Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

The transition to green hydrogen offers a critical opportunity for Ghana to achieve its dec⁠arbonisation and sustainable energy object⁠ives. However, its widespread adoption faces significant barriers. This study seeks to identify, prioritise, and propose strategie⁠s to overcome these barriers through an integrated m⁠ulticriteria decision-making (MCDM) framework tailore⁠d⁠ to Ghana's context. The methodology combined a systematic literature review with expert co⁠nsultations. The CRITIC method was applied to derive objective weights for barriers. Thereafter, fou⁠r MCDM techniques, namely, TOPSIS, EDAS, MOORA, and COPRAS, were employe⁠d to rank strategies. These methods were deliberately selected since each method captures distinct dimensions of decision-making. Integrating multiple techniques enhanced the robustness and reliability of rankings by allowing cross-v⁠alidation of results. The final rankings were validated using Spearman's correlation and T-statistic, ensuring statistical consistency ac⁠ross methods. The results highlight barriers such as limited international collaboration, inadequate financing options, and public acceptance challenges. Conv⁠ersely, prioritised strategies⁠ include infrastructure⁠ development, training local expertise, and implementing financial incentives. These findings emphasise the importance of strategic inf⁠rast⁠ructure and capacity building investments to unlock Ghana's green hydrogen potential. The study provides actionable insights for policymakers, emphasising the need for clear regulations, robust incentives, and international coll⁠aboration. Addressing these barrier⁠s can facilitate the adoption of green hydrogen and position Ghana as a leader in sustainab⁠le energy innovation. These strategies align w⁠ith Ghana's energy transition targets and present⁠ an opportunity to bolster economic growth and reduce carbo⁠n emissions.

Keywords

energy transition green hydrogen infrastructure development multicriteria decision-making policy recommendations sustainable energy

Introduction

Green hydrogen adoption has attracted global attention due t⁠o the urgent need to decarbonise energy systems (Chowdhury et al., 2025) and mitigate climate change (Elegbeleye et al., 2025). Recognise⁠d as a clean and versatile⁠ energy carrier, gr⁠een hydrogen h⁠as the potential to r⁠evolutionise the energy sector (Akpasi et al., 2025). The⁠ “green” designation indicates that renewable energy resources power the technology and emit no carbon during production. Typically, green hydrogen is ge⁠ne⁠rate⁠d via water electrolysis, a process that electrochemically splits water into its basic constituents hydrogen and oxygen, using an electric current (Amini Horri and Ozcan, 2024).

Hydrogen itself can be⁠ classifi⁠ed into the following colour ca⁠tegories: green, blue, aqua, white, grey, brown, black, yellow, turquoise,⁠ purple, pink, and red depending on the production process, energ⁠y source, production costs, and associated emissions (Arcos and Santos, 2023). However, global hydrogen production depends mainly on fossil fuels (Szablowski et al., 2025). Using fossil fuels defeats Sustainable Development Goal 7, emphasising the need for clean energy. From this perspective, green hydrogen stands out above all other types, warranting adoption across multiple fields of application.

In practice, hydrogen finds use in multiple sectors: it powers fuel cell vehicles (Agyekum et al., 2024), generates electricity for grid storage (Risco-Bravo et al., 2024), supports ammonia production for fertilisers (Pagani et al., 2024), and enables the creation of synthetic fuels (Alsunousi and Kayabasi, 2024). Within industry, hydrogen is integral to steel production, glass manufacturing, and chemical⁠ processing (Fragapane et al., 2024; Shen et al., 2024). Its clean-burning properties make it essential for decarbonising heavy industry and the transportation system.

Despite⁠ these benefits, significant barriers hinder⁠ the widespread adoption of green hydrogen. Among these challenges is the high capital cost⁠ of establishing green hydrogen production plants (Al-Ghussain et al., 2023). Additional obstacles include limitations in scaling up production, the⁠ lack of robust hydrogen transportation and storage infrastructure, and shortages of skilled personnel to operate and maintain hydrogen facilities (León et al., 2023; Müller et al., 2023; Vives et al., 2023).

Globally, various strategies are being implemented to accelerate hydrogen deployment. These include national hydrogen strategies, targeted investments and funding,⁠ international alliances and agreements, standardisation and certification protocols, and supportive government incentiv⁠es and regulations. For example, the European Union aims to establish an open and competitive hydrogen market by 2030. This plan targets installing at least 6 GW of⁠ green hydrogen electrolysers by 2024, to produce 1 million tonnes of green⁠ hydrogen. The strategy's second phase, running between 2030 and 2050, envisions the development of 100 MW electrolysis plants near major hydrogen demand centres (De Tommasi and Lyons, 2022).

In Africa, green hy⁠drogen adoption eff⁠orts are progressin⁠g steadily, though at a slower pace than developed regions. Five countries, Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Namibia, and South Africa have d⁠eveloped comprehensive green hydrogen strategies (Dickie and Wardell, 2023). According to Lahnaoui et al. (2025), South Africa, Lesotho, Ghana, Nigeria, Angola, and Namibia have uniq⁠ue stren⁠gths and challen⁠ges for green hydrogen development. Establishing such economies requires⁠ region-specific⁠ strategies and strong inter-country cooperation. Namibia recently signed a $10 billion contract with German company Hyphen Energy to produce green hydrogen (Angula, 2023).

Within the West African context, re⁠g⁠ional studies reveal specific opportunities and challenges. For example, Odoi-Yorke et al. (2025) explored sola⁠r PV and wind-based green hydrogen projects across the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) region. The findings identified Niger, Mali, and Cape Verde as the most promising countr⁠ies due to high renewable energy resources and lower levelized costs of hy⁠drogen. Winkler et al. (2025) conducted participatory mapping of local gre⁠en hydrogen cost potentials in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The results show th⁠at hydroge⁠n produc⁠tion costs could start at €1.6/kg in Mauritania, with about 259 TWh/yr producible at under €2/kg by 2050. However, two-thirds of the region would require desalina⁠tion due to⁠ groundwater limitations, and socio-economic barriers such as limited energy access, low labour costs in West Africa, and varying labour potential could hinder deployment in certain are⁠as.

Ghana has the potential for green hydrogen development. A recent study by Asare-Addo (2023) revealed that about 85% of the country's land is suitable for green hydrogen projects, with the potential to generate 14,196⁠ Mt/yr of hydrogen via solar ener⁠gy and 10,123 Mt/yr via wind energy. Osei et al. (2024) found th⁠at the current lev⁠elized cost of hydrogen is about $9.49/kg, comparable to other SSA estimates, but projected to decline to $5–6.5/kg by 2030 and $2-2.5/kg by 2050, positioning solar PV-based green hyd⁠rogen as a comp⁠etitive alternative to fossil fuel-bas⁠ed hydrogen for⁠ Ghana's⁠ clean energy future. Tanyi et al. (2024) revealed that⁠ centralised biomass gasification offers the lowest hydrogen cost at $2.68/kg and centralised and d⁠istribu⁠ted proton exchange membrane electroly⁠sis cost $4.35/kg and $5.56/kg respectively, in Ghana. In the work of Odoi-Yorke et al. (2024), the authors found that solar PV-based green hydrogen for cooking is about 89% more expensive than electricity, 155% more than liquified petroleum gas, and 190% more than charcoal in Ghana. Mensah et al. (2025)⁠ found that a solar PV mini grid can produce about 609.26 kg⁠ of hydrogen annually using redundant solar energy in Ghana.

T⁠he Government of Ghana has demonstrated a strong commitment to energy transition and decarbonisation objectiv⁠es. Under the United Nations Paris Agree⁠ment, Ghana committed to increa⁠sing energy access and rene⁠wable energy use and reducing absolute greenhou⁠se gas emissi⁠ons by 64 MtCO₂e by 2030 (Ahakwa et al., 2023). In addition, the go⁠vernm⁠ent⁠'s⁠ recently published na⁠tional energy trans⁠iti⁠on plan aims to power over 70% of road vehicles with electricity and hydrogen fuel by 2050, with all⁠ road and rail mobility powered by electricity⁠ and hydrogen by 2070 (Ghana Ministry of Energy, 2022). The⁠se ambitious targets position⁠ gr⁠een hydrogen as essential for ac⁠hieving the country's sustainable development objectives. Nevertheless, various technical, economic, regulatory, and societal barriers could hinder Ghana's adoption of green hydrogen technologies. Therefore, identifying and addressing these barriers is essential to unlocking the potential benefits of green hydrogen for the country's energy sector.

Multicriteria decision-making (MCDM) approaches are commonly employed in the literature to analyse various aspects of green hydrogen adoption, production, and infrastructure. For instance, Trivedi and Gharib (2023) used the Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory approach to identify key challenges in the green hydrogen sector. Dixit et al. (2024) employed the Fuzzy Interpretive Structural Modelling approach to identify and analyse the barriers hindering the adoption of green hydrogen in India's transportation sector. Sahebi et al. (2025) applied fuzzy Best Worst Method (BWM) to analyse key challenges associated with Mexico's green hydrogen supply chain. The work of Hosseini Dehshiri et al. (2025) used hybrid fuzzy methods of BWM and Combined Compromise Solution to prioritise the key challenges of hydrogen storage systems. Similarly, spatially integrated MCDM-Geographic Information System frameworks have been used to identify optimal sites for green hydrogen hubs in India (Thekkethil et al., 2024), solar-driven hydrogen production in Tunisia (Rekik and El Alimi, 2024), Morocco (Taoufik and Fekri, 2023), and Thailand (Ali et al., 2022), as well as hybrid solar-wind systems for hydrogen in Cameroon (Fotsing Metegam, 2025).

