Abstract
One of the most basic human needs is a sense of belonging; however, a sizable section of the populace experiences loneliness and a sense of alienation, with adolescents more vulnerable to loneliness. This study examines how students’ sense of belonging in higher education institutions in Nigeria is impacted by the personality traits of the faculty members. Based on the Big Five personality theory and Strayhorn's sense of belonging framework, the study emphasizes the crucial interaction between students’ sense of belonging and psychological integration and the personality traits (conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, openness, and neuroticism) of lecturers. The Belonging and Personality Trait Questionnaire (BPTQ, r = 0.87) was used to gather data from 1,089 undergraduate students at four different universities in Ekiti State, using a correlational survey design. Results show that students have a poor sense of belonging (mean = 76.31), which is made worse by faculty members’ high levels of neuroticism (mean = 38.67). A sense of belonging was favorably predicted by conscientiousness (r = 0.10, p < 0.05(0.00)), whereas agreeableness (r = −0.15, p < 0.05(0.00)) and extraversion (r = −0.16, p < 0.05(0.00)) showed strong negative correlations. Along with other contextual factors, faculty members’ personality traits played a significant role in explaining 24% of the variance in students’ sense of belonging. The study concluded that improving interpersonal interaction through focused training and raising faculty understanding of the influence of their personality traits can increase student inclusion.
Background to the Study
One of the most basic human needs is a sense of belonging. According to studies, a sizable section of the populace experiences loneliness and a sense of alienation (Allen et al., 2021; Chugh et al., 2024; Poleshuck et al., 2024). Adolescents and the elderly are particularly vulnerable to loneliness (Lim et al., 2021; Sivananthajothy et al., 2023), which has become a widespread problem (Gerull et al., 2021). Since the body of research on belonging has identified and confirmed a fundamental human principle that we are social beings who need to feel as though we are a part of a larger group that values, respects, and cares for us, Cohen (2022) and Baumeister and Leary (1995) reiterate that the need to belong is universal for all people, regardless of culture, race, ethnicity, geography, or location (Cohen, 2022). This fundamental human value cuts across all fields and produces favorable results in practically every situation (Corson & González-Morales, 2024).
Jolley et al. (2024) define students’ sense of belonging as their perception of their own importance in the institution's life and activities as well as their sense of acceptance, value, inclusion, and encouragement from peers and lecturers. People feel appreciated and accepted for who they truly are when they belong (Adelabu et al., 2020), and belonging can happen in groups (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), when people belong among others, or individually (Adeosun & Olukayode, 2020), as in belonging to oneself. Feelings of safety and security are influenced by belonging to oneself and others, and students’ academic progress is correlated with belonging (Adelabu et al., 2020; Baumeister & Leary, 1995).
The urge to belong is a basic human motivator, according to Baumeister and Leary (1995). It is typified by a need for meaningful interpersonal interactions and a sense of belonging to a group. Students’ relationships with teachers, fellow students, and the larger university community all influence their sense of belonging in the classroom (Strayhorn, 2019). According to Strayhorn's concept, the inclusiveness of the academic setting, perceived institutional support, and supportive connections are important determinants of belonging.
Walton and Cohen (2011) emphasize the value of belonging in promoting students’ well-being and academic achievement. Research has indicated that students who have a strong feeling of belonging are more motivated, engaged, and persistent in their academic endeavors (Au et al., 2023; Barnett, 2022; Tinto, 2017). A strong sense of belonging fosters student success, engagement, and well-being in higher education as well as increased academic achievement and utilization of campus resources; this leads to increased retention and overall improvements in mental health (Gopalan & Brady, 2020).
Poleshuck et al. (2024) reaffirmed that a sense of belonging plays a significant role in college and university students’ well-being. They defined a student's sense of belonging as the feeling of being accepted, valued, and included in the academic setting. Fostering good behavior, academic engagement, and emotional well-being in students requires a sense of belonging in schools (Gopalan et al., 2022). A higher feeling of belonging in college has been linked to lower levels of perceived stress and higher levels of life satisfaction (Çivitci, 2015), and involvement in the campus community has been found to be crucial in post-secondary students’ experience of belonging (Duran et al., 2020). According to Hausmann et al. (2009) and Buckingham et al. (2023), on the other hand, a lack of belonging is linked to feelings of alienation, poor academic performance, and a higher risk of dropping out. Students who no longer feel like they belong may respond to emotions of rejection, neglect, or alienation by misbehaving in a variety of ways (Knox et al., 2020). Peer relationships, the learning environment, and the students themselves may all be negatively impacted by these misbehaviors. These results demonstrate how important faculty-student relationships are in determining the experiences and results of students.
In educational discourse, the idea of belonging is not new (Ibrahim et al., 2020). It has long served as a pillar of educational strategies and regulations meant to improve student retention and engagement (Osterman, 2000). The faculty members’ contributions to the development of this psychological concept have only lately acquired momentum. Because they serve as mentors, teachers, and role models, faculty members have a significant impact on how students view the academic setting (Komarraju et al., 2019).
