Abstract
This study explores the moisture management properties of knitted fabrics incorporating cotton and cattail fiber blends with intent to improve performance for sportswear applications. Nine different fabric samples were developed using different blend ratios of 90/10, 80/20, and 70/30 (cotton to cattail) along with three different knit structures: interlock, loop knit (fleece), and rib. The fabrics were assessed in terms of some important moisture management parameters, which are wetting time, absorption rate, maximum wetted radius, spreading speed, AOTI and OMMC. The results indicate that rib-knit fabrics always lead the pack across all spreading speed, accumulated one-way transport index (AOTI), and overall moisture management parameters; the 90:10 rib blend has the shortest wetting time (2.8 s top, 2.3 s bottom), the highest absorption rate (1.4 mm/s top, 2.3 mm/s bottom), superior spreading speed (2.0 mm/s top, 2.6 mm/s bottom) and the highest OMMC (0.90). Loop-knit fabrics have the longest wetting times (4.8 s top, 4.2 s bottom), a lower absorption rate (0.8 mm/s top, 1.5 mm/s bottom) and the lowest OMMC (0.70), which indicates that moisture transport efficiency is not optimal. The investigation reveals that an increase in cattail content leads to a reduction in the moisture absorption and transport properties. Therefore, the lowest OMMC is recorded for the 70:30 blend, that is 0.82 for rib and 0.70 for loop knit. The results have highlighted significant correlations between fabric structure, fiber composition, and moisture management efficiency, therefore showing that rib-knit fabrics with lower cattail content would be most suitable for high-performance sportswear in warm climates.
Introduction
The growing demand for high-performance fabrics in sportswear has led to significant advancements in fabric technology, particularly in moisture management.1,2 Moisture management is a major key aspect of sportswear fabric performance, determining wearer comfort and thermoregulation. The influence of fiber composition and fabric structure on moisture transport properties has been investigated in various studies. Cotton, being highly breathable, has been found to have poor moisture absorption and wicking capability, which can be enhanced by fiber blending. Effective moisture management is crucial for comfort and performance as it ensures that the body remains dry and cool during physical activities. Natural fibers like cotton are often used in blends with other fibers to enhance performance.3–5 Cattail is a lesser-known natural fiber that has gained attention for its potential in fabric blends due to its unique moisture-handling properties.
Many studies have examined the moisture management properties of different fiber blends, especially in sportswear.6–10 It has been shown that although cotton is a very comfortable and breathable fiber, it has poor moisture absorption and wicking capabilities, which can be improved by blending it with fibers such as polyester, nylon, or even more exotic fibers like cattail.11–14 The moisture management properties of fabrics can be evaluated through various methods, including the measurement of wetting time, absorption rate, and spreading speed, and indices such as AOTI and OMMC. Previous studies have indicated that knit structures, especially rib and loop knits, offer distinct moisture management properties because of their varied porosities and surface textures.15–18
Cattail fibers are of potential sustainability value by virtue of their natural availability and regrowth cycle. Unlike petrochemical-derived synthetic fibers, cattail does not contribute to microplastic contamination and has low chemical processing needs. The cattail plant also provides benefits for the restoration of wetland ecosystem balance by removing surplus nutrients and carbon, adding another layer to their position in sustainable manufacturing.19–22 A natural, cohesively bonded material called pectin holds together the fibers of cattail fiber, a vegetable fiber originating from cattail leaves or fruits. 23 Cattail fiber is usually obtained by chemical retting, water retting, and mechanical decortication. Interestingly, compared with other plant fibers, cattail plants generate a significantly larger amount of soft fiber (ranging between 30% and 40%).