However, comprehensive MCDM-based analyses of green hyd⁠rogen adoption barriers and strategies remain notably absent for Ghana and the broader West African region. The uni⁠que socio-economic, technological, and institutiona⁠l contexts of developing countries in SSA, characterised by different ener⁠gy access patterns, finan⁠cial con⁠straints, infrastructure limitations, and governance structures, necessitate region-specific approaches that cannot be directly extrapolate⁠d from studies conducted in devel⁠oped or other emergi⁠ng economie⁠s. The green hydrogen context in Ghana differs from more commonly studied regions in several cri⁠tica⁠l aspects. The country's energy sy⁠stem is characterised by ru⁠ral-urban inequalities in ele⁠ctricity access, dependence on traditional biomass for cooking, and potential for decentralised renewable energy solutions that differ from centralised approaches common in developed nations. Fur⁠thermore, Ghana's position within the broader West African economic and political landscape offers unique opportunities for regional cooperation and export potential that are absent in landlocked countries. The interplay between domest⁠ic energy needs, regional integrat⁠ion through EC⁠OWAS, and potential international export partn⁠erships creates⁠ a complex decision-making environment requiring ana⁠lytical⁠ approa⁠ches.

In this context, the study's main contribution lies in i⁠ts con⁠textual relevance and application of a structured decision-making model tailored to Ghana. This distinction is signi⁠ficant because, though numerous MCDM-based st⁠udies have been applied in developed and emerging economies, very few address the realities of SSA, where socio-economic, infrastructu⁠ral, and governance conditions diff⁠er substantially. By situating the analysis within Ghana's unique energy transition pat⁠hway, this study fills a critical regional knowledge gap in the green h⁠ydrogen literature and provides a framework t⁠hat aligns international methodological rigour with loc⁠al applicability.

To address these identified gap⁠s, t⁠his study repr⁠esents⁠ the first comprehensive application of integrated MCDM to prioritise barriers and propose practical st⁠r⁠ategies for developing Ghana's green hydrogen sector. T⁠he main contributions include: (1) identifying and categorising key barriers and proposing effective strategies tailored to Ghana's⁠ green hydrogen⁠ adoption context; (2) prioritising these barriers and strategies using⁠ integrated MCDM methods adapted for the⁠ Ghanaian context; and (3) validating the prioritised barriers and strategies using correlat⁠ion tests and T-statistic to ensure methodological rigour.

The study findings provide crucial insights for stakeholders, policymakers, an⁠d investors developing Ghana's green hydro⁠gen sector to consolidate efforts and achieve sustainable energy transition objectives. This study c⁠ontributes to⁠ the limited body of knowledge on green hydroge⁠n devel⁠opment in SSA and provides a methodological framework that can be adapted for similar developing country contexts. The remaining parts of the study are outlined as follows: Section 2 describes the research approach. Section 3 presents and discusses the results, and Section 4 provides a conclusion and recommendations for stakeholders, investors, and policymakers.

Research methodology

This section highlights the methods used to conduct this study. The study approach comprises three stages, as shown in Figure 1. Stage 1 comprises the identification of barriers and strategies. This is done by conducting a thorough literature review to gather information on potential barriers and strategies for green hydrogen development. In addition, it involves discussion with experts to refine the identified barriers further and determine strategies to overcome them. The output of this stage is a final list of barriers and strategies. Stage 2 is the application of MCDM methods. In this stage, the identified barriers are analysed using the criteria importance through intercriteria correlation (CRITIC) method to determine their weights or relative importance. Thereafter, various MCDM methods like the technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal (TOPSIS), evaluation based on distance from average solution (EDAS), multi-objective optimisation on the basis of ratio analysis (MOORA), and complex proportional assessment (COPRAS) are employed to rank the strategies based on their weights from CRITIC. Stage 3 focuses on validating the rankings obtained using statistical tests. The rankings obtained from the MCDM methods in Stage 2 are further validated using a rank correlation test. In view of this, Spearman's correlation coefficient is calculated to measure the degree of agreement between the rankings from different MCDM methods. Also, a t-statistic test is performed to evaluate the significance of the correlation coefficient. The final output is a validated set of optimal rankings for the strategies related to green hydrogen development in Ghana.

Figure 1.

Framework illustrating the study approach for evaluating barriers and strategies to green hydrogen development in Ghana.

Data collection

This study combined a comprehensive literature review and expert interviews to identify and categorise potential barriers and strategies for green hydrogen development in Ghana. The authors designed a questionnaire and sent it to 10 experts in Ghana (Academia = 3, Non-profit organisations = 2, Industry professionals and practitioners = 2, Government agencies or regulatory bodies = 3) with significant knowledge of green hydrogen to rank the potential barriers and strategies identified. The experts ranked the barriers to each strategy on a 5-point Likert scale, with 5 being very high and 1 being very low. It is significant to point out that discussion with experts is crucial, but expert opinions can sometimes be biased or limited by their individual experiences and perspectives. Therefore, identified barriers, sub-barriers, and strategies may be influenced by the experts’ own biases and assumptions, which could potentially skew the results. Consequently, to guarantee the strength and reliability of the conclusions drawn, the study employed various MCDM methods in the decision-making process. Table 1 presents the identified barriers. The strategies proposed are also presented in Table 2.

Table 1.

Salient barriers identified for evaluating green hydrogen development in Ghana.

Main barrier	Sub-barrier	Index	Remarks
Technical Barriers (TB)	Lack of Infrastructure	B1	Lacking the necessary green hydrogen production, storage, transportation, and distribution infrastructure hinders green hydrogen development.
	Lack of local expertise	B2	Insufficient knowledge and local expertise in hydrogen technologies slow down development.
	Intermittency of renewable energy sources	B3	Reliance on intermittent renewable energy sources can affect continuous green hydrogen production.
	Technology maturity	B4	Green hydrogen technology is not as mature in Ghana as solar, wind, and hydropower, although hydrogen electrolyser technology is advancing rapidly.
	Lack of local manufacturing	B5	Ghana is limited in manufacturing green hydrogen-related equipment locally. Thus, limited local production of hydrogen-related equipment can drive up costs.
	Grid Integration	B6	Integrating renewable energy sources into the national grid is challenging in Ghana.
Economic Barriers (EB)	Infrastructure costs	B7	The costs associated with building green hydrogen infrastructure in Ghana.
	Lack of credit facilities	B8	The lack of favourable credit facilities for green hydrogen projects can slow down green hydrogen projects in Ghana.
	High capital investment	B9	The significant upfront investment required for hydrogen projects deters investors. For instance, the high upfront costs of electrolysers make green hydrogen production expensive.
	Limited funding and financing options	B10	Limited funding and financial support options can impede green hydrogen project development.
	Uncertain return on investment for investors	B11	Potential investors may be wary due to uncertain returns on hydrogen projects.
	High operational and maintenance costs	B12	Ongoing operational and maintenance expenses for hydrogen infrastructure can be burdensome.
	Global supply chain dependencies	B13	Reliance on international supply chains for critical hydrogen components can lead to vulnerabilities in Ghana.
	Market development	B14	A limited market for green hydrogen products and services can slow down the technology in Ghana.
	Supply chain vulnerabilities	B15	Any disruptions in this supply chain, such as delays, damage, or theft, can impact the availability and cost of green hydrogen.
Regulatory Barriers (RB)	Lack of clear hydrogen regulations	B16	Unclear or non-existent regulations can create legal uncertainties for stakeholders.
	Inconsistent policies	B17	Frequent policy changes and inconsistencies can discourage long-term investments.
	Limited incentives for green hydrogen	B18	Insufficient incentives hinder the attractiveness of green hydrogen projects.
	Complex permitting processes	B19	Cumbersome permit acquisition processes can lead to project delays.
Environmental Barriers (EVB)	Land requirement	B20	Land availability to accommodate green hydrogen projects can slow down project development.
Environmental Barriers (EVB)	Water scarcity	B21	Hydrogen production requires water, and Ghana's water scarcity could be a limitation.
Sociocultural Barriers (SB)	Public awareness	B22	A lack of awareness about green hydrogen may hinder public support and investment.
	Public Acceptance	B23	The public's resistance to change in energy sources can slow down green hydrogen adoption. Also, cultural factors may influence resistance to accepting new technologies, including green hydrogen.
	Skilled Workforce	B24	A shortage of skilled labour can impede the development of hydrogen projects in Ghana.
Political and Government Barriers (PGB)	Political instability	B25	Political uncertainty can deter foreign investments in green hydrogen projects in Ghana.
	Bureaucracy and red tape	B26	Excessive bureaucracy can lead to delays and complications in green hydrogen project approvals.
	Lack of government support	B27	Inadequate government support can discourage private sector involvement in green hydrogen.
	International Collaboration	B28	Limited collaboration with international organisations and partners for knowledge-sharing and capacity-building can slow down the development of green hydrogen technology.

Table 2.

Proposed strategies for promoting green hydrogen in Ghana.

