Abstract
This study explores the career choices of educational science majors from University B, a distinguished university in Northern China, by analyzing data from 2012 to 2019. It focuses on sustainability and uncovers significant insights regarding the career paths of these graduates. The research demonstrates shifts in career preferences among master's degree holders in educational fields during the mentioned timeframe and emphasizes the variances in career choices based on different graduate attributes. Moreover, the paper examines the proportion of master's degree holders in educational fields enrolling in various programs, taking into account their distinct characteristics, and the elements that affect their choice of employment. It also identifies the patterns of job mobility for these graduates within the 2012–2019 period, investigates how job mobility patterns differ among master's degree holders in education based on their unique characteristics, and looks into how the choice of employment location correlates with the disparity in average wages from their hometowns. In conclusion, the study investigates the determinants of job mobility among master's degree holders in the education sector.
Keywords
Introduction
One of UNESCO's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), SDG No. 8, seeks to “promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all” (Lee and Kjaerulf et al., 2016), which is a key component of the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. This goal is underpinned by various specific targets that address a range of issues, including the promotion of sustainable economic growth, the development of productive activities, the provision of decent work opportunities, and the eradication of forced labor, human trafficking, and child labor (Biswas et al., 2021). The quality of students’ employment is crucial to achieving SDG 8, in that high-quality employment opportunities for graduates not only contribute to individual well-being and social mobility but also play a significant role in driving economic growth and innovation (World, 2018). Ensuring that students secure decent work enables them to utilize their skills and knowledge effectively, fostering a skilled and innovative workforce that can adapt to the evolving needs of the global economy. Moreover, the provision of quality employment opportunities is essential for reducing poverty, enhancing social inclusion, and promoting gender equality, all of which are vital components of sustainable development (Kuhn et al., 2018), hence paving the way for a more inclusive, equitable, and sustainable global economy.
Investigating master's graduates’ employment destinations and influencing factors is critical in achieving UNESCO's SDG 8, as research in this area can provide invaluable insights into the role of higher education institutions in preparing students for a dynamic labor market, ensuring that graduates possess the skills and competencies demanded by various industries (World, 2018). By examining the factors that influence employment outcomes, relevant research can highlight potential disparities in accessing decent work and contribute to the development of targeted interventions and policies that foster social equity and inclusiveness in the labor market (Carnevale et al., 2013). A thorough understanding of the employment trajectories of master's graduates can help guide investments in education and training, enabling the workforce to adapt to the evolving economic, social, and environmental challenges, and contribute to sustainable economic growth in line with SDG 8 (Zinkunegi-Goitia & Rekalde-Rodríguez, 2022).
In the context of social sustainability, China highly valued graduate students’ employment. The nation's rapid economic growth and transition towards a knowledge-based economy has resulted in a burgeoning demand for highly skilled professionals, with graduate students representing a significant proportion of this human capital. Ensuring their successful integration into the workforce is essential not only for maintaining the country's global competitiveness, but also for fostering a more equitable, inclusive, and cohesive society. As higher education institutions in China continue to expand their enrollment, the country faces the challenge of balancing the supply of graduate students with the availability of suitable job opportunities. Failure to address this issue may lead to an oversupply of qualified individuals, which could exacerbate social stratification, underemployment, and income inequality. Thus, the promotion of gainful employment for graduate students must be considered a key component of China's social sustainability strategy, with the potential to positively impact long-term societal stability and cohesion.
In recent years, the scale of master's graduates at Chinese universities has expanded rapidly. Master's students serve as a crucial link between undergraduate and doctoral education within the higher education system, and they are important carriers of human capital. Their post-graduation destinations have a significant impact on the development of higher education in our country, as well as the migration of human capital across industries and regions. Compared to undergraduates, the training of graduate students exhibits more pronounced disciplinary differences, aiming to cultivate research-oriented and application-oriented talents suited for specific fields or industries. Consequently, the post-graduation destinations of master's students exhibit evident disciplinary differences, and analyzing the employment status of master's graduates by discipline is of significant importance.
Figure 1 presents the trends in the scale of master's graduates in the educational discipline in our country and their proportion of the total graduate population. As shown in Figure 1, from 2011 to 2019, the number of master's graduates in the educational discipline exhibited a year-on-year increase, particularly during the periods of 2011–2014 and 2016–2019, during which the growth was rapid. Furthermore, the proportion of master's graduates in the educational discipline among the total number of master's graduates also showed a year-on-year increase, indicating increasingly fierce competition in the employment market for these graduates. There are likely two primary reasons for this phenomenon: first, graduates in the educational discipline often engage in work in the education sector, predominantly as primary and secondary school teachers. However, undergraduate students in this discipline lack the cultivation of subject-specific skills, rendering them less competitive against students with foundational discipline backgrounds for teaching positions, which leads many educational discipline undergraduates to pursue further studies at the master's level. Second, numerous undergraduates majoring in foundational disciplines or others who intend to enter the education sector may choose to pursue a master's degree in education to enhance their employment prospects. In recent years, with the expansion of professional master's programs, many undergraduates with three years of work experience have opted to pursue a master's degree. Considering these factors, the number of master's graduates in the educational discipline has increased annually, and the competition has become increasingly fierce. Against this backdrop, this study attempts to answer very important questions, such as where educational discipline master's students seek employment after graduation? What changes have occurred in their post-graduation choices?
Change in the size of China’s master graduates in the education major from 2011 to 2019.
This study takes the 2011–2019 cohorts of master's graduates in the educational discipline from a “double first-class” university in Beijing as a case study to analyze the characteristics and changes in their post-graduation destinations over the nine-year period, and investigate the influencing factors on their employment choices. The “Double First-Class” initiative focuses on two main aspects: first-class universities: the project aims to cultivate a number of universities to become world-class institutions. These selected universities are expected to lead in innovation, serve as hubs for cutting-edge research, and foster high-quality talent that can compete on a global scale. First-class disciplines: in addition to developing top-tier universities, the initiative also targets the enhancement of specific disciplines within these and other institutions. The goal is to elevate the quality and standing of these disciplines to a world-class level, promoting significant advancements in research and education within specialized fields. In a word, double first-class universities stand at the top of China's higher education pyramid in terms of reputation and quality.