Both exogenous circumstances (like the learning environment, the quality of peer and faculty relationships, the availability of role models and mentors, or the existence of bias and discrimination) and endogenous characteristics (like personality, ethnic identity, social background, or cognitions) can have a dynamic impact on a sense of belonging (Gopalan et al., 2022). The ways in which these can guide faculty members’ and other programs’ efforts to target a sense of belonging through interventions like strengthening the culture of feedback, guaranteeing continuity in rotation experiences, creating affinity groups, or facilitating coaching networks have drawn increasing attention (Chugh et al., 2024). According to Sivananthajothy et al. (2023), in school environments, a sense of belonging has been negatively linked to burnout, depression, and impostor syndrome and favorably linked to academic performance, motivation, contentment, and stress reduction.
According to Ayanwoye (2023) and Ayanwoye et al. (2024), faculty members are essential in helping students develop a sense of belonging. They also proposed that the human personalities of faculty members play a crucial role in shaping and molding the entire process of faculty-student interpersonal relationships. In support of this, Miller et al. (2024) reaffirmed that faculty members are crucial members of the academic community as they carry out the majority of the teaching, research, and service activities that support the university's operations. In light of this, Kenni (2020) and Isah and Galadim (2023) highlighted the psychological aspects of faculty members’ work in helping students feel like they belong and subsequently argued for the appropriate use of faculty members’ personality traits. The study was therefore conducted in order to determine if faculty members’ personality traits (in Nigeria) can predict students’ sense of belonging in higher education.
Literature Review
Theoretical Framework
Strayhorn's Sense of Belonging Framework (Strayhorn, 2019) and the Big Five Personality Theory (McCrae & Costa, 1999) serve as the theoretical foundations for this investigation. A strong foundation for comprehending the personality traits of faculty members and how they could affect interpersonal dynamics is offered by the Big Five Personality Theory (McCrae & Costa, 1999). A thorough lens for analyzing the elements influencing students’ sense of belonging in academic environments is provided by Strayhorn's Sense of Belonging Framework (Strayhorn, 2019). This study attempts to clarify the intricate connections between the personality traits of faculty members and students’ sense of belonging by combining these frameworks.
Rationale for the Study and Value Added
In the extant literature, empirical studies regarding the influence of perceived power of faculty members’ personality traits in predicting students’ sense of belonging in higher education and their relationship with students’ educational life and academic engagements, especially in the university space, is scanty. In light of this, the current study aims to investigate how undergraduate students’ sense of belonging at higher institutions in Ekiti State, Nigeria, is predicted by the perceived power of faculty members’ personality qualities.
The study's cumulative findings are intended to give governments—particularly the Nigerian government—a baseline understanding of the nature of the link between the personality traits of faculty members and the sense of belonging that university students experience. The results of this study would be used by governments, organizations, and policymakers to provide training and special intervention programs for tertiary institution lecturers and students. This study would be helpful to curriculum planners since it would provide them information on how to restructure or change the university curriculum to help students feel belonging in higher education. Since the study's findings will advance our understanding of the topic in context, the existing literature will be enriched.
Sense of Belonging in Higher Education
A crucial psychological concept in educational contexts, sense of belonging includes students’ feelings of inclusion, acceptance, and worth in the academic community. Educational institutions are required to take into account the student as a whole, including his or her intellectual ability and accomplishments, emotional makeup, physical condition, social relationships, vocational aptitudes and skills, moral and religious values, financial resources, and aesthetic appreciations. This view of higher education places more emphasis on the development of the student as a person than just his or her intellectual training. This viewpoint puts the responsibility for addressing the whole student on the shoulders of the curricular or co-curricular professional, fostering a feeling of belonging regardless of the student's identity or background (ACES, 1973). The urge to belong is a basic human motivator that propels people to establish and preserve deep interpersonal relationships, according to Baumeister and Leary (1995). Strong feelings of belonging have been connected to favorable social and academic outcomes in higher education, such as improved engagement, seamless academic calendar, and general mental health (Strayhorn, 2019). Because of the varied and sometimes difficult socioeconomic and cultural milieu, creating a sense of belonging is especially important in Nigerian universities. According to Adelabu et al. (2020), students’ sense of belonging can be impacted by a number of issues, including structural difficulties, budgetary limitations, and ethnic diversity.
Students may act out in order to get attention or take charge of their circumstances when they feel alienated or underappreciated in the classroom. According to Ayodele (2018), these behaviors include talking out of turn, and willfully ignoring teachers’ directions. According to Goodboy et al. (2019), students who experienced social isolation were more likely to disrupt class or make fun of their friends in an effort to hide their fears or draw attention from their peers. Additionally, a lack of belonging can cause irritation, which can occasionally show out as bullying or violent behavior (Adeosun & Olukayode, 2020). According to Hymel and Swearer (2015), bullying is a common coping strategy used by students who are socially excluded to shift their feelings of inadequacy onto other people. According to Finn and Zimmer (2012), some students react to a loss of belonging by physically or emotionally removing themselves from the classroom.