Proposed strategies	Index	Remarks
Infrastructure development	S1	Invest in essential infrastructure for green hydrogen production, storage, transportation, and distribution in Ghana. Also, road networks for facility construction should be improved.
Training local expertise	S2	Establish hydrogen education and training programmes to build local expertise and create a skilled workforce capable of supporting green hydrogen projects. This can be done by partnering with research institutions for hydrogen research and collaborating with vocational institutions for training programmes.
Utilising redundant energy	S3	Harness redundant (unused excess) energy, especially from solar and mini-grid systems during peak time, for green hydrogen production in Ghana.
Fossil fuel transition plan	S4	Develop a comprehensive transition plan away from fossil fuels, incentivising the adoption of green hydrogen as an alternative energy source.
Technology advancement	S5	Invest in research and development to accelerate the maturity of hydrogen electrolyser technology. Also, encourage the local manufacturing of hydrogen equipment.
Incentives and incentive programmes	S6	Provide subsidies or tax breaks to offset infrastructure costs. Design incentives like feed-in tariffs or green certificates and ensure policy consistency to boost investor confidence.
Financial/funding support	S7	Establish a dedicated green hydrogen fund, attract private sector investors through favourable financing terms, and create financing mechanisms such as grants, subsidies, and low-interest loans to facilitate funding access for green hydrogen startups.
Regulatory clarity	S8	Develop clear regulations for green hydrogen. Also, it streamlines permit acquisition for legal certainty.
Public awareness campaigns	S9	Launch awareness campaigns to educate the public on the benefits of green hydrogen. This can be achieved through engagement with schools and communities.
Government support	S10	Create a supportive policy environment. Establish a dedicated government agency for green hydrogen.
International collaboration	S11	Foster partnerships with international organisations and countries. Also, participate in knowledge-sharing initiatives.
Water management	S12	Implement water-efficient hydrogen production technologies and explore alternative water sources and recycling for green hydrogen production in Ghana.

Multicriteria decision-making (MCDM) methods

This section outlines the MCDM methods employed, including CRITIC, EDAS, TOPSIS, MOORA, and COPRAS, to prioritise the barriers and strategies. This study adopted multiple MCDM methods due to the following reasons: (i) to increase the complexity of the decision-making process, as each method may have different assumptions (Haddad and Sanders, 2018); (ii) to produce divergent results, as each method may prioritise different alternatives (Cinelli et al., 2020); and (iii) to improve the robustness of the decision-making process (Alshamsi et al., 2023). The proposed hierarchy for prioritising Ghana's barriers and strategies for green hydrogen development is shown in Figure 2. Sections 2.2.1 to 2.2.5 highlight the detailed description and optimisation processes that each MCDM method adopts to rank alternatives.

Figure 2.

Proposed hierarchy for prioritising Ghana's barriers and strategies for green hydrogen development.

CRITIC method

The CRITIC method is an objective weighting method used in MCDM problems. It determines objective weights for criteria based on the statistical variance of the data (Adalı and Işık, 2017; Diakoulaki et al., 1995). CRITIC weights criterion with higher contrast intensity and conflicts with other criteria more. This aspect makes the CRITIC method suitable for many real applications (Krishnan et al., 2021). The CRITIC technique uses Eqs. (A1) to (A5) to compute criteria objective weights (Akpahou and Odoi-Yorke, 2023):

TOPSIS method

TOPSIS is used to evaluate the performance of alternatives through their similarities with the ideal solution (Liang et al., 2023). TOPSIS chooses the alternative closest to the positive ideal solution and farthest from the negative ideal solution. The positive ideal solution is formed as a combination of the best points of each criterion. In contrast, the negative ideal solution combines the worst points of each criterion (Uzun et al., 2021). TOPSIS is easy to apply, universal, and considers distances to an ideal solution. Equation (A6) to Equation (A12) are adopted in the TOPSIS approach to rank the strategies (Han et al., 2025; Odoi-Yorke et al., 2022a):

MOORA method

MOORA is used for material selection, decision-making, and solving optimisation problems with multiple objectives. It involves optimising two or more conflicting criteria (objectives) under certain constraints (Karande and Chakraborty, 2012). MOORA uses ratio analysis to rank alternatives based on their performance against multiple criteria (Thakkar, 2021). It is a simple, easy-to-implement method involving the fewest computational steps (Chakraborty et al., 2023). The MOORA method applied Eqs. (A13) and (A14) to prioritise alternatives (Singh et al., 2024):

EDAS method

EDAS is a versatile method that can be applied in different domains for evaluation, selection, and ranking purposes. It uses a distance-based measurement approach that determines the ranking score based on average solution-based distance rather than well-known measures such as Euclidean distance (Phan and Nguyen, 2022; Zhang et al., 2019). The EDAS method applies Eqs. (A15)–(A22) to prioritise alternatives (Odoi-Yorke et al., 2022c; Torkayesh et al., 2023):

COPRAS method

COPRAS is one of the most commonly applied methods, which ranks available choices based on their performance in multiple criteria (Patil et al., 2022). It is a preference ranking method that assumes direct and proportional dependence on priority. It accommodates the direct and proportional dependence of the significance and utility degree of the available choices. The COPRAS method adopts equation (A23) to equation (A27) to rank alternatives (Odoi-Yorke et al., 2022b):

Spearman correlation coefficient, t-statistic test, and p-value

The Spearman correlation coefficient is applied to evaluate the strength and direction of the monotonic association between ranks for each pair of techniques. At the same time, the T-statistic determines if the correlation coefficient is significant, and the p-value determines the significance. A statistically significant correlation is shown by a p-value < 0.05. The rank correlation coefficient is computed using equation (1)

r_{s} = 1 - \frac{6 \sum x_{i}^{2}}{a (a^{2} - 1)}

(1)

where

r_{s}

denotes the Spearman's rank correlation, x_i denotes the difference between the two ranks of each alternative, and a is the total alternatives (strategies). Also, equation (2) was applied to estimate the T-statistic (t):

t = \frac{r_{s} * \sqrt{a - 2}}{\sqrt{1 - r_{s}^{2}}}

(2)

The p-value was calculated using the t-distribution (TDIST) function in Microsoft Excel. The TDIST function takes three arguments: t, df, and x*, where x* represents the number of tails in the distribution, df represents the degrees of freedom, and t represents the T-statistic.

Results and discussions

This section presents the results obtained and discusses their significant implications. It prioritises the barriers and proposes strategies for green hydrogen adoption and development in Ghana. In addition, it provides recommendations for policymakers, stakeholders, and investors on promoting green hydrogen adoption for Ghana's energy transition.

Potential barriers to hinder green hydrogen adoption and development in Ghana

The study's first stage was to systematically identify potential barriers hindering green hydrogen adoption and development in Ghana. In view of this, 28 sub-criteria (sub-barriers) categorised under 6 criteria (main barriers) were identified as potential barriers after a comprehensive literature review combined with expert consultations (Table 1). Table 3 presents the ranking of the barriers based on the CRITIC method. In light of this, equation (A2) was used to compute the barriers’ standard deviation. Also, the quantity of information (C_j) for each barrier was computed using equation (A4). Finally, equation (A5) was applied to determine each barrier's weight and rank the barriers afterwards.

Table 3.

Prioritised barriers to green hydrogen adoption in Ghana.

Barriers	Index	Stdeva	Cj	Weight	Rank
Lack of Infrastructure	B1	0.298	7.105	0.027	27
Lack of local expertise	B2	0.334	8.122	0.031	22
Intermittency of renewable energy sources	B3	0.278	7.705	0.029	23
Technology maturity	B4	0.396	9.524	0.036	12
Lack of local manufacturing	B5	0.289	7.634	0.029	24
Grid Integration	B6	0.326	8.464	0.032	17
Infrastructure costs	B7	0.334	8.127	0.031	21
Lack of credit facilities	B8	0.433	11.615	0.044	4
High capital investment	B9	0.377	10.010	0.038	10
Limited funding and financing options	B10	0.452	12.100	0.046	2
Uncertain ROI for investors	B11	0.289	7.467	0.028	25
High operational and maintenance costs	B12	0.289	6.794	0.026	28
Global supply chain dependencies	B13	0.433	10.426	0.040	9
Market development	B14	0.444	10.556	0.040	8
Supply chain vulnerabilities	B15	0.311	8.232	0.031	20
Lack of clear hydrogen regulations	B16	0.304	8.998	0.034	15
Inconsistent policies	B17	0.311	9.069	0.034	14
Limited incentives for green hydrogen	B18	0.332	8.274	0.031	18
Complex permitting processes	B19	0.369	9.242	0.035	13
Land requirement	B20	0.318	9.616	0.036	11
Water scarcity	B21	0.271	8.260	0.031	19
Public awareness	B22	0.388	11.738	0.045	3
Public acceptance	B23	0.389	11.216	0.043	5
Skilled workforce	B24	0.379	10.736	0.041	7
Political instability	B25	0.289	7.319	0.028	26
Bureaucracy and red tape	B26	0.322	8.859	0.034	16
Lack of government support	B27	0.396	11.198	0.043	6
International collaboration	B28	0.492	15.060	0.057	1

The barrier total weight is 1, as shown in Table 3. It can be seen that the weight distribution among the barriers is nearly equal to each other and also comparable to the average weight, as shown in Figure 3. For instance, the difference between the highest and lowest weights is about 0.031. The fact that the variation of weights among barriers is nearly equal suggests that experts consider the barriers identified as equally important. This implies that the experts are not heavily biased towards one specific barrier and are trying to strike a balance between various factors. The relatively small difference between the highest and lowest weights indicates that changes in the criteria's relative importance may not dramatically impact the overall decision. In some cases, this could be seen as a positive attribute, as minor adjustments to the criteria might not lead to significant shifts in the decision outcome.