The cattail fiber’s resistance to acid, rather than alkali, was validated by Zhang et al. 24 Additionally, the cattail fiber was effectively dyed using reactive dyes. 25 Cattail fiber’s cellulose composition helped absorb dyes, and its dye exhaustion was on par with or superior to that of cotton. Cotton and cattail fiber had similar heat-fastness. The cattail fiber’s pH of 6.7 indicated that it was safe for direct human touch. The staining and color change ratings of cattail fibers satisfied ASTM and industry minimum performance requirements. 25
Cattail fiber is a significant natural fiber source with remarkable physical qualities. 26 Because cattail fiber is somewhat better than cotton and has a stronger strength (tenacity = 0.31 N/tex) than wool, it seems to be a good choice for clothing applications. Alkali-treated cattail fibers exhibit exceptional toughness and fineness.27,28 Typha fiber can also be utilized in industrial applications like composites due to its high tensile stress and Young’s modulus. 25 In addition, because of its low density, good buoyancy, and hydrophobic properties, it has been described as a great natural sorbent. 29
Similar to studies on cotton and bamboo-based fabrics, cattail fibers exhibit high moisture absorption due to their porous and cellulosic structure. Previous research on cotton blends (e.g. cotton–polyester or cotton–bamboo) has shown that natural fibers contribute to better moisture absorption, which is consistent with the behavior of cattail–cotton blends. Studies on knit fabrics have consistently shown that loose-knit structures enhance breathability and moisture transport. Cattail blends, like linen or hemp blends studied previously, maintain good air permeability, supporting thermal comfort. Compared to traditional cotton fabrics, cattail blends may exhibit improved moisture transport due to the capillary action of cattail fibers. Previous studies on synthetic fibers (e.g. polyester) show high one-way transport, but cattail blends can achieve moderate transport without relying on synthetics. Cattail fibers, due to their unique hollow structure, may dry faster than cotton but slower than synthetic fabrics. While synthetic fabrics typically achieve the highest OMMC values, cattail-cotton blends could outperform pure cotton in OMMC due to improved transport properties.30–36
The cattail plant grows quickly due to its chemical makeup, productivity, and adaptability. As anticipated, cattail fiber will soon become one of the most important textile fibers due to its easy extraction process, availability, distinctive structure, and competitive physical, chemical, and thermal properties. Additionally, the structured cattail fiber assembly is attracting a lot of interest from researchers due to its many uses, such as oil filtration and the production of carbon compounds. The comfort qualities of cattail fiber cloth are one of the many areas in which researchers are carrying out investigations.
Materials and Methods
The knitted fabrics for the athleisure clothing were made from cotton fiber and cattail yarn. Cotton was procured from the Hyderabad, India, local market with a variety of Shankar 6 cotton, and cattail fiber came from Bakuli, West Champaran, Bihar.
Micronaire: 4.2
Length (UHML): 28.5 mm
Strength: 29 g/tex
Uniformity Index: 83%
Elongation: ∼6.2%
Reflectance (Rd): 75%
Yellowness (+b): 9.8
Average fiber length: 15.2 mm
Fineness: ∼3.5–4.0 denier
Tenacity: ∼0.31 N/tex
Cellulose content: ∼67%
Lignin content: ∼18–20%
Moisture regain: ∼11–13%
pH: 6.7 (skin safe)
Development of Yarn
For the current study, a blend of cattail and cotton yarn was developed for knitted clothing and athleisure items. A ring-spinning machine was used to spin the yarn with a 30 s yarn count that was a combination of cattail and cotton fiber. Y1–10:90, Y2–20:80, and Y3–30:70 are the designations for the yarns. Cattail fibers were extracted using a mixture of water retting and mechanical decortication. Mature leaves of cattail (Typhalatifolia) were immersed in water for 5–7 days for partial biological degradation of the non-cellulosic components. After retting, the softened fibers were frayed and mechanically processed to obtain soft, spinnable fiber bundles. The fibers were dried under shade and stored in sealed bags before yarn production.
Knitted Fabric Preparation for Athleisure Wear
A circular, flat knitting machine that is appropriate for the yarn is used to produce the knitted materials. Y1–10:90; Y2–20:80; Y3–30:70 are the yarn and structure designation combinations that will be utilized for the knitting samples, which include blended interlock, loop knit (fleece), and rib (Table 1).
Fibers: Three different ratios of cotton to cattail fibers were blended: 90:10, 80:20, and 70:30.
Fabric structures: Three knit techniques were chosen: rib, loop knit (fleece), and interlock.
Details of the developed samples.
Fabric Production
The fibers were spun on a ring-spinning machine with a spindle speed of 16,000 rpm. A twist multiplier of 3.8 was used, and the output gave around 20.78 twists per inch for the 30 Ne yarn. The draft was modified to give the required yarn count while keeping the properties of the cotton–cattail mixture intact. The knitted fabrics were manufactured using a flat knitting machine with a gauge of 14 G, which is suitable for producing interlock, rib, and fleece structures. The machine operates at a carriage speed of 1.2–1.5 m/s with adjustable stitch density settings ensuring uniform loop formation and fabric stability also facilitating effective production and consistent fabric quality. After knitting, the knitted fabrics were subjected to a scouring process with a solution of 2 g/L sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and 1 g/L non-ionic surfactant at a liquor ratio of 1:20. This treatment was done at 95°C for 45 min to extract natural impurities and processing aids. Scouring was followed by neutralization in a 1 g/L acetic acid bath for 10 min to remove the remaining alkalinity. The neutralized fabrics were hydro-extracted to drain off excess water and then dried at 80°C for 30 min in a tumble dryer. Lastly, the fabrics were conditioned at 110°C for 20 min in order to optimize dimensional stability as well as yield a consistent structure for performance evaluation. Table 2 shows the geometric properties of knitted fabrics.
Geometric properties.