Graduates’ Employment Choices: A Literature Review
Human Capital Theory-Based Employment Choices
Human capital theory offers a general explanation of the relationship between education and the labor market. Similar to other investments, individuals must assess the return on investment for education and training. The human capital theory posits a series of causal relationships between human capital and investment returns, including investments in education and training, skill development, productivity enhancement, and employability improvement (Otero, 2007). Employability, on a micro level, can refer to better job opportunities and higher income levels.
In studies concerning the relationship between human capital and the employability of university graduates, scholars use multiple indicators to measure graduates’ human capital. Due to variations in indicator selection and sample analysis, the conclusions drawn are not entirely consistent. Yue conducted an early comprehensive examination of the impact of various human capital indicators on the successful employment of Chinese undergraduate graduates. The selected indicators included academic performance, scholarships, English proficiency certificates (CET-4 and CET-6), political affiliations, minors or dual degrees, and work or internship experience. The results showed that all selected indicators significantly and positively affected graduate employability. In research on the factors influencing master's graduates’ employability, similar indicators are often used to measure their human capital (Yue et al., 2004). Liu and Su analyzed education master's graduates and discovered that political affiliations had a significant impact on their employment outcomes, particularly for the majority of students who pursued careers as student counselors (Liu & Su, 2010).
From the perspectives of academic integration and social integration, factors influencing master's graduates’ starting salaries were analyzed. Academic integration was measured using course academic rigor, research funding, frequency of communication with advisors, and the number of published papers, while social integration was measured using participation in international activities, utilization of employment information, and teamwork skills. The results showed that all the aforementioned indicators had a significant positive impact on the starting salaries of graduates (Yu et al., 2018).
In this study, academic levels, political affiliations, and student leadership experience were primarily selected as proxy variables for master's graduates’ human capital. Scholarship levels are related to academic performance, research publications, and social practice during the master's program, reflecting the overall quality of master's graduates. Political affiliations are mainly measured by whether an individual is a member of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). In preferred institutions for education master's graduates, such as party and government agencies and public institutions, most organizations have explicit requirements for CCP membership. Thus, party membership serves as a threshold condition for many master's graduates when job-seeking and can be analyzed as a human capital indicator to understand its impact on graduates’ employment choices. Student leadership experience can act as a proxy indicator for master's graduates’ management, collaboration, and practical abilities, influencing their employment choices.
Social Capital Theory-Based Employment Choices
Since Bourdieu first proposed the concept of “social capital” in 1986, the theory of social capital has matured and its theoretical boundaries have expanded. It has been widely applied in various academic fields such as sociology, economics, political science, and education. In the context of mass higher education and the employment difficulties faced by college graduates, many domestic and international studies have focused on the employment issue of college graduates, using social capital theory as an essential theoretical perspective to explain the causes of graduates’ employment choices and behaviors, and providing a sociological theoretical foundation with strong explanatory power for graduate employment research. Social capital has a rich connotation, and therefore, when studying social capital in graduate employment, different perspectives have emerged. Chinese scholar Zhong summarized the core elements of graduates’ employment social capital in the discussion on college students’ employment social capital as social relations, social resources, and functions. Social relations refer to the carrier of the generation, maintenance, and application of social capital (Zhong, 2018). Zhao believed that college students’ employment social capital is a network of interpersonal relationships formed by social individuals based on status, occupation, and personal preferences. Social resources focus more on the “content” carried by social relations. Actors invest in social relation networks, hoping to extract social resources that can be rewarded in the market or social structure (Zhao, 2005).
According to the construction source of college graduates’ social relations, they can be divided into endowment-type social capital and acquired-type social capital. The former is mainly obtained through graduates’ family background, mainly referring to the social relation network established and accumulated by parents and the social resources embedded therein. The latter is the social relation network formed by graduates during their studies, such as tutors, fellow students, classmates, and so on, and the social resources they provide. In research, occupations are often used as a measurement indicator of family social capital. The better and higher the level of parents’ occupations, the more social power and social resources they may possess, and the easier it may be for their children to find employment (Chen, 2005). This result has been supported by empirical evidence, especially in the context of China's relationship-oriented background, where family background has a positive effect on the employment quality of undergraduates. As the level of education increases, the social relation network accumulated by graduates gradually replaces the family social capital constituted by parents and relatives. This is especially true for doctoral students when they aim for academic careers; strong relationships between teachers and students within homogeneous groups can provide graduates with instrumental information and substantial assistance (Wang, 2020). Existing studies have used network scale, network differences, and network top to measure graduates’ social network resources and found that they have a significant positive impact on employment choices and employment quality (Gong & Zhang, 2021).
Sustainable Growth-Based Employment Choices
Sustainable growth-based employment choices have emerged as a topic of growing interest in the literature, as researchers and policymakers increasingly recognize the importance of aligning economic growth with environmental and social objectives (Jackson, 2016). Studies have shown that the transition to a green economy can create a substantial number of new jobs, particularly in sectors such as renewable energy, energy efficiency, and waste management (Renner et al., 2008). However, this shift also has implications for the skills and competencies required by the workforce, necessitating investments in education and training to ensure that workers are equipped to meet the demands of the evolving labor market. In addition to environmental sustainability, the literature has also explored the role of social sustainability in shaping employment choices. The notion of “decent work,” as promoted by the International Labour Organization (ILO), emphasizes the importance of providing workers with stable and productive employment that ensures fair income, social protection, and opportunities for personal development and social integration (Somavia, 1999). Research has demonstrated that decent work is not only critical for individual well-being and social cohesion but also contributes to sustainable economic growth by fostering a motivated and engaged workforce (Ghai, 2003).