Figure 3.

Distribution of weight among barriers.

It is worth mentioning again that the CRITIC method ranks the barriers based on their weight. The barriers descending order of rank is as follows: B28 > B10 > B22 > B8 > B23 > B27 > B24 > B14 > B13 > B9 > B20 > B4 > B19 > B17 > B16 > B26 > B6 > B18 > B21 > B15 > B7 > B2 > B3 > B5 > B11> B25 > B1 > B12. This ranking indicates that the top 10 barriers that could hinder the adoption and development of green hydrogen are lack of international collaboration (B28), limited funding and financing options (B10), public awareness (B22), lack of credit facilities (B8), public acceptance (B23), lack of government support (B27), skilled workforce (B24), market development (B14), global supply chain dependencies (B13), and high capital investment (B9).

Potential strategies to promote green hydrogen adoption and development in Ghana

This section discusses the results obtained from each MCDM method. Besides, it highlights the performance of each strategy based on the MCDM method applied. The optimisation outcome from the TOPSIS method is presented in Table 4. equation (A10) and equation (A11) were applied to compute the $S^{+}$ and $S^{-}$ scores. Thereafter, equation (A10) and equation (A11) were integrated into equation (A12) to determine the strategies’ performance scores in order to rank them. It can be observed in Table 4 that the performance score ( ${RC}_{i}$ ) among the strategies is very close. In fact, the difference between the highest and lowest performance scores is about 65%. However, the final ranking of the strategies is as follows: S1 > S2 > S6 > S7 > S10 > S5 > S3 > S4 > S12 > S8 > S9 > S11. The results indicate that S1 is the best strategy to be implemented first to accelerate green hydrogen adoption and development in Ghana.

Table 4.

Strategies ranking from the TOPSIS method.

Strategy	Index	$S^{+}$	$S^{-}$	RC_i	Rank
Infrastructure development	S1	0.020	0.030	0.605	1
Training local expertise	S2	0.020	0.025	0.554	2
Utilizing redundant energy	S3	0.025	0.022	0.468	7
Fossil fuel transition plan	S4	0.022	0.019	0.463	8
Technology advancement	S5	0.022	0.020	0.483	6
Incentives and incentive programmes	S6	0.020	0.023	0.535	3
Financial/funding support	S7	0.020	0.019	0.492	4
Regulatory clarity	S8	0.026	0.016	0.375	10
Public awareness campaigns	S9	0.030	0.014	0.318	11
Government support	S10	0.025	0.024	0.483	5
International collaboration	S11	0.030	0.014	0.308	12
Water management	S12	0.024	0.017	0.416	9

The optimisation outcome based on the EDAS method is presented in Table 5. Equation (A18) and equation (A19) were used to compute the SP_i and SN_i values, respectively. The SP_i and SN_i values were adopted in Equations (20) and (21) to estimate the NSP_i and NSN_i values, respectively. The performance score AS_i used to rank the strategies was estimated using equation (A22). The AS_i score indicates that the top five strategies are S1, S2, S6, S7, and S10. This result is consistent with the findings reported by TOPSIS.

Table 5.

Strategies ranking from the EDAS method.

Strategy	Index	SPi	SNi	NSPi	NSNi	ASi	Rank
Infrastructure development	S1	0.166	0.056	1.000	0.592	0.796	1
Training local expertise	S2	0.098	0.047	0.591	0.661	0.626	2
Utilising redundant energy	S3	0.086	0.093	0.518	0.322	0.420	8
Fossil fuel transition plan	S4	0.062	0.054	0.372	0.607	0.490	6
Technology advancement	S5	0.056	0.050	0.339	0.636	0.487	7
Incentives and incentive programmes	S6	0.099	0.058	0.601	0.580	0.590	3
Financial/funding support	S7	0.064	0.041	0.385	0.699	0.542	4
Regulatory clarity	S8	0.043	0.104	0.259	0.247	0.253	10
Public awareness campaigns	S9	0.045	0.131	0.274	0.048	0.161	11
Government support	S10	0.163	0.131	0.983	0.052	0.517	5
International collaboration	S11	0.035	0.138	0.209	0.000	0.104	12
Water management	S12	0.077	0.088	0.463	0.358	0.410	9

The performance of each strategy based on the MOORA method is presented in Table 6. The assessment score used to rank the strategies was estimated using equation (A14). The final ranking of the strategies is as follows: S1 > S2 > S6 > S10 > S7 > S4 > S5 > S3 > S12 > S8 > S9 >S11. The top five strategies obtained by MOORA are comparable to the ones obtained by TOPSIS and EDAS. The COPRAS method used equation (A25a) and equation (A25b) to determine $X^{+}$ and $X^{-}$ , respectively. After that, the performance score (Ui) was estimated using equation (A27). The highest possible Ui value is 100%. The results show that the final ranking of the strategies is summarised as S1 > S10 > S2 > S6 > S7 > S4 > S5 > S3 > S12 > S8 > S9 > S11 (Table 7). This implies that S1 ranks first among the other strategies.

Table 6.

Strategies ranking from the MOORA method.

Strategy	Index	Y_i	Rank
Infrastructure development	S1	−0.05343	1
Training local expertise	S2	−0.06986	2
Utilising reductant energy	S3	−0.08561	8
Fossil fuel transition plan	S4	−0.08142	6
Technology advancement	S5	−0.08191	7
Incentives and incentive programmes	S6	−0.07192	3
Financial/funding support	S7	−0.07735	5
Regulatory clarity	S8	−0.1001	10
Public awareness campaigns	S9	−0.10638	11
Government support	S10	−0.07356	4
International collaboration	S11	−0.11134	12
Water management	S12	−0.08637	9

Table 7.

Strategies ranking from the COPRAS method.

Strategy	Index	$X^{+}$	$X^{-}$	Q_i	U_i	Rank
Infrastructure development	S1	0.038	0.053	0.092	100	1
Training local expertise	S2	0.036	0.056	0.087	94.857	3
Utilising redundant energy	S3	0.034	0.058	0.083	89.883	8
Fossil fuel transition plan	S4	0.030	0.053	0.084	90.778	6
Technology advancement	S5	0.033	0.056	0.084	90.773	7
Incentives and incentive programmes	S6	0.035	0.055	0.086	93.934	4
Financial/funding support	S7	0.031	0.053	0.085	92.120	5
Regulatory clarity	S8	0.028	0.057	0.078	84.838	10
Public awareness campaigns	S9	0.023	0.054	0.076	82.331	11
Government support	S10	0.021	0.042	0.089	96.288	2
International collaboration	S11	0.024	0.056	0.074	80.892	12
Water management	S12	0.024	0.049	0.082	89.421	9

Validation of rankings

Figure 4 summarises the ranks obtained by each strategy based on the MCDM methods used. It can be noticed that some strategies’ ranks are similar to those of other MCDM methods and vary with other methods. For instance, S3 ranks seventh in the TOPSIS method but eighth in the other MCDM methods. Also, S5 ranks sixth in the TOPSIS method but seventh in the other methods. Likewise, S7 ranks fourth in TOPSIS and EDAS but fifth in MOORA and COPRAS. In this context, the study conducted statistical tests such as correlation coefficients and T-statistic to solve this inconsistency and validate the final ranks.

Figure 4.

Summary of strategies rankings from MCDM methods.

Table 8 presents the Spearman correlation coefficients and p-values for each pair of methods. It is worth mentioning that the p-values help determine whether the correlations are statistically significant. If the p-value is less than the chosen significance level (P < 0.05), the null hypothesis is rejected, concluding that there is a significant correlation between the methods. The T statistic measures the difference between sample means and how many standard errors are in that difference. A higher T-statistic indicates a more significant difference between the two data sets. On the other hand, the coefficient values reflect the degree of association or similarity between different pairs of methods. For example, a coefficie 0.972 between TOPSIS and MOORA suggests a strong positive correlation, indicating that these methods produce similar results.

Table 8.

Statistical test on the performance of MCDM methods.

MCDM methods	Coefficient	T-statistic
TOPSIS + MOORA	0.972	13.09
TOPSIS + EDAS	0.979	15.19
TOPSIS + COPRAS	0.937	8.49
MOORA + EDAS	0.993	26.60
MOORA + COPRAS	0.979	15.19
EDAS + COPRAS	0.958	10.57

The strong positive correlation between TOPSIS and MOORA suggests that these methods produce similar results. If one method yields favourable results, the other will likely do the same. Similarly, TOPSIS and EDAS also show a strong positive correlation, indicating their similarity in outcomes. Although MOORA and EDAS are positively correlated, the coefficient is slightly lower, suggesting a somewhat weaker relationship between these two methods than the previous pairs. The coefficient value between MOORA and EDAS implies a strong positive correlation, indicating that these methods yield similar results. MOORA and COPRAS also show a strong positive correlation, indicating their similarity in outcomes. Also, EDAS and COPRAS show a strong positive correlation, suggesting they produce similar results. All the p-values are very small, indicating strong evidence against the null hypothesis. This suggests that the differences between the methods are statistically significant, and the results are unlikely to be due to random chance.