According to Gregory et al. (2014), students who experience alienation frequently adopt a rebellious attitude against authority individuals and school regulations. Students who experience a lack of belonging may, in extreme circumstances, utilize drug addiction as a coping strategy to dull feelings of rejection or alienation (Adebayo and Adebayo, 2019; Mounts, 2019). Feeling cut off from the academic community can lead to cheating and other types of academic dishonesty (Murdock et al., 2014; Okorodudu, 2013). Students who experience rejection from their school community may look for other places to fit in, frequently joining antisocial peer groups that promote deviant behavior (Ede, 2020; Ede & Ofoegbu, 2021; Warr, 2018). Self-destructive tendencies, such as self-harm or dangerous conduct, can result from a severe lack of belonging (Nielsen et al., 2017; Ojo & Adesina, 2021). Individually alienated students frequently show worsening academic performance and more mental health issues (Obi & Adebayo, 2023).
Instances of profound loss of belonging that lead to destructive tendencies, including harm or engagement in risky behaviors among Nigerian university students included the University of Benin (2021) protest (Adeyemi et al., 2022); the Federal University of Lokoja (2021) riot (Ibrahim & Hassan, 2022); the Ahmadu Bello University (2022) strike (Okonkwo et al., 2024); the Lagos State University (2023) protest (Balogun & Odunayo, 2023); the Obafemi Awolowo University (2021) demonstration (Agbo & Taiwo, 2023); the University of Abuja (2022) hostel vandalism (Eze et al., 2023); the Covenant University (2020) march (Obi & Adebayo, 2023); the University of Nigeria Nsukka (2021) riot (Afolayan & Nwankwo, 2022); the Bayero University Kano (2022) sit-in (Oluwadamilola, 2021); the Nnamdi Azikiwe University (2023) class boycotts (Uche & Emeka, 2023); the University of Port Harcourt (2022) blockade (Adeyemi et al., 2022); the Federal Polytechnic Offa (2023) demonstration (2023) (Okeke & Okwor, 2021); the Delta State University (2020) peaceful march (Abubakar, 2022); the Ekiti State University (2021) strike (Uche & Emeka, 2023) and the Kaduna State University (2022) violent clash (Ibrahim & Hassan, 2022) to mention but a few instances with far-reaching ramifications of students’ unrest, affecting both individuals and institutions. Due to physical damage and interrupted academic calendars, institutions experience a decline in enrollment, harm to their reputation, and large financial losses (Uche & Emeka, 2023). The prevalence of student unrest in Nigerian schools underscores the critical need to foster a sense of belonging among students as these civic engagements without detrimental consequence fortifies students’ belonging in the system.
Policy changes and student-centered initiatives are two examples of the cross-sectional study of Nigerian governments’ attempts to address the issue of belonging and reduce unrest. According to Adelabu et al. (2020), faculty members should cultivate positive relationships with students by understanding their diverse backgrounds, providing mentorship, and attending to their individual needs; Ojo and Adesina (2021) suggested that schools should celebrate Nigeria's ethnic diversity by promoting mutual respect through inclusive activities and celebrating different cultures; Ayodele (2018) suggested that lecturers receive training on inclusive teaching strategies and emotional intelligence to better meet the needs of marginalized students; and Adebayo and Adebayo (2019) and Balogun and Odunayo (2023) suggested, among other things, the provision of counseling services and peer-support programs to help students feel more belong to the school community. Despite these, the anticipated institutional calm has not been maintained. Even if progress has been achieved, there is still a need for a more integrated institutional environment. According to studies, a lack of a sense of belonging at school is one factor discouraging pupils from seeking quiet and complete tranquility (Gerull et al., 2021), students believe that being quiet and maintaining complete tranquility may deprive them of belonging in the system. All these have called for a paradigm shift to other areas of attention.
A possible solution to this problem might be to make students feel more like they belong, which is both a conceptual framework and a subjective emotion (Chugh et al., 2024). According to Sivananthajothy et al. (2023), this description goes beyond the more conventional idea of inclusion, which just implies tolerance from a dominant group, and emphasizes the necessity of genuine self-expression without having to change one's own identity, ideas, or behavior.
The literature on initiatives to increase students’ feeling of belonging has a number of gaps. Instead of normalizing and integrating these goals into the current environment, previous interventions typically implicitly rely on situational approaches from individual advocates or stakeholders to facilitate optional activities (Berg et al., 2019) or counseling networks (Clough et al., 2017).
According to the 2004 book Learning Reconsidered by Day et al. (2004), learning is a thorough, all-encompassing, transforming process that combines student growth and academic learning—two processes that are sometimes considered distinct, even independent of one another. These days, university academic programs are often divided into three categories: electives, major requirements, and general education requirements. Instead of addressing topics that are relevant to students’ self-described learning requirements, learning styles, or interests, which provide a sense of belonging, the curriculum is typically organized around traditional categories that are significant to the academy. While some schools and universities mandate that their students complete a set of general education courses that are meant to develop a sense of belonging by integrating information from several areas and broadening a student's perspective of the world, others do not. By paying attention to the classes that students are enrolled in and what they are learning to feel like they belong, student affairs departments may also assist in bridging the gap between academic learning and student life. By keeping an eye on the classes that students are enrolled in and what they are learning to feel like they belong, student affairs departments may also assist in bridging the gap between academic learning and student life (Day et al., 2004).