This study uses prefecture-level cities as the basic unit of analysis, focusing on the employment mobility of master's graduates in the field of education. Based on the graduates’ city of origin and their city of employment, we will categorize their employment mobility into three types: immobility, inter-city mobility within the same province, and inter-provincial mobility. In terms of the factors influencing the employment mobility of master's graduates, considering that the study focuses on graduates’ initial employment and that they may lack comprehensive knowledge about the public service facilities and conditions of cities, we will employ the average wage difference between the city of employment and the city of origin as an indicator to measure income disparity.
Method
Data Collection
The data for this study is derived from the employment statistics of master's graduates in the educational discipline from a “double first-class” university in Beijing, University B (hereafter), spanning the years 2012–2019. In the realm of educational research, the employment data of students in the field of Education gathered from University B possesses a strong degree of representativeness across China. As one of the most prestigious institutions in the country, University B has a long-standing tradition of excellence in the field of Education, stemming from its origins as a teacher training institution in the early twentieth century. Consequently, the university attracts a diverse and talented pool of students from various regions of China, who, upon graduation, tend to pursue careers in a wide range of educational settings, including academia, policymaking, and administration. This breadth of geographic and professional diversity amongst University B's student population, combined with the university's rigorous academic standards and commitment to producing well-rounded graduates, ensures that the employment data collected from its education students can be considered a reliable and comprehensive representation of the larger Chinese educational landscape. Furthermore, the prominence of this university's education programs within the national context lends additional weight to the significance of its graduates’ employment outcomes, making it a valuable reference point for researchers, policymakers, and other stakeholders seeking to understand and address the challenges and opportunities facing China's educational sector.
In recent years, University B has been diligently working towards the attainment of SDG 8 of UNESCO, which focuses on promoting sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all. The university's efforts can be observed through various initiatives and programs that support entrepreneurship, research, and innovation in the fields of sustainable development and economics. It actively supports entrepreneurship and innovation among its students and faculty. Through various programs and initiatives, the university encourages the creation of start-ups and social enterprises that address social and environmental challenges while generating employment opportunities. By nurturing a spirit of innovation and entrepreneurship, University B helps create new avenues for sustainable economic growth and job creation. It also emphasizes the development of skills that cater to the needs of the modern labor market, including those related to sustainable development and green technologies. The university offers specialized courses and degree programs that prepare students for careers in fields such as renewable energy, environmental management, and sustainable agriculture. This focus on skill development not only improves the employability of University B's graduates but also contributes to the creation of a workforce that is equipped to tackle the challenges of sustainable development.
As a professional in the student management department, the first author of this study has been committed to the front line of student management to student management affairs all the year round, with rich experience in student management and convenient conditions for data collection. The author has had 13 years of experience in student management since 2010. Therefore, the first-hand data about students’ employment for many years have been collected over the years. The employment statistics were matched with the students’ basic information, resulting in a total of 2700 valid samples.
In addition, some supplementary data are also collected from some other public sources. The average wage data for employed individuals in prefecture-level cities from 2011 to 2019, for example, is sourced from the “China Urban Statistical Yearbook.”
Data Analysis
This study employs both descriptive statistics and inferential statistics to explore the research questions. In the field of statistics, descriptive statistics, as a fundamental aspect of data analysis, entails the summarization, organization, and presentation of quantitative information to facilitate a clear and concise understanding of a given dataset. By utilizing these measures, descriptive statistics allow researchers to create a coherent and accessible overview of the data (Tabachnick and Fidell et al., 2013).
Employing descriptive statistics in presenting the overall landscape of student employment is particularly valuable, as it offers a straightforward and efficient way to communicate essential information about the employment landscape to various stakeholders, such as educational institutions, policymakers, and students themselves. Through the use of descriptive measures, researchers can effectively convey key aspects of student employment, such as the distribution of job sectors, the average starting salary, and the proportion of graduates employed within a certain timeframe after graduation. By providing a clear snapshot of the current state of student employment, descriptive statistics enable stakeholders to identify trends, detect potential areas of concern, and make informed decisions to enhance the employability of graduates, ultimately contributing to the overall well-being of the student population and the labor market at large.
Regarding inferential statistics, which involves drawing conclusions about a population based on a sample drawn from that population (Tabachnick et al., 2013), the study employs the chi-square test, or χ² test, and logistic regression for the analysis. The χ² test is a widely employed non-parametric method used to determine the association between two categorical variables within a contingency table. The test compares the observed frequencies of the categories to the frequencies that would be expected under the assumption of independence, allowing researchers to assess whether the observed data deviate significantly from this expectation (Leech et al., 2014).
The χ² test is particularly suited for measuring differences in student employment preferences, as it provides a means to identify the presence of underlying relationships between categorical variables, such as the students’ field of study and their preferred job sectors. By comparing the distribution of observed frequencies in the employment preferences of students from various fields with the distribution that would be expected if these preferences were independent of their field of study, the χ² test allows researchers to determine whether there is a significant association between the two variables. In the context of understanding student employment preferences, a statistically significant χ² result would suggest that the field of study has a meaningful influence on students’ job sector choices, thereby revealing crucial insights into the factors that shape their career aspirations and trajectories.
Logistic regression is also a valuable statistical method for exploring factors that influence students’ career prospects, primarily due to its ability to model the relationship between a binary outcome variable, such as successful employment or not, and one or more predictor variables, which can be continuous or categorical. By utilizing the logistic function, the logistic regression model generates predicted probabilities of success in terms of career prospects, thereby quantifying the relationship between the predictor variables and the likelihood of a particular outcome (Leech et al., 2014). This feature is particularly advantageous for researchers aiming to investigate the influence of various factors on students’ career prospects, as it enables them to assess the relative importance and impact of each predictor on the probability of successful employment. In an academic context, logistic regression allows researchers to control for potential confounding variables, making it possible to identify the unique contribution of each factor to the outcome of interest.