It is worth noting that all the methods are highly correlated based on the coefficient values and p-values, and their differences are statistically significant. However, MOORA and EDAS have the highest coefficient values (0.993). This suggests that these two methods are the most similar in terms of the results they produce. Therefore, the findings from either MOORA or EDAS are validated at the optimal ranking for the strategies. In view of this, S1 > S2 > S6 > S10 > S7 > S4 > S5 > S3 > S12 > S8 > S9 >S11 is chosen as the best ranking for decision-making. This attests to the fact that infrastructure development (S1) has been identified as the most promising strategy for promoting Ghana's adoption of green hydrogen.

Infrastructure development is often the foundation for economic growth and improvement in the quality of life. Investments in green hydrogen infrastructure can stimulate Ghana's economic activity and create jobs. Also, developing green hydrogen infrastructure can help expand energy access, improve energy security, and reduce reliance on fossil fuels (Ashrust, 2023; Yohannes and Diedou, 2022). Similarly, infrastructure development could enable the establishment of a resilient hydrogen supply chain. This includes investing in hydrogen energy infrastructure, such as hydrogen production facilities and storage systems, and developing a comprehensive standards system for hydrogen technologies (Mneimneh et al., 2023). In addition, infrastructure development could facilitate the integration of green hydrogen into the transportation and shipping sectors by providing the necessary infrastructure for refuelling stations and hydrogen-powered vehicles (IEA, 2022).

In several regions, urban pilot projects deploying hydrogen-powered vehicles such as buses, taxis, and municipal fleets have served as practical demonstrations to emphasise the feasibility, reliability, and environmental benefits of hydrogen mobility. Countriea like South Korea, Japan, the United States of America and Germany have introduced limited-scale fleets in public transport systems, supported by visible refuelling infrastructure, to familiarise the public with the technology, reduce perceptions of risk, and highlight improvements in air quality and noise reduction. These initiatives often attract media attention, engage local stakeholders, and provide policymakers with concrete data on operational performance, costs, and maintenance requirements, thereby reducing uncertainty and fostering confidence in larger-scale rollouts. By involving transport authorities, technology providers, and community groups, such pilots create a coalition of support that strengthens the political will to invest in hydrogen infrastructure. For Ghana, implementing similar small-scale, high-visibility projects in urban centres like Accra or Kumasi could help bridge the gap between policy ambition and public acceptance. Demonstrating hydrogen-powered buses on high-traffic routes or integrating fuel cell vehicles into municipal services could not only build public awareness and trust but also provide valuable local performance data to inform regulations, investment decisions, and partnerships. Moreover, these pilots could position Ghana as a regional leader in clean transportation innovation, attracting international funding, fostering local technical expertise, and aligning with national goals for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and urban air pollution.

Integrating hydrogen-powered mobility into Ghana's national energy transition plan target of having over 70% of road vehicles powered by electricity and hydrogen by 2050 (Ghana Ministry of Energy, 2022) requires a coordinated approach that links infrastructure development with the transport sector. Lessons from European and Asian hydrogen strategies, as well as studies such as Turoń (2020) demonstrate that urban public transport and logistics provide a strategic entry point for hydrogen adoption, given their high visibility, structured operational patterns, and contribution to urban emissions. In Ghana, embedding hydrogen refuelling infrastructure within major urban corridors and transport hubs could not only facilitate the gradual integration of hydrogen buses, taxis, and delivery vehicles, but also support broader supply chain development for hydrogen production, storage, and distribution. This would require careful planning for fleet adaptation, including the retrofitting or phased replacement of internal combustion vehicles, investment in maintenance facilities and technician training, and alignment with urban mobility policies.

Hydrogen-powered vehicles can serve as highly visible symbols of decarbonisation, building societal awareness and public acceptance of clean energy technologies, an effect observed in South Korea, Japan, the United States of America and Germany. Moreover, coupling hydrogen transport initiatives with green hydrogen production from excess renewable energy could enhance system efficiency and energy security and reduce lifecycle emissions. Such an integrated approach would make the findings of hydrogen infrastructure planning more directly relevant to ministries responsible for transport, energy, and environment, as well as municipal agencies tasked with smart city development. In Ghana's context, this alignment could accelerate both the decarbonisation of the transport sector and the establishment of a domestic hydrogen economy, positioning the country as a regional leader in sustainable urban mobility.

In addition to broad regulatory clarity (S8) and increased government support (S10), the development of Ghana's hydrogen economy would greatly benefit from the introduction of sector-specific regulations tailored to the transport sector, where hydrogen adoption has the potential to reduce urban emissions and dependence on imported fossil fuels. This includes the establishment of clear, enforceable standards for hydrogen vehicle safety, comprising tank design, pressure tolerance, crash resilience, leak detection, and fire suppression systems, in line with internationally recognised benchmarks such as ISO 19880 for hydrogen refuelling stations (Schneider et al., 2016) and United Nations Economic Commission for Europe regulations for hydrogen-powered vehicless (United Nations, 2023). Equally important is the codification of refuelling protocols to ensure interoperability across infrastructure providers and vehicle manufacturers, thus preventing market fragmentation and ensuring public safety. Integrating hydrogen-powered buses and municipal service vehicles into public procurement frameworks can accelerate fleet transition, create initial demand certainty, and stimulate private sector investment in refuelling infrastructure.

Furthermore, introducing robust certification and licensing mechanisms for hydrogen-powered transport operators would ensure that only qualified service providers operate within the market, improving public confidence and mitigating early-stage operational risks. These targeted measures would create a regulatory bridge between upstream infrastructure development such as electrolyser deployment and refuelling stations, and downstream end-use sectors, enabling a coordinated, demand-driven rollout of hydrogen mobility solutions and ensuring that infrastructure investment is matched by safe, standardised, and reliable end-user adoption.

The findings of this study are comparable to those of similar studies reported across different regions of the world. For instance, identifying lack of international collaboration as the top-ranked barrier aligns closely with recent studies by Shahzad et al. (2026) and Algburi et al. (2025), who emphasised the critical role of international cooperation in overcoming green hydrogen deployment challenges. Similarly, Khasawneh et al. (2025) highlighted international partnerships for technology transfer and market access as essential strategies for Jordan's hydrogen development, reinforcing the global nature of hydrogen economy challenges. The significance of limited funding and financing options and lack of credit facilities in Ghana's context mirrors findings across other studies, including Bolz et al. (2024), who identified flaws in funding systems as primary barriers in Northern Germany, and Komorowski and Grzywacz (2024), who noted financing challenges as obstacles in African countries. This convergence suggests that financial constraints are a universal barrier surpassing geographical boundaries, though the specific manifestations may vary by region's economic development level. The ranking of public awareness and public acceptance barriers in Ghana resonates with Sahebi et al. (2025) findings in Mexico, where uncertainties regarding public acceptance were identified as critical social and policy issues, and Rawat et al. (2024) emphasis on low consumer awareness as a key barrier in India's hydrogen fuel vehicle adoption.

It is worth noting that this study's identification of infrastructure-related barriers, such as a limited skilled workforce, weak market development, and high capital investment, closely aligns with findings reported in international studies. For example, Dixit et al. (2024) identified technological immaturity and inadequate regulatory frameworks as foundational barriers in India's transportation sector, and Khasawneh et al. (2025) highlighted underdeveloped transport infrastructure and gaps in hydrogen storage infrastructure in Jordan. The consistency of infrastructure challenges across diverse geographical contexts from Ghana to Germany (Bolz et al., 2024), India (Rawat et al., 2024), and Algeria (Boudghene Stambouli et al., 2024) underlines the universal nature of these foundational requirements for hydrogen economy development. However, the specific infrastructure gaps vary by region, with Ghana's focus on general infrastructure development contrasting with more specialized concerns in developed economies like Germany's distribution infrastructure limitations.

The strategic prioritisation emerging from this study's MCDM analysis shows significant alignment with global best practices identified in literature. Infrastructure development ranking as the top strategy across all four MCDM methods strongly correlates with recommendations from multiple studies, including (Su et al., 2025) emphasis on infrastructure investments for China's green hydrogen scaling, and (Khasawneh et al., 2025) focus on infrastructure development in grid integration, desalination, and storage systems for Jordan. The second-ranked strategy of training local expertise directly addresses human capital development concerns raised by Bolz et al. (2024) regarding network building and stakeholder enhancement, and aligns with broader capacity-building recommendations found throughout the literature. Ranking of incentives and incentive programmes as the third-ranked strategy resonates with policy recommendations from Evro and Tomomewo (2025), who advocated for tiered subsidies and clear policy support, and Khasawneh et al. (2025) emphasised policy instruments including subsidies and investment guarantees.

Interestingly, though this study ranks international collaboration lowest among strategies, this apparent contradiction with the high ranking of lack of international collaboration as a barrier reflects a nuanced understanding of implementation priorities. The literature suggests that although international collaboration is crucial or long-term success, foundational domestic capabilities must be established first. This interpretation aligns with Dixit et al. (2024) recommendation to prioritise resolving foundational barriers to create positive cascading effects, and Boudghene Stambouli et al. (2024) emphasis on developing techno-economic foundations before widespread deployment.