In the educational setting, as elsewhere, mentors and role models play an important role in fostering a sense of belonging by promoting social comparison and identification (Spaans et al., 2023). Fewer studies, however, focus on the potential structure of institution-wide transformation that fosters a sense of belonging. Several interconnected factors contributing to students’ feelings of exclusion in Nigerian schools, ranging from administrative disengagement (Uche & Emeka, 2023), cultural and ethnic disparities (Afolayan & Nwankwo, 2022), and economic inequalities (Oluwadamilola, 2021) to infrastructural deficiencies (Agbo & Taiwo, 2023), have been researched at the expense of how personality traits of faculty members can impact sense of belonging. Although other studies have explored more formally embedded program cues such as online diversity statements (Dhanani et al., 2023), ethnically diverse support groups (Isik et al., 2021), or keynote speakers (Sunga & Kass, 2019) as potential ways to bolster sense of belonging in institutions of learning, few studies have formally assessed how personality traits of faculty members can impact sense of belonging. Chugh et al. (2024) emphasized that personality traits have the potential to improve the learning environment and systematically nurture less commonly measured aspects of sense of belonging, like motivation to fit in, coping mechanisms or interpretative patterns, and institutional activities are frequently conducted with a harm reduction perspective that is retroactive and aims to minimize adverse effects (Bullock et al., 2021; Stasiuk et al., 2022).
Faculty Members’ Personality Traits and Belonging
According to Ede and Ofoegbu (2021), personality is defined as strongly ingrained and comparatively stable cognition, emotion, and behavior patterns. Generally speaking, personality refers to what makes an individual special and what sets them apart from others (Ibrahim et al., 2020). A person's personality suggests their capacity to foresee their actions or reactions in various situations (John et al., 2021). According to Kenni (2020), a person's personality is a dynamic organization of psychophysical systems that produce their distinctive cognition, behavior, and emotional patterns.
Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism are the five main dimensions that make up personality characteristics as defined by the Five-Factor Model (FFM) (John et al., 2021). These characteristics have an impact on people's attitudes, behaviors, and interpersonal relationships, which makes them relevant in educational settings (Komarraju et al., 2019).
Openness to experience, which is typified by creativity and intellectual curiosity, may inspire teachers to use cutting-edge instructional strategies and create welcoming classroom settings (Komarraju et al., 2019). Faculty members who exhibit conscientiousness, which reflects effort and dependability, are likely to be more professional and attentive to the requirements of their students. Positive and interesting interactions with students can be facilitated by extraversion, which is linked to friendliness and excitement. Relationships that are dependable and helpful may be fostered by agreeableness, which embodies qualities like compassion and empathy. On the other hand, neuroticism, a sign of emotional instability, may make it more difficult to communicate effectively and provide a less encouraging learning environment (John et al., 2021).
The socioeconomic and cultural environment in which Nigerian universities operate offers both special possibilities and problems (Adelabu et al., 2020). Sociocultural elements that might affect students’ feeling of belonging, such as language and ethnic diversity, exacerbate these systemic issues. Faculty members provide essential socialization and support systems for students in these situations. Administrators frequently communicate in a way that is not understood because their language is not sensitive to the specific circumstances of the individuals they are speaking to. Their speech is merely hostile and alienating language in the school setting. Like the language of the people, the language of school administrators cannot exist without thought, and neither can exist without a framework to which they may relate. Effective communication requires that school administrators comprehend the structural circumstances in which students’ language and thoughts are dialectically structured to promote belonging (Freire, 1999). In order to meet the various demands of Nigerian university students, their capacity to create welcoming and encouraging settings is very important (Ekeh et al., 2021).
In higher education, faculty members are crucial in determining students’ experiences and sense of belonging (Tinto, 2017). Although research on the connection between students’ sense of belonging and the personality traits of faculty members is still in its infancy, previous studies provide insightful information. According to Komarraju et al. (2019), students’ opinions of encouraging learning settings were favorably connected with the agreeableness and extraversion of faculty members. Conscientiousness was linked to both student happiness and successful teaching methods, as Connelly and Ones (2010) showed.
According to Komarraju et al. (2019), creating inclusive classroom settings was favorably correlated with agreeableness and openness. The study's application to Nigerian circumstances, where sociocultural variables greatly influence student-faculty relations, was limited by its primary focus on Western colleges. Strayhorn (2019) discovered a correlation between increased student involvement and teacher attributes like empathy and approachability. Although this study offers fundamental insights, it does not really address the complex reality of universities in Nigeria. Ibrahim et al. (2020) discovered that students’ sense of belonging was greatly impacted by the openness and agreeableness of the teachers in a Nigerian setting. However, the study did not take students’ perspectives into consideration. The significance of faculty-student interactions in creating a feeling of community is highlighted by Tinto's (2017) model of student retention. The approach, however, makes assumptions about circumstances and resources that might not be present in many Nigerian universities. Ekeh et al. (2021) emphasized how students’ sense of belonging was improved by faculty members’ agreeableness and extraversion. The study did, however, rely mostly on self-reported data from faculty members, which might create biases. In Nigerian secondary schools, Adeosun and Olukayode (2020) found that teacher empathy is essential for reducing student misbehavior and promoting a sense of belonging. However, its direct relevance to universities is limited by its emphasis on secondary education. By discussing drug misuse among Nigerian students as a reaction to social alienation, Adebayo and Adebayo's (2019) study subtly highlighted the necessity for supportive and sympathetic staff members. Direct applicability is limited by the study's emphasis on secondary education.