Findings
Changes in Employment Choices for Master's Graduates in Educational Disciplines From 2012 to 2019
Figure 2 presents the changes in the nature of employment units for master's graduates in educational disciplines at University B from 2012 to 2019. As shown in Figure 1, the majority of graduates chose schools at different educational stages as their employment units, with a proportion ranging from 37.7% to 53.3% between 2012 and 2019, generally showing a trend of first decreasing and then increasing. In 2019, the proportion of those choosing primary and secondary education units increased significantly, with an increase of more than 10% compared to 2018. This is related to the policies of vigorously developing basic education and offering high salaries to recruit outstanding primary and secondary school teachers in the Pearl River Delta and Yangtze River Delta regions, particularly in recent years when the Shenzhen municipal primary and secondary schools, which have attracted social attention, offer a salary package of “280,000 + for graduate students,” attracting many prestigious university graduates to teach in Shenzhen's primary and secondary schools.
Distribution of the nature of employment units for master graduates in the Education Major of School B from 2012 to 2019.
Secondly, the proportion of those choosing non-state-owned enterprises, such as private enterprises and joint ventures, as well as other non-state-owned institutions, was also relatively high, with proportions ranging from 6.3% to 15.5% and 4.4% to 12.4% between 2012 and 2019, respectively. Overall, they showed a trend of first decreasing and then increasing, especially in 2019 when the proportion of graduates choosing these two types of employment units dropped sharply. There might be two reasons for this phenomenon: first, an increasing number of graduates expect to engage in stable jobs with established positions, such as applying for civil service positions or choosing primary and secondary schools, while jobs in non-state-owned enterprises are relatively less stable; second, as the employment situation becomes increasingly severe, many graduates continue their education to select employment units that better meet their expectations, as evidenced by the slight increase in the proportion of those opting for further education after 2016. However, the number of doctoral admissions has remained stable, and there are still groups intending to pursue doctoral studies among the graduates awaiting employment in 2018 and 2019.
Furthermore, the proportion of those choosing flexible employment forms, such as freelancing and entrepreneurship, was also relatively high, with more than 10% from 2012 to 2017, and then dropping significantly in 2018 and 2019, accounting for 7.2% and 3.6%, respectively. At the same time, the proportion of those awaiting employment increased significantly in 2018 and 2019. In fact, many graduates who have not yet confirmed their employment units temporarily obtain certain labor remuneration through flexible employment and continue to search for employment units or prepare for doctoral examinations during this period.
Differences in Employment Choices Among Master's Graduates in Educational Disciplines With Different Characteristics
Figure 3 presents the proportions of master's graduates entering institutional units (including party and government organs, state-owned enterprises, and public institutions) with different characteristics, such as gender, family residence, master's status, political outlook, student cadre experience, supervisor's identity, and undergraduate institutions. The χ² test method is employed to examine the differences in the proportions of further education among different characteristic groups.
Differences in the choice of employer units among master graduates in the education major with different characteristics.
The results show that in terms of gender differences, the proportions of male and female students entering institutional units are 69.2% and 72.3%, respectively. The proportion of male students entering institutional units is slightly lower than that of female students, but there is no significant difference (p = .265); in terms of family residence, the proportions of students entering institutional units with family residence in urban and rural areas are 71.7% and 70.8%, respectively. The proportion in urban areas is slightly higher than that in rural areas, but there is no significant difference (p = .720); in terms of master's status, the proportions of professional and academic master's students entering institutional units are 79.3% and 68.8%, respectively. The proportion of professional master's students entering institutional units is significantly higher than that of academic master's students (p < .001), with a 10.5% difference.
In terms of political outlook, the proportions of Communist Party members and non-Communist Party members entering institutional units are 74.6% and 68.4%, respectively. The proportion of party members entering institutional units is significantly higher than that of non-party members (p = .002), with a 6.2% difference; in terms of student cadre experience, the proportions of students with and without student cadre experience entering institutional units are 75.7% and 71.2%, respectively. There is no significant difference in the proportion of those with and without student cadre experience (p = .137); in terms of supervisor's identity, the proportions of students with doctoral and non-doctoral supervisors entering institutional units are 72.3% and 71.5%, respectively, with no significant difference between the two (p = .726); in terms of the level of undergraduate institutions, the proportion of students from “Double First-Class” universities entering institutional units (73.8%) is significantly higher than that of students from non-“Double First-Class” universities (69.5%), with a 4.3% difference, which is significant at the .05 significance level.
In summary, the proportions of professional master's students, Communist Party members, students with student cadre experience, and graduates from “Double First-Class” undergraduate institutions entering institutional units are significantly higher than those of academic master's students, non-Communist Party members, students without student cadre experience, and graduates from non-“Double First-Class” undergraduate institutions. From the perspective of human capital and social capital, the proportion of master's graduates with higher human capital and post-facto social capital entering institutional units is higher.
Differences in the Enrollment Proportions of Master's Graduates in Education Disciplines With Different Characteristics
Figure 4 presents the proportions of master's graduates pursuing further studies across different characteristics, such as gender, family residence, master's status, political affiliation, student cadre experience, supervisor identity, and undergraduate institutions. The χ2 test method is used to test the differences in the enrollment proportions among these different characteristic groups.
Differences in the proportion of master's graduates in the education major who go on to higher education by characteristics.