Policy implications and recommendations

This section highlights the policy implications and recommendations proposed for policymakers, stakeholders, and investors to help develop Ghana's green hydrogen sector (Table 9). The strategic recommendations for green hydrogen development in Ghana can be explicitly linked to the country's existing policy frameworks and institutional structures, demonstrating strong alignment with current energy governance mechanisms. For instance, Ghana's National Energy Transition Framework, launched in 2023, provides the main policy framework for transitioning to cleaner energy sources (Ghana Ministry of Energy, 2022; Sefa-Nyarko, 2024). This directly supports recommendations for infrastructure development, fossil fuel transition planning, and government support strategies. Likewise, the Energy Commission of Ghana, which regulates and manages the development and utilisation of energy resources, has already developed the Ghana Renewable Energy Master Plan (Energy Commission, 2019) that aligns with recommendations for utilising renewable energy and training local expertise through its mandate to ensure affordable energy supplies are reliably and efficiently.

Table 9.

Proposed policy implications and recommendations for policymakers, stakeholders, and investors.

Ranking	Strategy	Policymakers	Stakeholders	Investors
1	Infrastructure development	Develop a comprehensive national plan for green hydrogen infrastructure, including production facilities, storage facilities, and distribution networks. Allocate funds for infrastructure development and create public-private partnership models to attract private investment.	Collaborate with policymakers to identify strategic locations for infrastructure development and provide technical expertise in designing and implementing projects.	Assess the potential return on investment and identify opportunities for financing infrastructure projects through various mechanisms, such as public-private partnerships, green bonds, or direct investment.
2	Training local expertise	Establish educational and vocational training programmes to develop a skilled workforce in green hydrogen technologies, including production, storage, and application.	Develop curricula and practical training programmes with industry experts and research institutions.	Support establishing training facilities and programmes through funding and partnerships with educational institutions.
3	Utilising reductant energy	Promote the development of renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydropower, to provide the energy required for green hydrogen production.	Invest in research and development of renewable energy technologies and explore innovative solutions for integrating renewable energy with green hydrogen production.	Identify and support viable renewable energy projects that can contribute to the production of green hydrogen.
4	Fossil fuel transition plan	Develop a comprehensive strategy for transitioning from fossil fuels to green hydrogen, including phasing out fossil fuel subsidies and providing incentives for adopting green hydrogen technologies.	Collaborate with policymakers to ensure a just and inclusive transition, considering the economic and social impacts on stakeholders.	Assess the risks and opportunities associated with the transition and adjust investment portfolios accordingly.
5	Technology advancement	Invest in research and development programmes focused on improving green hydrogen production technologies, reducing costs, and enhancing efficiency.	Collaborate on research projects, pilot studies, and technology demonstrations to drive innovation in green hydrogen technologies.	Support promising technology startups and research initiatives through venture capital or targeted funding programmes.
6	Incentives and incentive programmes	Develop incentive programmes, such as tax credits, subsidies, or feed-in tariffs, to encourage industries and consumers to adopt green hydrogen technologies.	Provide feedback on the design and implementation of incentive programmes to ensure they are effective and accessible.	Assess the potential impact of incentive programmes on the financial viability of green hydrogen projects and adjust investment strategies accordingly.
7	Financial/funding support	Allocate funds from the national budget and seek international financing mechanisms to support the development of the green hydrogen sector.	Develop financing instruments and mechanisms tailored to the specific needs of green hydrogen projects.	Explore various financing options to fund green hydrogen projects, including green bonds, project finance, and public-private partnerships.
8	Regulatory clarity	Develop a clear and consistent regulatory framework for the green hydrogen sector, addressing issues such as safety standards, permitting procedures, and market rules.	Provide input and feedback while developing regulations to ensure they are practical and investment-friendly.	Assess the regulatory sector's potential impact on green hydrogen projects’ viability and risk profiles.
9	Public awareness campaigns	Initiate public awareness campaigns to educate the general public about the benefits and applications of green hydrogen, addressing concerns and promoting acceptance.	Collaborate with policymakers to disseminate information and engage the public through various channels, such as social media, workshops, and community events.	Support public awareness campaigns as part of their corporate social responsibility initiatives and promote the adoption of green hydrogen technologies.
10	Government support	Demonstrate strong political commitment to developing the green hydrogen sector by allocating resources, implementing supportive policies, and promoting international cooperation.	Advocate for continued government support and highlight green hydrogen development's economic, environmental, and social benefits.	Engage with policymakers to provide insights and recommendations on creating an attractive investment environment for green hydrogen projects.
11	International collaboration	Engage in international cooperation and partnerships to share knowledge and best practices and leverage global expertise in green hydrogen technologies.	Participate in international research collaborations, knowledge-sharing platforms, and technology transfer initiatives.	Explore opportunities for cross-border investments and partnerships, leveraging the expertise and resources of international partners.
12	Water management	Develop strategies for sustainable water management, considering the water requirements for green hydrogen production and potential impacts on water resources.	Provide expertise and recommendations on water conservation, recycling, and minimising the environmental impact of green hydrogen production.	Assess the water-related risks and costs associated with green hydrogen projects and prioritise investments in water-efficient technologies and practices.

Similarly, the Ministry of Energy's recent approval of a $3.4 billion renewable energy programme (Antwi, 2025) shows institutional commitment to infrastructure development and financial support recommendations, as well as the Ministry's expressed policy to promote green hydrogen in the long term and encouragement of research institutions to engage in this area (Export Initiative, 2024) directly supports technology advancement and public awareness campaign strategies. The regulatory clarity recommendation finds a foundation in Ghana's existing energy regulatory framework, which is managed by the Energy Commission, which has established Power Purchase Agreements with distribution utilities, the Electricity Company of Ghana, and Northern Electricity Distribution Company for renewable energy integration. Current renewable energy projects, including solar PV plants by BXC Company Limited and VRA, demonstrate existing mechanisms for private sector engagement (Oduro et al., 2020) that support the recommendations for incentive programmes and stakeholder collaboration.

The “incentives and incentive programmes” recommendation for green hydrogen development aligns with the Ghana Investment Promotion Centre's (GIPC) core mandate and existing investment promotion framework. Under the GIPC Act 2013 (Act 865), the Centre is specifically responsible “to provide for the creation of an attractive incentive framework and a transparent, predictable and facilitating environment for investments in Ghana (GIPC, 2025) which perfectly supports the recommendation to develop incentive programmes such as tax credits, subsidies, or feed-in tariffs for green hydrogen technologies.

The water management strategy aligns with Ghana's broader environmental policies, and international collaboration recommendations are reinforced by Ghana's participation in global energy transition initiatives and partnerships with organisations like the European Union and German development agencies for green hydrogen project development. The recommended training and skills development initiatives can be delivered through Ghana's existing educational institutions and vocational programmes, utilising the Ministry of Education's technical and vocational education framework. It is noteworthy that achieving these strategies requires a collaborative effort among policymakers, stakeholders, and investors, as well as a long-term commitment to developing the green hydrogen sector in Ghana.

Conclusions

Green hydrogen energy is significant in decarbonising the hydrogen value chain from generation to usage. It can support regional sustainability and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. However, numerous barriers hinder its progress, and practical strategies are needed to overcome them. Ghana, like many other countries, has recognised the potential of this technology and is taking steps to explore its feasibility. Nevertheless, Ghana's situation in green hydrogen development might differ from other nations due to its unique circumstances and challenges. To address this challenge, this study systematically reviewed barriers and strategies suitable for developing Ghana's green hydrogen sector to transition to sustainable energy. Subsequently, multiple MCDM methods, including CRITIC, TOPSIS, EDAS, MOORA, and COPRAS, were applied to prioritise the barriers and strategies.

The results highlight Ghana's five most significant challenges to green hydrogen adoption: insufficient international collaboration, inadequate funding and financing mechanisms, low public awareness, limited access to credit facilities, and a lack of robust government backing. Conversely, the five key strategies identified to promote green hydrogen adoption include developing necessary infrastructure, building local expertise through training, implementing incentives and incentive programs, enhancing government involvement, and improving financial and funding opportunities. These results attest that promoting green hydrogen adoption for Ghana's energy transition requires a collaborative effort from policymakers, stakeholders, and investors. Several countries have already significantly developed green hydrogen energy in this context. For instance, Germany has been at the forefront of this effort, with its National Hydrogen Strategy aiming to establish a comprehensive green hydrogen industry (Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action (BMWK), 2023). The country has invested heavily in research and development, pilot projects, and international collaborations to accelerate the adoption of green hydrogen. Similarly, Japan has launched its Green Innovation Fund, which supports the development of green hydrogen technologies and aims to establish a global supply chain for hydrogen (METI, 2023). Australia, with its abundant renewable energy resources and proximity to potential export markets in Asia, has also positioned itself as a potential leader in green hydrogen production (COAG Energy Council Hydrogen Working Group, 2019).