Together, the reviewed research highlights how crucial faculty personality traits are to helping students feel like they belong. However, because Nigerian universities have distinct socioeconomic and cultural dynamics, the results of many research are less directly relevant because they are based on Western contexts (Komarraju et al., 2019; Strayhorn, 2019). The qualitative, secondary education, or self-reported data used in the majority of the Nigerian research that is currently accessible may not adequately reflect the intricacies of interactions between lecturers and students (Adelabu et al., 2020; Ekeh et al., 2021). Robust empirical studies that are especially centered on the Nigerian higher education setting are scarce (Ibrahim et al., 2020; Ojo & Adesina, 2021). Therefore, the perceived ability of faculty members’ personality traits to predict students’ sense of belonging in higher education was investigated in this study.
Statement of the Problem
A stronger sense of belonging could be essential for establishing an inclusive learning environment and a common understanding of diversity in Nigerian higher education. Few studies have examined the fundamental role that faculty members’ personality traits play in forming students’ feelings of belonging, despite continuous attempts by educational institutions to recruit and retain diverse persons. Personality traits (conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, and openness) of faculty members may be crucial in promoting or impeding students’ sense of belonging.
Universities in Nigeria function under a distinct sociocultural and economic environment that is marked by systemic educational difficulties, budgetary limitations, and ethnic heterogeneity. These contextual circumstances call for a more thorough investigation of the relationship between students’ sense of belonging and the personality traits of faculty members. The ongoing problems of student attrition, apathy, and mental health difficulties that are common in Nigerian universities make such inquiries even more urgent. Therefore, knowing the factors that influence students’ feeling of belonging will help improve the standard of higher education in Nigeria.
A crucial area of current educational study is the dynamic interaction between the personality traits of faculty members and students’ sense of belonging in higher education. Promoting students’ sense of belonging is crucial at Nigerian universities, where socioeconomic difficulties and cultural variety collide with the classroom setting. The degree to which students feel appreciated, supported, and welcomed in their academic community is known as their feeling of belonging, and it is closely related to a number of academic, social, and psychological outcomes. The purpose of this study was to assess how students felt about their feeling of belonging in relation to the personality traits of faculty members.
Research Questions
What is the level of students’ sense of belonging in Nigerian universities?
Which is the prevalent personality trait (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism) among faculty members in Nigerian universities?
What is the relationship between faculty members’ personality traits (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism) and students’ sense of belonging in Nigerian universities?
What is the composite contribution of faculty members’ personality traits (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism) to the prediction of students’ sense of belonging in Nigerian universities?
What is the relative contribution of the faculty members’ personality traits (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism) to the prediction of students’ sense of belonging in Nigerian universities?
Methodology
Research Design
Since the study's variables were not altered, the survey research design of the correlational type was used.
Study Context, Population, and Sample
The purpose of this study was to gather information on the study from students in the faculties of the sampled universities in a student-centered manner. By ensuring them before they participated that the purpose of the study was solely academic in nature and that their responses would improve knowledge of the topic, this was accomplished without imposing any stigma on the participants. Since it is anticipated that the issue of belonging is not school ownership-specific (Adeyemi et al., 2022; Obi & Adebayo, 2023; Okonkwo et al., 2024), using non-probability purposeful, convenience, and snowball sampling techniques, we purposefully chose prominent public and private universities in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The researchers could easily contact each participant and ensure they gave informed consent to participate in the study.
Prominent public and private universities in Ekiti State, Nigeria- Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti (ABUAD), Federal University Oye-Ekiti (FUOYE), Ekiti State University (EKSU), and Bamidele Olumilua University of Education, Science, and Technology (BOUESTI) in Ekiti State, Nigeria, made up the study's population. According to Piepiora et al. (2024), the generation of the students studied could be referred to as Generation Z, or snowflakes. This generation was raised largely stress-free during the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries (Piepiora et al., 2024). We used convenient and snowball sampling procedures to choose students who were available, accessible, and willing to take part in the study. These original volunteers were used to find additional students who were open to taking part in the study. The study's goal and a voluntary participation option that allows participants to decide whether to accept participation and proceed with the survey or not were obtained through the various communication channels that the students used to interact (e.g., WhatsApp and Telegram).
Ethical Considerations
Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the offices of the faculty deans at the sampled universities. The study adhered to ethical guidelines, including informed consent, confidentiality, and voluntary participation. The researchers contacted each participant and ensured that they supplied their informed consent to participate in the study by employing a non-probability convenience cum snowball sampling approach (Wang, 2024). 1089 students from the sampled universities responded to the survey.
Instrumentation
Literature agreed that parts concentrating on demographic data, belonging, and personality traits would normally be included in the basic components of standardized assessments on these topics (Hayes, 2022). In order to create measures that are valid for the intended applications and that significantly elicit valid responses from the respondents, a thorough developmental approach was taken during the instrument's construction. This approach included rigorous adherence to standards for educational and psychological testing (Zickar, 2020), recommendations for best practices in the creation and assessment of measures, and a thorough examination of the literature on personality traits and belonging (Vargas-Atencio et al., 2024).