The results show that, in terms of gender differences, the proportion of male and female students pursuing further studies are 16.7% and 9.2%, respectively, with the proportion of male students being significantly higher than that of female students (p < .001), an increase of 7.5%. In terms of family residence, the proportion of students pursuing further studies in urban and rural areas are 11.6% and 9.8%, respectively, with the urban proportion slightly higher than the rural proportion, but with no significant difference (p = .204). In terms of master's status, the proportion of professional and academic master's students pursuing further studies are 3.1% and 13.9%, respectively, with the proportion of professional master's students being significantly lower than that of academic master's students (p < .001), a decrease of 10.8%. In terms of political affiliation, the proportion of CCP members and non-CCP members pursuing further studies are 12% and 8.2%, respectively, with the proportion of party members being significantly higher than that of non-party members (p = .002), an increase of 3.8%. In terms of student cadre experience, the proportion of students with and without student cadre experience pursuing further studies are 12.2% and 10.6%, respectively, with the proportion of students with student cadre experience slightly higher than that of students without student cadre experience, but with no significant difference (p = .420). In terms of supervisor identity, the proportion of students with doctoral supervisors and non-doctoral supervisors pursuing further studies are 17.1% and 6.9%, respectively, with the former being significantly higher than the latter (p < .001), an increase of 10.2%. In terms of undergraduate institution level, the proportion of students from “Double First-Class” universities pursuing further studies (13.4%) is significantly higher than that of students from non-“Double First-Class” universities (8.8%), an increase of 4.6%, with this difference being significant at the .001 level of significance.
In summary, the proportion of male students, academic master's students, CCP members, doctoral supervisors, and graduates from “Double First-Class” universities in the field of education pursuing further studies is significantly higher than that of female students, professional master's students, non-CCP members, non-doctoral supervisors, and graduates from non-“Double First-Class” universities. From the perspective of human capital and social capital, master's graduates with higher human capital and ex-post social capital are more likely to pursue further studies.
Influencing Factors on Employment Selection for Master's Graduates in Education
Table 1 presents the estimation results of factors influencing whether master's graduates in education enter public institutions and pursue further studies. Binary logistic regression is used to estimate the coefficients and odds ratios of various influencing factors, and time fixed effects are introduced in Model (2) and Model (4). The results in Model (1) show that, controlling for other variables, the probability of female students entering public institutions is significantly higher than that of male students, with the odds being about 1.411 times higher for females. Academic master's students have a significantly lower probability of entering public institutions than professional master's students, with the odds being about 55.5% for academic master's students. The probability of graduates with Communist Party of China (CPC) membership entering public institutions is significantly higher than that of non-CPC members, with the odds being about 1.434 times higher for CPC members. The probability of master's graduates from “Double First-Class” undergraduate institutions entering public institutions is significantly higher than that of graduates from non-“Double First-Class” institutions, with the odds being about 1.274 times higher for the former. Model (2) adds time fixed effects to Model (1), and the estimation results of various influencing factors are relatively robust.
Analysis of Factors Influencing the Choice of Employment Units for Master's Graduates in the Education Major.
Note: * .1 level of significance， ** .05 level of significance， and *** .01 level of significance.
This indicates that gender, master's degree type, party membership, and undergraduate institution rank are key factors influencing the entry of education graduates into public institutions. In terms of gender, females are more inclined to choose public institutions, which may be related to women preferring stable jobs. In terms of master's degree type, professional master's students are more inclined to choose public institutions, which may be due to two reasons: first, professional master's students often have certain educational work experience, making them more competitive when choosing primary and secondary schools as employment units; second, professional master's students have a lower proportion of pursuing further studies and a higher proportion of seeking employment. In terms of party membership, master's graduates with CPC membership have a higher probability of entering public institutions, which may be because many public institutions (especially party and government agencies) explicitly list “CPC membership” as a recruitment requirement or give priority to it, giving graduates with CPC membership an advantage in entering public institutions. In terms of undergraduate institution rank, “Double First-Class” institutions have greater social prestige, and under the same conditions, they are often the preferred factor for many employment units, so master's graduates from “Double First-Class” institutions have a higher probability of entering public institutions.
In Model (3), controlling for other variables, the probability of female students pursuing further studies is significantly lower than that of male students, with the odds being about 58% for females. Rural students have a significantly lower probability of pursuing further studies than urban students, with the odds being about 71% for rural students. Academic master's students have a significantly higher probability of pursuing further studies than professional master's students, with the odds being about 3.636 times higher for academic master's students. The higher the overall scholarship score, the greater the probability of master's graduates in education pursuing further studies; with every one-point increase in the overall score, the probability of pursuing further studies will increase by 24.1%. Students whose advisors hold doctoral supervisor status have a significantly higher probability of pursuing further studies than those with non-doctoral supervisors, with the former being about 2.451 times more likely than the latter. Master's graduates from “Double First-Class” undergraduate institutions have a significantly higher probability of pursuing further studies than those from non-“Double First-Class” institutions, with the odds being about 1.7 times higher for the former. Model (4) adds time fixed effects to Model (3), and the estimation results of various influencing factors are relatively robust.
It is evident that gender, family residence, master's degree type, scholarships, supervisor's status, and undergraduate institution tier are key factors influencing the pursuit of further education among graduates in the field of education. In terms of gender, male students are more likely to pursue doctoral studies. When master's students graduate, they are at an age where pursuing further education may conflict with other socialization themes. In Chinese families, there is a preference for boys in terms of educational expectations, with families tending to have higher expectations for boys than girls. Regarding family residence, graduates from urban families are more likely to pursue doctoral studies; this can be attributed to their pre-existing social capital, as urban families possess higher social capital and are more capable of supporting their children's advanced education.
In terms of master's degree type, academic master's students are more likely to pursue doctoral studies, which can be attributed to the differences in educational objectives and programs between professional and academic master's degrees. Moreover, the duration of study for academic master's students is typically three years, allowing them more time to engage in academic research. Regarding scholarships, graduates who obtained higher levels of scholarships during their studies are more likely to pursue doctoral studies. In this research, scholarships are primarily used to measure the human capital related to academic performance and abilities, which significantly impacts the probability of graduates pursuing doctoral studies. Conversely, student leadership experience and party membership status are indicators of human capital related to comprehensive abilities, which are more closely related to employment opportunities.
