper octave stimuli resulting in more correct pitches than lower octave models. Further analysis of responses revealed that K–7 males sang more accurately in response to falsetto models, in comparison with eighth-grade males who sang more accurately in response to lower octave stimuli. Findings of these two studies are consonant with other investigations (Williams, 1994; Yarbrough et al., 1991) in which females and unchanged males responded more accurately to upper octave stimuli and changed voice males to lower octave models.

Adult Versus Child or Adolescent Vocal Models

A few researchers also compared singers’ response to adult versus child or adolescent models. Green (1990) investigated the effects of adult female, adult male, and child models on the pitch accuracy of first- through sixth-grade children. Participants echoed the three models singing minor thirds on the syllable la and responded with the greatest accuracy to the child model, then the female and male model, respectively. These findings are in line with previous studies (Mang, 1997; Sims et al., 1982; Small & McCachern, 1983) in which younger children responded more accurately to like-timbre models in the same octave.

In another study, Eaton (1994) investigated the effects of adult female, adult male, and adolescent male models on the pitch accuracy of Grades 6 to 9 adolescent male singers. Participants echoed the models singing minor seconds and major thirds on the syllable la, but showed no pitch accuracy differences in response to any one model. These results are in contrast to prior research (Price et al., 1994; Yarbrough et al., 1995) in which adolescent male singers responded more accurately to upper or lower octave stimuli.

Vibrato and Timbre-Varied Vocal Models

To date, only a few authors have studied vibrato and/or timbre-varied models. Yarbrough et al. (1992) explored the effects of vibrato and nonvibrato models on the pitch-matching accuracy of K–3 singers. Participants classified as “certain” or “uncertain” singers responded to female vibrato, female nonvibrato, and child models singing descending minor thirds. Uncertain singers responded less accurately to the female vibrato model, whereas certain singers showed a high percentage of correct responses, regardless of model.

Duvvuru and Erickson (2016) later examined the effects of synthetic vibrato and timbre-varied models on the pitch accuracy of older female collegiate and professional singers, ages 20 to 55. Synthetic vocal models presented single pitches in vibrato and nonvibrato conditions, models of which were varied in five formant patterns. Participants displayed no pitch accuracy differences in response to either vibrato condition, although singers did attempt to match the timbre of vibrato stimuli.

In a recent study, Hinkley (2021) investigated the effects of vibrato-varied models on high school and undergraduate singers’ intonation and use of vibrato. High school participants averaged a semester of private voice study and 4½ years choral experience since middle school. Undergraduate participants average 4 years private voice study and 7½ years choral experience since middle school; 75% of these undergraduate participants were music majors identifying voice as their primary instrument. All singers echoed melodic patterns and song excerpts presented by same gender vibrato and minimal vibrato models. Unlike the findings of Yarbrough et al. (1992) with elementary singers, Hinkley observed that high school and undergraduate participants sang with greater pitch accuracy in response to vibrato models. Furthermore, responses to vibrato models yielded faster vibrato rate and wider extent, particularly with undergraduate singers. Although it seems logical that older singers (i.e., high school and undergraduate singers) may be less affected by the presence of vibrato, Hinkley’s findings do suggest that singers with more formal training (i.e., undergraduate vocal majors) are more likely to imitate vibrato characteristics of vocal models.

Mistuned Vocal Models

In addition to exploring how singers respond to vibrato-varied stimuli, Hinkley (2021) also examined the effects of mistuned vocal models. Participants responded to vocal models presented “in tune” and with select pitches mistuned ±25 cents sharp or flat. Although all singers demonstrated a propensity toward flat singing, responses to flat models were the flattest and responses to sharp models were the most in tune. Although Hinkley observed significant pitch accuracy differences in response to mistuned models, only 15% of participants indicated posttreatment that they perceived the pitch-varied conditions. Continued research with mistuned stimuli is needed; however, these findings put forth the consideration that singers may imitate out of tune vocal models, regardless of formal training or perception.

Pedagogical Implications and Future Research

The purpose of this review of literature was to provide a summary of existing research on vocal modeling from 1971 to 2021. Examination of this literature revealed that the majority of this research involved younger children, although a few researchers have explored its effects with adolescent and/or adult singers. Researchers have studied vocal modeling in a number of ways, from its use as a teaching strategy to how singers respond to various types of vocal models. Although results of vocal model research are somewhat mixed, there is considerable congruence of findings that can guide educators’ pedagogical choices.

Findings suggest that vocal modeling is effective with a wide array of singers, with uses ranging from pitch matching with young children to building tone with older and more experienced choral singers. As several researchers observed vocal modeling was more effective than verbal instruction, teachers may benefit from using vocal modeling in place of spoken feedback, particularly since excessive “teacher talk” may affect student attentiveness (Nápoles, 2006, 2017). Teachers might also consider the use of “good” (exemplar) and “bad” (nonexemplar) vocal models as an instructional strategy, as researchers have suggested this may be an effective way to demonstrate concepts and reinforce discrimination skills. In his review of literature, Dickey (1992) also endorsed the use of appropriate and inappropriate models, suggesting that “students learn to make increasingly complex musical discriminations through modeling, via both musically appropriate and inappropriate demonstrations and imitations” (p. 36).