Ghana's efforts in this area are still in their early stages. The country has recognised the potential of green hydrogen and has taken some initial steps to include it in its recently published national energy transition plan for 2050 and 2070. However, implementing concrete projects and developing a comprehensive strategy are still required to accelerate the country's adoption and development of green hydrogen. Despite the possible barriers, Ghana has several opportunities to capitalise on the potential of green hydrogen energy. The country's growing energy demand and commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and achieving sustainable development goals create a favourable environment for exploring green hydrogen solutions. This study's proposed policy implications and recommendations outline the importance of a holistic and integrated approach involving government policy, technological advancements, and societal engagement to overcome the barriers and unlock the immense potential of green hydrogen in the country's sustainable energy transition. The authors believe this research outcome will inform decision-makers, stakeholders, and investors in crafting effective strategies to accelerate Ghana's journey toward a greener, more sustainable energy future.

Future research could investigate using other MCDM methods, such as WASPAS, SAW, VIKOR, and PROMETHEE, to address some of the current methods’ limitations. This could also include sensitivity analyses to assess the robustness of the rankings. Furthermore, instead of a static approach, further studies can develop a dynamic model that can account for changes in barriers, strategies, and relationships over time. This could involve incorporating feedback loops and adaptability into the methodology. Furthermore, similar studies could be conducted in other regions, and findings could be compared to identify common or unique barriers and strategies. This could lead to the development of more generalisable frameworks or best practices.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Flavio Odoi-Yorke

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data availability statement

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Appendix A

References

Adalı

Işık

(2017) Critic and maut methods for the contract manufacturer selection problem. European Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies 5(1): 93.

Agyekum

Odoi-Yorke

Abbey

, et al. (2024) A review of the trends, evolution, and future research prospects of hydrogen fuel cells – A focus on vehicles. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 72: 918–939.

Ahakwa

Tackie

, et al. (2023) How crucial are natural resources in descending environmental degradation in Ghana? A novel dynamic ARDL simulation approach. Journal of Cleaner Production 420: 138427.

Akpahou

Odoi-Yorke

(2023) A multicriteria decision-making approach for prioritizing renewable energy resources for sustainable electricity generation in Benin. Cogent Engineering 10(1): 2204553.

Akpasi

Smarte Anekwe

Tetteh

, et al. (2025) Hydrogen as a clean energy carrier: Advancements, challenges, and its role in a sustainable energy future. Clean Energy 9(1): 52–88.

Algburi

Al-Dulaimi

Fakhruldeen

, et al. (2025) The green hydrogen role in the global energy transformations. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Transition 8: 100118.

Al-Ghussain

Ahmad

Abubaker

, et al. (2023) Corrigendum to “techno-economic feasibility of hybrid PV/wind/battery/thermal storage trigeneration system: Toward 100% energy independency and green hydrogen production” [Energy Reports, 9 (2023) 752–772/December, (S2352484722026312), (10.1016/j.egyr.202. In: Energy Reports, Vol. 10. Elsevier, 894. 10.1016/j.egyr.2023.07.034

Ali

Bennui

Chowdhury

, et al. (2022) Suitable site selection for solar-based green hydrogen in southern Thailand using GIS-MCDM approach. Sustainability 14(11): 6597.

Alshamsi

El-Kassabi

Serhani

, et al. (2023) A multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) approach for data-driven distance learning recommendations. Education and Information Technologies 28(8): 10421–10458.

10.

Alsunousi

Kayabasi

(2024) The role of hydrogen in synthetic fuel production strategies. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 54: 1169–1178.

11.

Amini Horri

Ozcan

(2024) Green hydrogen production by water electrolysis: Current status and challenges. Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 47: 100932.

12.

Angula

(2023) Namibia Signs $10 Billion Green Energy Deal With Germany’s Hyphen. https://www.voanews.com/a/namibia-signs-10-billion-green-energy-deal-with-germany-s-hyphen-/7118163.html

13.

Antwi

(2025) Government approves $3.4 Billion renewable Energy Program. https://ghanaguardian.com/government-approves-3-4-billion-renewable-energy-program

14.

Arcos

JMM

Santos

DMF

(2023) The hydrogen color Spectrum: Techno-economic analysis of the available technologies for hydrogen production. Gases 3(1): 25–46.

15.

Asare-Addo

(2023) Green hydrogen potential assessment in Ghana: Application of PEM electrolysis process and geospatial-multi-criteria approach. International Journal of Sustainable Energy 42(1): 1202–1225.

16.

Ashrust . (2023) Exploring the Opportunity for Green Hydrogen Production in Africa. https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=a0379c68-21bd-460f-9f1c-917d2458a1e2

17.

Bolz

Thiele

Wendler

(2024) Regional capabilities and hydrogen adoption barriers. Energy Policy 185: 113934.

18.

Boudghene Stambouli

Kitamura

Benmessaoud

, et al. (2024) Algeria’s journey towards a green hydrogen future: Strategies for renewable energy integration and climate commitments. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 58: 753–763.

19.

Chakraborty

Datta

Kalita

, et al. (2023) A narrative review of multi-objective optimization on the basis of ratio analysis (MOORA) method in decision making. OPSEARCH. 10.1007/s12597-023-00676-7.

20.

Chowdhury

Das

Yeassin

, et al. (2025) Exploring the potential of solar and wind-powered green hydrogen: Production, costs and environmental impacts in South Asia. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 137: 288–302.

21.

Cinelli

Kadziński

Gonzalez

, et al. (2020) How to support the application of multiple criteria decision analysis? Let us start with a comprehensive taxonomy. Omega 96. 10.1016/j.omega.2020.102261.

22.

COAG Energy Council Hydrogen Working Group . (2019) Australia’s National Hydrogen Strategy .

23.

De Tommasi

Lyons

(2022) Towards the integration of flexible green hydrogen demand and production in Ireland: Opportunities, barriers, and recommendations. Energies 16(1): 352.

24.

Diakoulaki

Mavrotas

Papayannakis

(1995) Determining objective weights in multiple criteria problems: The critic method. Computers and Operations Research 22(7): 763–770.

25.

Dickie

Wardell

(2023) Africa presents challenges, solutions in clean energy transition. September. https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/climate-energy/reuters-impact-africa-presents-challenges-solutions-clean-energy-transition-2023-09-07/

26.

Dixit

Ashok

Harshavardhan

, et al. (2024) Barriers for adoption of green hydrogen in Indian transportation sector: A fuzzy ISM approach. E3S Web of Conferences 559: 03011.

27.

Elegbeleye

Oguntona

Elegbeleye

(2025) Green hydrogen: Pathway to net zero Green House gas emission and global climate change mitigation. Hydrogen 6(2): 29.

28.

Energy Commission . (2019) Ghana renewable energy masterplan. https://www.energycom.gov.gh/files/Renewable-Energy-Masterplan-February-2019.pdf

29.

Evro

Tomomewo

(2025) Green hydrogen integration in distributed energy systems: A comprehensive techno-economic and policy analysis. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 148: 149895.

30.

Export Initiative . (2024) AHK Ghana H2. https://www.exportinitiative-umweltschutz.de/en/projects/ahk-ghana-h2/

31.

Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action (BMWK) . (2023) National Hydrogen Strategy Update—Germany .

32.

Fotsing Metegam

(2025) Monte carlo and fuzzy AHP with GIS for ranking hybrid solar-wind sites for electricity and hydrogen production in Cameroon. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 106: 741–766.

33.

Fragapane

Wan

Ortiz

, et al. (2024) Impact of hydrogen integration and implementation on costs in glass production. Procedia CIRP 130: 1776–1783.

34.

Ghana Ministry of Energy . (2022) Ghana’s Energy Transition Framework. https://www.energymin.gov.gh/sites/default/files/2023-09/FINAL%20GHANA%27S%20NATIONAL%20ENERGY%20TRANSITION%20FRAMEWORK_2023_compressed%20%281%29_compressed%20%282%29.pdf

35.

GIPC . (2025) The Ghana Investment Promotion Centre (GIPC). https://gipc.gov.gh/about-gipc/

36.

Haddad

Sanders

(2018) Selection of discrete multiple criteria decision making methods in the presence of risk and uncertainty. Operations Research Perspectives 5: 357–370.

37.

Han

Alkhawaji

Shafieezadeh

(2025) Evaluating sustainable water management strategies using TOPSIS and fuzzy TOPSIS methods. Applied Water Science 15(1): 4.

38.

Hosseini Dehshiri

Mostafaeipour

Amiri

(2025) Assessing hydrogen storage challenges based on circular economy through comparative decision-making methods under uncertainty. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 138: 914–927.

39.

IEA . (2022) Hydrogen Industry Development Plan (2021-2035). https://www.iea.org/policies/16977-hydrogen-industry-development-plan-2021-2035

40.

Karande

Chakraborty

(2012) Application of multi-objective optimization on the basis of ratio analysis (MOORA) method for materials selection. Materials & Design 37: 317–324.

41.

Khasawneh

Maaitah

AlShdaifat

(2025) Green hydrogen in Jordan: Stakeholder perspectives on technological, infrastructure, and economic barriers. Energies 18(15): 3929.

42.

Komorowski

Grzywacz

(2024) Green hydrogen in Africa: Opportunities and limitations. Journal of Management and Financial Sciences 50: 61–79.

43.

Krishnan

Kasim

Hamid

, et al. (2021) A modified CRITIC method to estimate the objective weights of decision criteria. Symmetry 13(6). 10.3390/sym13060973.

44.

Lahnaoui

Aniello

Barberis

, et al. (2025) Assessing the feasibility of a green hydrogen economy in selected African regions with composite indicators. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 101: 1387–1405.

45.