In terms of supervisor status, graduates supervised by doctoral supervisors are more likely to pursue doctoral studies. As for the undergraduate institution tier, graduates from “Double First-Class” institutions have a higher probability of pursuing doctoral studies. In this study, supervisor status and undergraduate institution tier are proxy variables for post-event social capital. Graduates who establish strong networks with their doctoral supervisors have access to more social resources that help shape their intentions to pursue doctoral studies and increase their chances of further education. The tier of the undergraduate institution reflects the institution's reputation; the social capital accumulated by graduates during their undergraduate studies, and the social prestige of the institution may provide some assistance in their pursuit of further education.
Employment Mobility Types of Master's Graduates in the Field of Education From 2012 to 2019
In this study, graduates are categorized into three types based on the changes in their employment location and place of origin: non-mobility, intra-provincial mobility, and inter-provincial mobility. Figure 5 presents the proportions of the three types of employment mobility for graduates from 2012 to 2019. The results show that the majority of education master's graduates from School B exhibit inter-provincial mobility, with the proportion exceeding 60% in 2012, 2014, 2017, 2018, and 2019, while the proportion is relatively lower in 2013 (52.7%). The proportion of graduates with intra-provincial mobility is smaller (accounting for < 15% each year) and exhibits fluctuations, reaching 13% in 2013 and 2015. The proportion of intra-provincial mobility demonstrates a decline followed by an increase after 2015. Between 2021 and 2019, the proportion of non-mobility ranges from 20% to 35%, with a decrease in 2018 and 2019 compared to 2017.
Distribution of employment mobility types for master's graduates in the education major from 2012 to 2019.
This study further examines the top five cities in terms of inflow numbers among the samples with employment mobility (see Table 2). The results show that the inflow destinations for education discipline graduates from University B are relatively concentrated. In each year, more than half of the non-Beijing-origin graduates choose Beijing as their place of employment. Apart from the higher levels of economic and educational development in Beijing, which exert a greater pull on graduates, the main reason for this phenomenon is related to the location of University B in Beijing. On the one hand, some undergraduate students may have already considered their future employment location when selecting a graduate school, and therefore are more inclined to stay in Beijing after graduation. On the other hand, due to their academic institution being located in Beijing, many graduates’ internships, accumulated connections, and capital during their studies are predominantly based in Beijing, which in turn leads them to prioritize seeking employment in the city. In addition to Beijing, the cities with high inflow rankings are predominantly economically developed cities in China, with a majority being in the southern region. After 2016, Shenzhen has consistently ranked second, with the proportion of University B's education discipline graduates employed in Shenzhen each year exceeding 10%.
Top Five Cities in Terms of Inflows From 2012 to 2019.
Differences in Employment Mobility Types Among Education Discipline Master's Graduates With Different Characteristics
Table 3 presents the proportions of the three employment mobility types for Master's graduates with different gender, family residence, political affiliation, student leadership experience, advisor status, and undergraduate institutions. χ2 tests are employed to examine whether there are differences in the distribution of employment mobility types across different characteristic groups, and Bonferroni tests are used to determine if there are significant differences in the proportions of the three mobility types across these groups.
Differences in the Type of Employment Mobility of Master Graduates in the Education Major in Different Characteristics (%).
Note: * .1 level of significance， ** .05 level of significance， and *** .01 level of significance.
The results indicate that there is no significant association between the distribution of employment mobility types and gender (p = .717). Bonferroni tests show that the differences in the proportions of non-mobility, intra-provincial mobility, and inter-provincial mobility between male and female graduates are not significant at the .05 level. Regarding family residence, there is a significant association between the distribution of employment mobility types and family residence (p = .002). Bonferroni tests reveal that the proportion of non-mobility among urban family graduates is significantly higher than that among rural family graduates (by 6.5%), while the proportion of intra-provincial mobility is significantly lower (by 3.3%); however, there is no significant difference in the distribution of inter-provincial mobility between the two groups.
In terms of political affiliation, there is a significant association between the distribution of employment mobility types and political affiliation (p = .041). Bonferroni tests indicate that the proportion of non-mobility among graduates with Chinese Communist Party membership is significantly lower than that among non-members (by 4.9%), and the proportion of inter-provincial mobility is significantly higher (by 4.8%); however, there is no significant difference in the distribution of intra-provincial mobility between the two groups. In terms of student leadership experience, there is a significant association between the distribution of employment mobility types and the presence of student leadership experience (p = .059). Bonferroni tests show that the proportion of non-mobility among graduates with student leadership experience is significantly lower than that among those without (by 7%), but there is no significant difference in the distribution of intra-provincial and inter-provincial mobility between the two groups.
Regarding advisor status, there is no significant association between the distribution of employment mobility types and advisor status (p = .888). Bonferroni tests reveal that the differences in the proportions of non-mobility, intra-provincial mobility, and inter-provincial mobility between graduates with doctoral advisors and those without are not significant at the .05 level. In terms of undergraduate institutions, there is a significant association between the distribution of employment mobility types and the level of undergraduate institutions (p = .005). Bonferroni tests indicate that the proportion of non-mobility among graduates from non-“Double First-Class” undergraduate institutions is significantly lower than that among graduates from “Double First-Class” institutions (by 6.2%); however, there is no significant difference in the distribution of intra-provincial and inter-provincial mobility between the two groups.
In summary, there are no significant differences in the employment mobility types of B-School Education Discipline Master's graduates between different gender and advisor status groups. The proportions of non-mobility among graduates from urban families, non-Communist Party members, those without student leadership experience, and those from “Double First-Class” undergraduate institutions are significantly higher than those from rural families, Communist Party members, those with student leadership experience, and those from non-“Double First-Class” institutions. The proportion of intra-provincial mobility among rural family graduates is significantly higher than that among urban family graduates, and the proportion of inter-provincial mobility among Communist Party members is significantly higher than that among non-members.