Findings from vocal model research can also inform educators’ approach to pitch matching, particularly with developing singers. Pitch matching is a highly complex process—one that involves cognitive perception, discrimination, and recall, as well as vocal reproduction and adjustment (Joyner, 1969). Given the intricacy of this task, research findings offer guidance in several ways. First, teachers should consider that singers may pitch match more accurately to vocal models over instruments or nonvocal stimuli; this is important to keep in mind when piano is often the default method of pitch/song instruction. Relatedly, research findings suggest the use of head voice models may reinforce children’s ability to access their singing voice. Therefore, female teachers should endeavor to deliver instruction in their head voice (falsetto for male teachers) as often as possible when teaching elementary singers. Furthermore, as researchers indicated that singers often matched pitch more accurately to vocal models of a similar timbre and in the same octave, male teachers might consider modeling in falsetto register for treble singers and in lower modal register for tenor-bass changed voices. Although it may be possible for female teachers to sing comfortably in a lower range, they may also need to rely on students and/or other male teachers to provide appropriate vocal models. For additional practice, changing/changed voices may also benefit from audio recordings of tenor-bass voices in the appropriate octave.

Educators should also be cognizant of how vibrato and timbre may affect singers’ responses. As researchers observed younger and/or uncertain singers matched pitch less accurately to vibrato models, teachers should try to minimize the use of vibrato with these types of singers to provide clarity of pitch. Teachers should also be aware that the use of vibrato models with more experienced singers may result in responses with more pronounced vibrato characteristics. As trained singers already tend to sing with more vibrato (Mitchell & Kenny, 2010), teachers might try modeling with a simpler tone to produce a more desired choral sound. Because researchers also documented singers’ tendency to emulate the timbre of vocal models, teachers should attempt to model with an age-appropriate sound as much as possible. Depending on individual timbre, some educators may need to modify their sound to produce a lighter and less “mature” vocal model.

A final consideration from vocal model research concerns the pitch accuracy of vocal models. Given that singers often imitated “out of tune” models even when they were unaware of inaccuracies, teachers should consider consistent self-assessment to monitor their own modeling abilities. As researchers have found that teaching practices changed through self-analysis (Nápoles & Vázquez-Ramos, 2013), educators may benefit from video recording rehearsals on a regular basis to observe and improve modeling skills. This recommendation also supports Dickey’s (1992) premise that, to be effective, musical models must be accurate and teachers must work to develop the needed skills to demonstrate such models. Although teachers may be uncomfortable with the idea of watching and hearing themselves model, the awareness gained through self-assessment may potentially improve modeling accuracy and inform future instruction.

Although researchers have studied the effects of vocal modeling in many capacities, there is still a need for future investigations, particularly with high school, collegiate, and adult age participants. Researchers might also continue to explore singers’ responses to mistuned models to better understand if/how perception and training affects pitch accuracy. Further investigation of vibrato and timbre-varied models also seems warranted to explore its effects on singers with varied levels of training and experience. As scholars observed that focus of attention changed perception and listening patterns (C. K. Madsen & Geringer, 2000), researchers might also investigate the concurrent use of vocal models and verbal prompts to explore if/how singers respond when using directed listening skills. Finally, because much of current research literature references assigned-at-birth gender models and participants, future researchers might examine the effects of vocal modeling on singers transitioning to a different gender. Vocal pedagogy considerations for gender-expansive musicians by Garrett and Palkki (2021) and/or Sauerland (2022) may be helpful in designing future investigations.

Conclusion

Vocal modeling is a versatile teaching strategy that music educators can use with elementary through adult age singers. Researchers document its efficacy in a myriad of ways, from the use of head voice and pitch matching with elementary students to building vocal technique and musicianship skills with older singers. Extant research provides important insight for music educators and can serve as a resource to guide teachers in their pedagogical choices. Although the scope of this literature is substantial, further research is still needed to better understand how vocal modeling can consistently be used as an effective teaching strategy with all singers.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Sandy P. Hinkley

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Vocal Modeling: A Review of Literature

Abstract

Keywords

Forms and Uses of Vocal Modeling

Vocal Modeling in the Elementary Music Classroom

Vocal Modeling in the Middle School Choral Classroom

Vocal Modeling in the High School Choral Classroom

Vocal Modeling in Honor, Collegiate, and Community Choirs

Responses to Varied Types of Vocal Models

Vocal Models Versus Nonvocal Stimuli

Head Voice Versus Chest Voice Models

Adult Female Versus Male Vocal Models

Male Vocal Models

Adult Versus Child or Adolescent Vocal Models

Vibrato and Timbre-Varied Vocal Models

Mistuned Vocal Models

Pedagogical Implications and Future Research

Conclusion

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

ORCID iD

References