Consequently, the researchers created a set of questionnaire that used a four-point Likert scale (ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4)). The Likert scale has been widely used in educational research and was selected because it is easy to use, clear, and comfortable (Wang, 2024). The instrument titled ‘Belonging and Personality Trait Questionnaire (BPTQ)’ was used. Students’ demographic data is gathered in section A. Prior to pilot testing these measures on smaller, non-study sample groups (90 students), we utilized peer-to-peer reviews to validate the instrument. The measures’ ordinal alpha reliabilities were 0.89, 0.92, 0.79, 0.82, 0.90, and 0.88, respectively, in relation to the study's sections. This suggests that the measurement is reliable and internally consistent.
SOBI-P and SOBI-A instruments, created by Hagerty and Patusky (1995) and revalidated by Dias-Broens et al. (2024) (r = 0.77), were adapted to measure students’ sense of belonging in section B. Statements such as ‘If I died tomorrow, very few lecturers would come to my funeral’ (valued involvement), ‘I wonder if there is any place on earth where I really fit in’ (fit), and ‘It is important to me that I am valued or accepted by others (antecedent)’ were among the twenty-four items created to reflect the psychological experience of sense of belonging (valued involvement, fit, and antecedent). With a Cronbach's α of 0.89, the range of scores is from 24 to 96, with higher scores denoting a lower level of belonging.
The Personality Traits Inventory (PTI) (Costa & McCrae, 1992), updated over the years, with its last update published in 2015 (Fetvadjiev & van de Vijver, 2015; r = 0.66), was adapted to measure faculty members’ personality traits. It consists of statements concerning the personality traits of the faculty members. It consisted of five sections, C, D, E, F, and G, of twelve items each, measuring openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism respectively, with Cronbach's α of 0.92, 0.79, 0.82, 0.90, and 0.88, respectively. The entire scoring range in each category is between 12 and 48, with higher scores denoting higher prevalence of the trait.
Method of Data Collection
The instruments were created and stored in a Google Forms application. Through the several undergraduate communication group platforms (Telegram, WhatsApp, and Google Classrooms), the sampled undergraduates’ informed consent was obtained, along with the study's purpose. Additionally, a voluntary participation option was added to the Google link form, allowing respondents to choose whether or not to accept participation and continue with the survey. Participants gave their free-will agreement to participate in the study after being informed of its goals. By keeping their data private, their anonymity and privacy were protected. To boost the response rate, participants were urged to complete the questionnaire at the end of the lectures. When completing the questionnaire, respondents who required more explanation on any item contacted the researchers through the researchers’ contact information on the form (Simões de Almeida et al., 2023). The period of data collection in 2024 was four months, from August to November.
Data Analysis
IBM SPSS-25 software was used to prepare the data for multivariate analyses and perform descriptive statistics (IBM Corp., 2021). The gathered data were statistically analyzed at the 0.05 level of significance utilizing multiple linear regression analysis (MLRA) using the Hayes macro process in order to perform observed-variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis and derive relevant findings (Hayes, 2024). The primary focus lies in examining the prediction between the predictors (faculty members’ personality traits) and the dependent variable (students’ sense of belonging).
Results
The respondents’ demographic details are shown in Table 1; 345 (31.70%) of the respondents were from FUOYE, 384 (35.30%) were from EKSU, 156 (14.30%) were from ABUAD, and 204 (18.70%) were from BOUESTI. With 552 (50.70%) males and 537 (49.30%) females, the gender distribution is about equal, indicating gender-balanced representation. According to the statistics, 597 students (54.8%) were ‘less than 20 years old,’ followed by 444 students (40.8%) who were ‘20–30 years old,’ and 48 students (4.40%) who were ‘over 30 years old.’ Fewer students were at the 300 level, 156 (14.30%), and 400 level, 204 (18.70%), while the bulk of participants were in the lower levels, 100 level, 357 (32.80%), and 200 level, 372 (34.20%).
Statistical Descriptions of Participating Students (N = 1089).
According to Table 2, students’ sense of belonging has an average score of 76.31 (standard deviation = 3.95; skewness = 0.10, kurtosis = −0.64). These results imply that students’ overall sense of belonging in higher education is low, as a high mean score denotes a weaker sense of belonging.
Statistical Descriptions of the Variables.
Additionally, Table 2 lists the average scores for the personality traits of faculty members, revealing key insights into their prevalence: The most prevalent trait was neuroticism (mean = 38.67; standard deviation = 3.26; skewness = −0.39 and kurtosis = 0.28). The second most prevalent trait was conscientiousness (mean = 33.61; standard deviation = 3.58; skewness = −0.08 and kurtosis = −0.14). Followed by agreeableness (mean = 29.60; standard deviation = 3.08; skewness = 0.40 and kurtosis = −0.29); openness (mean = 29.21; standard deviation = 3.08; skewness = 0.21 and kurtosis = −0.22); and extraversion (mean = 23.64; standard deviation = 3.12; skewness = 0.11 and kurtosis = 0.20).