Employment Location and Hometown Average Wage Differences
In order to examine the regional development differences between employment locations and hometowns, we focused on graduates who have experienced mobility and selected the average wages of employment locations and hometowns as the analysis indicator to compare regional development differences. As shown in Figure 6, from 2012 to 2019, the average wages of employment locations and hometowns for graduates experiencing mobility have been increasing year by year. The average wage growth rate in employment locations is significantly higher than that in hometowns, resulting in a widening gap between the average wages of employment locations and hometowns each year. By 2019, the average wage in employment locations is 1.9 times that of hometowns. Paired sample t test results indicate that there are significant differences in the annual average wages between employment locations and hometowns for graduates in each year (p < .001). Therefore, in the subsequent analysis, it is necessary to include the average wages of employment locations and hometowns to examine the impact of regional factors on graduate employment mobility.
Change in the average wage difference between place of employment and place of origin from 2012 to 2019.
Factors Influencing Employment Mobility of Master's Graduates in Education
Table 4 presents the estimated results of the influencing factors of employment mobility for education master graduates. Using non-mobility as the base group, multiple logistic regression was used to estimate the coefficients and odds ratios of each influencing factor. In Model (5), controlling for other variables, graduates with student cadres experience have a significantly higher probability of intra-provincial mobility than those without student cadres experience, being 1.636 times higher. Graduates from urban families have a significantly higher probability of intra-provincial mobility than those from rural families, being 1.468 times higher. Graduates from the South, Northwest, and Southwest regions have a significantly higher probability of intra-provincial mobility than those from the North region, being 3.120 times, 2.826 times, and 2.705 times higher, respectively. The average annual salary in the employment location has a significant positive effect on the probability of intra-provincial mobility for graduates, with an increase of about 8.3% for every 1,000 yuan increase in the average salary. The average annual salary in the source location has a significant negative effect on the probability of intra-provincial mobility for graduates, with a decrease of about 10.4% for every 1,000 yuan increase in the average salary.
Analysis of Factors Influencing the Employment Mobility of Master's Graduates in the Education Major.
Note: * .1 level of significance， ** .05 level of significance， and *** .01 level of significance.
In Model (6), controlling for other variables, graduates from the East and South regions have a significantly lower probability of inter-provincial mobility than those from the North region, being 64.4% and 16.6% lower, respectively. The average annual salary in the employment location has a significant positive effect on the probability of inter-provincial mobility for graduates, with an increase of about 16.9% for every 1,000 yuan increase in the average salary. The average annual salary in the source location has a significant negative effect on the probability of inter-provincial mobility for graduates, with a decrease of about 16.6% for every 1,000 yuan increase in the average salary.
In conclusion, the employment mobility of education master graduates at B university is more influenced by regional factors, and the effects of human and social capital characteristics are relatively limited. The average annual salary levels in the employment and source locations have an extremely significant effect on the probability of intra-provincial or inter-provincial mobility for master graduates, which fully confirms the push-pull theory. High-level average salaries in the employment location have a significant pulling effect on graduate employment mobility, while low-level average salaries in the source location have a significant pushing effect on graduate employment mobility.
Discussion
Taking the data of master's students’ employment of a “Double First-Class” university in Beijing from 2012 to 2019, as well as open macro statistical data, the study has analyzed the employment nature of the graduates, types of employment mobility, and their influencing factors.
The Overall Landscape of Masters’ Students’ Employment in the Field of Education
Firstly, the employment units for education master's graduates from the studied university are mainly schools, accounting for more than one-third. In 2019, the proportion of graduates who chose primary education units increased significantly by more than 10% compared to 2018. The proportion of graduates who chose non-state-owned enterprises, joint ventures, and other public institutions was also relatively high, but the proportion of those who chose these two types of employment units sharply decreased in 2019. In addition, the proportion of graduates who were still waiting for employment in 2018 and 2019 rose significantly, including some graduates who had not yet determined their employment units, but temporarily obtained labor remuneration through flexible employment, and continued to search for employment units or prepare for doctoral studies.
Secondly, the analysis of differences shows that the proportion of graduates from the education master's program who enter institutional units is significantly higher among the group of professional masters, Communist Party members, those with student cadre experience, and those who obtained their undergraduate degree from “Double First-Class” universities, compared to the group of academic masters, non-Communist Party members, those without student cadre experience, and those who obtained their undergraduate degree from non-“Double First-Class” universities. From the perspective of human capital and social capital, education master's graduates with higher human capital and after-effects social capital are more likely to enter institutional units. In terms of further education, the proportion of graduates who pursue doctoral studies is significantly higher among male students, academic masters, Communist Party members, those whose advisors are doctoral supervisors, and those who obtained their undergraduate degree from “Double First-Class” universities, compared to female students, professional masters, non-Communist Party members, those whose advisors are non-doctoral supervisors, and those who obtained their undergraduate degree from non-“Double First-Class” universities. From the perspective of human capital and social capital, education master's graduates with higher human capital and after-effects social capital are more likely to pursue doctoral studies.
Thirdly, the results of binary logistic regression show that gender, master's status, Communist Party membership, and the level of the undergraduate university are key factors affecting education master's graduates’ entry into institutional units. Gender, family residence, master's status, scholarships, advisor status, and the level of the undergraduate university are key factors affecting education master's graduates’ further education. Female students are more inclined to choose institutional units, and male students are more likely to choose to pursue doctoral studies. Graduates from urban families are more likely to pursue doctoral studies, and graduates from rural families are more likely to remain without mobility. Professional master's graduates are more likely to choose institutional units, while academic master's graduates are more likely to pursue further education. Graduates who are Communist Party members have significantly higher probabilities of entering institutional units and pursuing further education compared to those who are not. Graduates who received higher scholarship levels during their studies are more likely to pursue doctoral studies. Graduates whose advisors are doctoral supervisors are more likely to pursue doctoral studies. Education master's graduates who obtained their undergraduate degree from “Double First-Class” universities have significantly higher probabilities of entering institutional units and pursuing further education compared to those who did not.