León

Silva

Ortiz-Soto

, et al. (2023) A techno-economic study for off-grid green hydrogen production plants: The case of Chile. Energies 16(14): 5327.

46.

Liang

Ren

Gao

, et al. (2023) Comparison of different multicriteria decision-making methodologies for sustainability decision making⋆. In: Scipioni

Manzardo

Ren

(eds) Hydrogen Economy. Academic Press, 233–271. 10.1016/B978-0-323-99514-6.00001-7

47.

Mensah

Opoku

Teye

, et al. (2025) Investigating green hydrogen production operated by redundant energy on a solar PV mini-grid through matlab simulation and artificial neural network. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 141: 474–486.

48.

METI . (2023) Green Innovation Fund. https://www.meti.go.jp/english/policy/energy_environment/global_warming/gifund/index.html

49.

Mneimneh

Ghazzawi

Abu Hejjeh

, et al. (2023) Roadmap to achieving sustainable development via green hydrogen. Energies 16(3). 10.3390/en16031368.

50.

Müller

Leonard

Trotter

, et al. (2023) Green hydrogen production and use in low-and middle-income countries: A least-cost geospatial modelling approach applied to Kenya. Applied Energy 343: 121219.

51.

Odoi-Yorke

Abbey

Atepor

, et al. (2022a) A decision support system for evaluating cooking fuels for sustainable development in Ghana. In: Mojekwu

Thwala

Aigbavboa

Bamfo-Agyei

Atepor

Oppong

(eds) Sustainable Education and Development – Making Cities and Human Settlements Inclusive, Safe, Resilient, and Sustainable. Springer International Publishing, 452–467. 10.1007/978-3-030-90973-4_38

52.

Odoi-Yorke

Abbey

Kaku

, et al. (2024) Evaluating the economic viability of decentralised solar PV-based green hydrogen for cooking in Ghana. Solar Compass 11: 100078.

53.

Odoi-Yorke

Abofra

Kemausuor

(2022b) Decision-Making approach for evaluating suitable hybrid renewable energy system for SMEs in Ghana. International Journal of Ambient Energy: 1–18. 10.1080/01430750.2022.2068068.

54.

Odoi-Yorke

Agyekum

Adegboye

, et al. (2025) Exploring the potential of solar photovoltaic and wind-based green hydrogen projects in ECOWAS region: Production, cost, and environmental maps. Energy Exploration & Exploitation 43(5): 2041–2073.

55.

Odoi-Yorke

Atepor

Abbey

(2022c) A multicriteria decision making approach for evaluating crop residues for sustainable briquette production in Ghana. In: Mojekwu

Thwala

Aigbavboa

Bamfo-Agyei

Atepor

Oppong

(eds) Sustainable Education and Development – Making Cities and Human Settlements Inclusive, Safe, Resilient, and Sustainable. Springer International Publishing, 193–205. 10.1007/978-3-030-90973-4_16

56.

Oduro

Gyamfi

Asumadu Sarkodie

, et al. (2020) Evaluating the success of renewable energy and energy efficiency policies in Ghana: Matching the policy objectives against policy instruments and outcomes. In: Al Qubeissi

El-kharouf

Serhad Soyhan

(eds) Renewable Energy—Resources, Challenges and Applications. IntechOpen. 10.5772/intechopen.88278

57.

Osei

Odoi-Yorke

Opoku

, et al. (2024) Techno-economic viability of decentralised solar photovoltaic-based green hydrogen production for sustainable energy transition in Ghana. Solar Compass 9: 100068.

58.

Pagani

Hajimolana

Acar

(2024) Green hydrogen for ammonia production – A case for The Netherlands. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 52: 418–432.

59.

Patil

Patole

Jadhav

, et al. (2022) Complex proportional assessment (COPRAS) based multiple-criteria decision making (MCDM) paradigm for hard turning process parameters. Materials Today: Proceedings 59: 835–840.

60.

Phan

Nguyen

(2022) Evaluation based on the distance from the average solution approach: A derivative model for evaluating and selecting a construction manager. Technologies 10(5). 10.3390/technologies10050107.

61.

Rawat

Garg

Sinha

(2024) Analysis of the key hydrogen fuel vehicles adoption barriers to reduce carbon emissions under net zero target in emerging market. Energy Policy 184: 113847.

62.

Rekik

El Alimi

(2024) A spatial ranking of optimal sites for solar-driven green hydrogen production using GIS and multi-criteria decision-making approach: A case of Tunisia. Energy Exploration & Exploitation 42(6): 2150–2190.

63.

Risco-Bravo

Varela

Bartels

, et al. (2024) From green hydrogen to electricity: A review on recent advances, challenges, and opportunities on power-to-hydrogen-to-power systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 189: 113930.

64.

Sahebi

Masoomi

Gholian-Jouybari

, et al. (2025) Overcoming challenges in the path to a hydrogen economy for energy supply chain transition. Applied Energy 393: 126084.

65.

Schneider

Dang-Nhu

Hart

(2016) ISO 19880-1, Hydrogen fueling station and vehicle interface technical specification. ECS Transactions 71(1): 155–172.

66.

Sefa-Nyarko

(2024) Ghana’s national energy transition framework: Domestic aspirations and mistrust in international relations complicate ‘justice and equity.’. Energy Research & Social Science 110: 103465.

67.

Shahzad

Alrumayh

Almutairi

, et al. (2026) Green hydrogen: A review of technological innovations, economic viability, and global prospects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 225: 116162.

68.

Shen

Zhang

Tian

, et al. (2024) The role of hydrogen in iron and steel production: Development trends, decarbonization potentials, and economic impacts. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 92: 1409–1422.

69.

Singh

Pathak

Kumar

, et al. (2024) A historical review and analysis on MOORA and its fuzzy extensions for different applications. Heliyon 10(3): e25453.

70.

Xiao

Hamza

, et al. (2025) Scaling up green hydrogen in China: Economic opportunities and challenges. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 131: 60–69.

71.

Szablowski

Wojcik

Dybinski

(2025) Review of steam methane reforming as a method of hydrogen production. Energy 316: 134540.

72.

Tanyi

Mensah

Ntiamoah

, et al. (2024) Techno-economic assessment of hydrogen production in Ghana through PV electrolysis and biomass gasification. Oxford Open Energy 3: oiae014.

73.

Taoufik

Fekri

(2023) A GIS-based multi-criteria decision-making approach for site suitability analysis of solar-powered hydrogen production in the Souss-Massa Region, Morocco. Renewable Energy Focus 46: 385–401.

74.

Thakkar

(2021) Multi-objective optimization on the basis of ratio analysis method (MOORA). In: Thakkar

(eds) Multi-Criteria Decision Making. Springer Singapore, 191–198. 10.1007/978-981-33-4745-8_11

75.

Thekkethil

Ananthakumar

Kumar

, et al. (2024) Green hydrogen hubs in India: A first order analytical hierarchy process for site selection across states. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 63: 767–774.

76.

Torkayesh

Deveci

Karagoz

, et al. (2023) A state-of-the-art survey of evaluation based on distance from average solution (EDAS): Developments and applications. Expert Systems with Applications 221: 119724.

77.

Trivedi

Gharib

(2023) Analyzing the roadblocks of green hydrogen energy deployment: DEMATEL-based approach. E3S Web of Conferences 455: 02015.

78.

Turoń

(2020) Hydrogen-powered vehicles in urban transport systems – current state and development. Transportation Research Procedia 45: 835–841.

79.

United Nations . (2023) Amendment 1 to UN Global Technical Regulation No. 13, Phase 2 (Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Vehicles). https://unece.org/sites/default/files/2023-07/ECE-TRANS-180-Add.13-Amend1e.pdf

80.

Uzun

Taiwo

Syidanova

, et al. (2021) The technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS). In: Uzun Ozsahin

Gökçekuş

Uzun

LaMoreaux

(eds) Application of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis in Environmental and Civil Engineering. Springer International Publishing, 25–30. 10.1007/978-3-030-64765-0_4

81.

Vives

AMV

Wang

Roy

, et al. (2023) Techno-economic analysis of large-scale green hydrogen production and storage. Applied Energy 346: 121333.

82.

Winkler

Heinrichs

Ishmam

, et al. (2025) Participatory mapping of local green hydrogen cost-potentials in Sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 112: 289–321.

83.

Yohannes

Diedou

(2022) Green hydrogen: A viable option for transforming Africa’s energy sector. https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/july-2022/green-hydrogen-viable-option-transforming-africas-energy-sector

84.

Zhang

Gao

Wei

, et al. (2019) Evaluation Based on Distance from Average Solution Method for Multiple Criteria Group Decision Making under Picture 2-Tuple Linguistic Environment. Mathematics 7(3). 10.3390/math7030243.

Empowering Ghana's green hydrogen future: Innovative strategies to overcome barriers and drive sustainable energy transition

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Research methodology

Data collection

Multicriteria decision-making (MCDM) methods

CRITIC method

TOPSIS method

MOORA method

EDAS method

COPRAS method

Spearman correlation coefficient, t-statistic test, and p-value

Results and discussions

Potential barriers to hinder green hydrogen adoption and development in Ghana

Potential strategies to promote green hydrogen adoption and development in Ghana

Validation of rankings

Policy implications and recommendations

Conclusions

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Funding

Declaration of conflicting interests

Data availability statement

Appendix A

References