The results of the Pearson Product Moment Correlation coefficients and the significance of the relationship between students’ sense of belonging in the sampled universities and undergraduates’ perceptions of the personality traits (conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, and openness to experience) of faculty members are shown in Table 3. The robustness of the regression model with low multicollinearity among the variables is confirmed by the multicollinearity statistics in Table 4 (tolerance > 0.90, VIF < 1.10). Students’ sense of belonging and perceived faculty members’ personality traits (extraversion: r = −0.16, p < 0.05(0.00); agreeableness: r = −0.15, p < 0.05(0.00); and conscientiousness: r = 0.10, p < 0.05(0.00)) are significantly correlated, according to the intercorrelation matrix. Nonetheless, there was a positive but insignificant correlation (Neuroticism: r = 0.02, p > 0.05(0.80) and Openness: r = 0.01, p > 0.05(0.80)) between students’ sense of belonging and the personality traits of faculty members.
Correlation Matrix among Faculty Members’ Personality Traits and Students’ Sense of Belonging.
Explanation: a indicates that the correlation between the variables is significant at the 0.01 level.
indicates that the correlation between the variables is significant at the 0.05 level.
Coefficients of the Relationship Between Faculty Members’ Personality Traits and Students’ Sense of Belonging.
The model summary is shown in Table 5, where the R-squared value is 0.06 and the R value is 0.24. This suggests that the overall influence of faculty members’ personality traits accounts for 24% of the variation in students’ sense of belonging. Although this percentage might seem low, the change statistics (ΔF = 13.12, p < 0.05(0.00)) show that it is statistically significant. The model's reliability is increased by the Durbin-Watson statistic (2.20), which verifies that there is no autocorrelation in the residuals. The F-statistic (F(5,1083) = 13.12, p < 0.05(0.00)) in Table 6 validates the statistical significance of the model.
Model Summary of the Relationship Between Faculty Members’ Personality Traits, and Students’ Sense of Belonging.
ANOVA of Faculty Members’ Personality Traits and Students’ Sense of Belonging.
The relative contributions of each personality trait are broken down in depth in Table 4: Though conscientiousness (β=0.13, t = 4.24, p < 0.05(0.00)) has a positive significant relative prediction of students’ sense of belonging, extraversion (β = −0.15, t = −4.88, p < 0.05(0.00)) and agreeableness (β = −0.15, t = −4.79, p < 0.05(0.00)) have substantial negative significant relative predictions of students’ sense of belonging. Neuroticism and openness show negligible contributions, with p-values above 0.05.
Discussion
The personality traits of the faculty members and their influence on students’ sense of belonging in higher education are thoroughly examined in this study. The results demonstrated that there is a poor general sense of belonging among students in higher education. This implied that students typically experience a lack of integration in their learning environment. Issues like little engagement between students and lecturers, a lack of peer support, or a lack of institutional resources might be the cause of this. The credibility of the results is confirmed by the skewness and kurtosis values, which point to a normal distribution. The most prevalent personality trait among faculty members was neuroticism. This suggests that interactions between students and faculty are more muted, which leads to unfavorable interactions between students and lecturers and supports students’ general low sense of belonging in higher education. Higher education environments, which place a high importance on teamwork and intellectual engagement, are maligned by the prevalence of neuroticism.
Extraversion and agreeableness showed strong negative associations with students’ sense of belonging, shedding light on the linkages between faculty members’ personality traits and students’ sense of belonging. This suggested that faculty members with greater levels of these traits can unintentionally make students feel less included. For example, excessive agreeableness may lead to less assertiveness in meeting the requirements of pupils, while highly outgoing behaviors may overshadow quieter students. Students’ sense of belonging is strongly correlated with conscientiousness. Well-organized, trustworthy, and goal-oriented faculty members probably provide structured, encouraging learning environments that increase students’ feeling of belonging. Nonetheless, there is little to no association between students’ sense of belonging and neuroticism and openness, suggesting that these traits have a limited direct impact on students’ perceptions.
In addition, the combined impact of faculty members’ personality traits accounts for approximately one-quarter of the variation in students’ sense of belonging.
This study highlighted that although the personality traits of faculty members have a significant impact on students’ sense of belonging, other elements also play important roles. Extraversion and agreeableness have significant negative relative contributions, highlighting potential challenges posed by these traits. For instance, too affable lecturers may find it difficult to set clear limits, while highly extroverted faculty may unintentionally alienate students who prefer calmer encounters. Students’ sense of belonging is positively influenced by conscientiousness, highlighting the significance of organized, trustworthy, and goal-oriented teaching methods. The minimal contributions of neuroticism and openness suggest that these characteristics have little impact on students’ sense of belonging.