Fourthly, the majority of education master's graduates from B university have chosen to move to other provinces, with a small proportion staying within the province (< 15% in each year) and 20%–35% choosing not to move. In 2019, the proportion of graduates moving to other provinces increased, while the proportions of those staying within the province and those who did not move decreased. Beijing is the primary destination for education master's graduates from B university, accounting for more than half of the graduates in each year. This is not only due to the higher economic and educational development level of Beijing, but also because B University is located in Beijing.
Fifthly, the results of the differential analysis indicate that graduates from urban families, non-Communist Party members, those without student cadre experience, and those who obtained their undergraduate degree from “Double First-Class” universities are significantly more likely to stay in the same place than those from rural families, Communist Party members, those with student cadre experience, and those who obtained their undergraduate degree from non-“Double First-Class” universities. Graduates from families in small towns are significantly more likely to stay within the province than those from urban families. Graduates who are Communist Party members are significantly more likely to move to other provinces than those who are not.
Sixthly, the employment mobility of education master's graduates from B university is more affected by regional factors, and the role of human capital and social capital is relatively limited. The annual average salary levels of the employment destination and the source of graduates have a significant impact on the probability of education master's graduates choosing to stay within the province or move to other provinces, which fully confirms the push-pull theory. High average wages in the employment destination have a significant pulling effect on graduates’ employment mobility, while low average wages in the source of graduates have a significant pushing effect.
Master's Students’ Employment and SDGs
Building upon the findings presented in this study, it is important to consider the implications of these employment trends for education master's graduates in relation to the United Nations’ SDG 8, which aims to “promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all” (Lee and Kjaerulf et al., 2016). By examining the roles of human capital and social capital in shaping graduates’ employment choices, as well as their decisions to pursue further education or doctoral studies, this research contributes to a better understanding of the interplay between individual attributes, institutional factors, and regional dynamics in the context of graduate employability. The increasing proportion of graduates employed in primary education units and the growth in flexible employment arrangements reflect broader shifts in the labor market and the evolving nature of employment opportunities within the education sector (Lyons et al., 2014).
The rising interest in primary education positions may be linked to the increasing recognition of the importance of early childhood education in fostering cognitive, social, and emotional development, as highlighted by the UNESCO Education 2030 Framework for Action. Ensuring access to quality primary education is crucial for achieving SDG 4, which is focused on providing inclusive and equitable quality education for all (Lee and Kjaerulf et al., 2016). Consequently, the growing preference for primary education positions among education master's graduates has the potential to contribute positively to the attainment of the SDGs, provided that these graduates possess the requisite skills and knowledge to effectively support the learning and development of their students (Bruns & Luque, 2014). However, the observed increase in graduates waiting for employment and engaging in flexible work arrangements may signal potential challenges in achieving SDG 8. Research suggests that temporary or flexible employment may be associated with lower job security, reduced benefits, and lower overall job satisfaction (Kalleberg, 2009). Furthermore, these employment trends may also exacerbate inequalities in access to stable and well-paid jobs among education master's graduates, potentially undermining the goal of promoting inclusive and sustainable economic growth (Allen & Ainley, 2011).
The results also highlight the importance of considering gender, master's status, advisor status, and the level of the undergraduate university in understanding graduates’ career outcomes, which aligns with previous research emphasizing the role of personal, institutional, and contextual factors in shaping graduates’ employability (Tomlinson, 2017). Furthermore, the findings suggest that graduates with higher human and social capital are more likely to secure employment in institutional units and pursue further education, which may have implications for achieving SDG 8, particularly in terms of promoting inclusive economic growth and ensuring equal opportunities for all graduates in the labor market (Marginson, 2016).
In addition, the study's focus on the employment mobility of education master's graduates sheds light on the role of regional factors in shaping graduates’ career choices. The results indicate that graduates’ decisions to stay within the province, move to other provinces, or remain immobile are significantly influenced by regional economic conditions and labor market dynamics, which is consistent with the push-pull theory (Cohen, 1996). This finding underscores the need for targeted policy interventions that take into account regional disparities and labor market conditions to ensure that graduates have access to decent work opportunities and contribute to the achievement of SDG 8 (Chankseliani & Relly, 2016).
Overwhelmingly, the findings of this study provide valuable insights into the factors influencing the career prospects of education master's graduates and their implications, which goes in line with the purpose of SDG 8 that aims to promote that students and our next generation have decent jobs. Further research is needed to examine the interplay between individual, institutional, and regional factors in shaping graduates’ employability and to develop evidence-based policy interventions that promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth for all.
Conclusion
This article investigates the employment choices of students majoring in education science at University B, a renowned university in Northern China. Utilizing data collected from 2012 to 2019, the study highlights the theme of sustainability throughout and uncovers key findings related to the employment trajectories of these graduates. The analysis reveals changes in employment choices for master's graduates in educational disciplines over the given period, and highlights the differences in employment choices among graduates with varying characteristics. The study also explores the enrollment proportions of master's graduates in education disciplines with different characteristics, as well as the factors influencing their employment selection. Furthermore, the paper identifies the employment mobility types of these graduates between 2012 and 2019 and examines the differences in employment mobility types among education discipline master's graduates with different characteristics, and investigates the relationship between employment location and hometown average wage differences. Lastly, the paper delves into the factors influencing the employment mobility of master's graduates in the field of education.
Footnotes
Ethical Considerations
Ethical approval was not required for this study since no empirical studies were conducted, and no human data or participants were involved.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The Major Project of China Education Society in 2024, “Research on the Mechanism and Guarantee for Improving the Quality of Collaborative Internships for Outstanding Primary and Secondary School Teachers and Normal University Students” (202400002203ZXA) and The Ideological and Political Education Project of Beijing Normal University, “Research on the Educational Function and Improvement Path of Work-Study Programs in Colleges and Universities in the New Era.”
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.