These results align with those of Allen et al. (2021), Poleshuck et al. (2024), and Chugh et al. (2024), which found that loneliness has become a widespread epidemic (Sivananthajothy et al., 2023) and that individuals in the adolescent and elderly age groups are particularly vulnerable (Gerull et al., 2021). Additionally, it aligns with the work of Adelabu et al. (2020), who highlighted the difficulties in creating a sense of belonging at Nigerian universities due to socioeconomic and cultural diversity. If this is not firmly addressed in Nigerian higher education, students will experience feelings of alienation, academic underperformance, and a higher chance of dropping out (Buckingham et al., 2023; Hausmann et al., 2009). When students feel rejected, alienated, or neglected, they may engage in misbehavior in a variety of ways (Knox et al., 2020). This supports findings by Komarraju et al. (2019) that extroverted behaviors, while engaging, may not suit all students, particularly in culturally diverse settings like Nigerian universities. While agreeableness is generally seen as a positive trait, excessive agreeability may lead to a lack of assertiveness in addressing students’ needs, consistent with observations by Ekeh et al. (2021). The study extends the work of Ibrahim et al. (2020) and Strayhorn (2019) by exploring the Nigerian context, where socio-cultural diversity presents unique challenges. It confirms the relevance of faculty personality traits in fostering belonging but also highlights the need for a more nuanced understanding of these dynamics in resource-constrained environments.
However, these findings are at variance with those of Duran et al. (2020), who emphasized peer networks as a dominant influence on belonging, potentially downplaying faculty roles in addressing the issue; Gopalan et al. (2022), who posited that institutional resources generally provide adequate support for belonging, conflicting with findings of resource inadequacy; and Hausmann et al. (2009), who suggested that students can create their own sense of belonging despite systemic challenges, implying that institutional barriers might not wholly determine belonging levels. They also contradict the assertions of Komarraju et al. (2019), who found extraversion and agreeableness to be dominant traits in Western settings, contrasting with the dominance of neuroticism observed in this study; Ojo and Adesina (2021), who found that faculty traits like agreeableness counteracted biases, which challenges the negative correlation observed in this study; and Connelly and Ones (2010), who highlighted that conscientiousness has a stronger positive correlation with belonging than what this study suggests, possibly indicating measurement issues. They are not in tandem with the argument of Gerull et al. (2021), who argued that socio-economic conditions and systemic issues overshadow faculty traits, refuting their pivotal role in belonging. This finding deviates from the ideal academic setting envisioned by Ibrahim et al. (2020) and John et al. (2021), where traits such as conscientiousness and agreeableness are expected to dominate.
Implications
The results of this study would potentially promote constructive dialogue in educational settings. Students, staff, and other stakeholders in higher education institutions can foster a more welcoming environment by talking about the personality features of faculty members.
Based on the study's findings, we suggest that:
Faculty members should be flexible, proactive, and dynamic in their relationship with the students, rather than exhibiting a stereotyped personality trait. Faculty members should be exposed to regular training workshops, conferences, seminars, and symposia to constantly update their psychological behaviors. Curriculum designers should give adequate attention to these psychological (personality traits) factors of faculty members during the development of curriculum. Guidance and counseling, in an atmosphere of positive interaction, is suggested as a remedial measure for developing faculty members’ psychological traits. Faculty members should be conscious of the influence of their personality traits on students’ sense of belonging and be able to control them in line to ensure total inclusivity. Nigerian higher education institutions should create professional development programs to teach faculty members how to balance their personalities to maximize student inclusion; Universities should create programs that cater to students’ varied needs to close gaps in belonging. Universities should put in place policies that encourage inclusivity and offer tools to help students feel more included.
Conclusion
This study has shed light on how the personality traits of faculty members influence students’ feelings of belonging in higher education. This study is a crucial conversation starter that opens the door for a more comprehensive and inclusive dialogue among teachers and other significant players in the educational field by giving undergraduates a better understanding of their perceptions of faculty members’ personality traits and their impact on students’ sense of belonging. Higher education institutions stand to gain a great deal from these insights. Support services that might be enhanced and improved include professional development and teaching. When it comes to incorporating inclusive personality traits into the educational environment, these specialist services could help faculty members with their particular needs and concerns.
Limitation
It is crucial to take into account the limitations of this study while assessing its results. A quantitative study conducted within a state can reveal relationships that could help lead or guide future research, but it is not the most effective method for proving causality and generalization between variables.
Future Research Directions
In order to better understand the dynamics of belonging, we recommend that future research examine similar studies in other parts of the nation using qualitative or mixed research lenses. We also recommend that future research examine other factors that influence students’ sense of belonging, such as cultural dynamics, classroom engagement strategies, institutional infrastructure, and the quality of student-faculty interactions.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
We sincerely acknowledge the students who took part in this study. The success of this study was greatly aided by their priceless contributions, which included their readiness to offer their opinions, experiences, and expertise on perceived power of faculty members’ personality traits in predicting their sense of belonging. Despite their hectic schedules, we sincerely appreciate the time and effort they invested in filling out the surveys. Their observations have given us a solid basis for comprehending the power of faculty members’ personality traits in predicting students’ sense of belonging in Nigerian academia.
Author Contribution(s)
Availability of Data and Materials
The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to the reason that, the study prioritized participant privacy, collecting data under strict confidentiality agreements to protect their personal and sensitive information. Publicly sharing the dataset might risk exposing identifiable details, even after anonymization, due to advancements in data re-identification techniques. Providing data upon reasonable request from the corresponding author ensures compliance with ethical standards while allowing controlled access under safeguards that respect participant rights. Therefore, the datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The Authors declare that the study was self-funded.