Moisture Management Properties of the Developed Fabrics
The moisture management behavior of the developed fabric specimens was calculated by the SDL-ATLAS moisture management tester as per the standard of AATCC 195-2009. A sample size of 10 has been chosen for the conduction of the study.
Determination of Moisture Management Properties of Developed Blended Knitted Fabric
where
W bottom = cumulative moisture content on the bottom surface (%);
W top = cumulative moisture content on the top surface (%)
where
R = maximum absorption rate (mm/s);
AOTI = accumulated one-way transport index;
SSS = spreading speed or wetted radius (mm/s).
Results and Interpretation
Wetting Time of the Developed Knitted Samples
Figure 1 shows that rib-knitted samples possessed the shortest times of wetting both for top and bottom surfaces. Wetting time refers to how quickly moisture penetrates the fabric. It is influenced by the fabric’s structure and the density of its fibers. For the top surface, at 90:10, this took 2.8 s while at the bottom it took 2.3 s, respectively. Fast wetting happens due to the fabric porous structure with a rapid moisture penetration. On the contrary, loop-knit fabrics had the longest wetting times, especially the 70:30 blend, which shows 4.8 s for the top and 4.2 s at the bottom of the fabric. This can be explained by the dense pile surface that resists the initial penetration of moisture. The interlock demonstrated intermediate results; thus, they are somewhere between the two extremes. 37
Wetting time of the developed knitted samples.
90:10 Interlock
Top (3.5 s) and bottom (2.8 s): The interlock structure has a balanced construction with a medium level of porosity. As a result, it takes a moderate time for moisture to start being absorbed. The bottom layer is slightly quicker due to the relative ease of moisture access from the inner side of the fabric.
90:10 Loop Knit
Top (4.2 s) and bottom (3.5 s): Loop knit fabrics, especially with a high cotton proportion, tend to have a dense surface due to the pile structure, which limits moisture penetration initially. Hence, the wetting time is longer. The bottom layer also experiences delayed wetting due to the thicker pile on the surface.
90:10 Rib
Top (2.8 s) and bottom (2.3 s): Rib knits are open with good flexibility so moisture passes through it quite fast. The top layer has absorbed moisture slightly faster than bottom as the fabric as a whole is porous.
80:20 Interlock
Top (3.8 s) and bottom (3.0 s): Similar to the 90:10 interlock sample but slightly more cattail content, the result is a marginally slower wetting time compared to the 90:10 blend. The bottom layer benefits from the internal structure that allows for faster moisture flow.
80:20 Loop Knit
Top (4.5 s) and bottom (3.8 s): The knit structure of the loop repeats continues to exhibit slower wetting times because of resistance due to surface pile. The top and bottom layers both face considerable delays during absorption.
80:20 Rib
Top (3.0 s) and bottom (2.6 s): Rib knits continue to exhibit wetting times that are faster than loop knits, but the higher percentage of cattail in this sample increases the wetting time compared to the 90:10 rib.
70:30 Interlock
Top (4.0 s) and bottom (3.3 s): With an increase in cattail proportion, interlock knit structure shows a slight increase in wetting time; the bottom layer absorbing moisture slightly quicker.
70:30 Loop Knit
Top (4.8 s) and bottom (4.2 s): The loop-knit fabric still exhibits the highest wetting time, especially when the cattail content has been raised. The structure of the pile will impede the entry of moisture and, thus, the highest wetting time was observed in both layers.
70:30 Rib
Top (3.3 s) and bottom (2.8 s): Rib knits with a higher cattail content showed a slight increase in wetting time over the 90:10 blend, but are still much faster than loop knits due to the open structure.
Wetting time analysis revealed that rib-knit fabrics show the shortest wetting times with 90:10 rib blend showing the fastest moisture penetration (2.8 s top, 2.3 s bottom). The open structure and greater porosity of rib knits facilitate faster moisture uptake. In contrast, loop-knit fabrics, particularly the 70:30 blend, exhibited the longest wetting times (4.8 s top, 4.2 s bottom), attributed to their dense pile structure, which resists in initial moisture penetration. Interlock fabrics demonstrated intermediate results due to their balanced structure, which moderately regulates moisture absorption. The influence of cattail content is evident, as higher proportions reduce fabric porosity, leading to longer wetting times. This trend indicates that for applications requiring rapid moisture absorption, rib-knit fabrics with lower cattail content are most suitable. 38
Absorption Rate of the Developed Knitted Samples
This rate indicates how fast the moisture is absorbed by the fabric. Figure 2 shows that the rib knit had the highest absorption rates; the top was 1.4 mm/s and the bottom was 2.3 mm/s for the 90:10 blend. This is attributed to the open structure of rib knit that allows easy absorption of moisture through rapid gain. The lowest absorption rates were recorded for the loop-knit fabrics, which were 0.8 mm/s at the top and 1.5 mm/s at the bottom for the 70:30 blend. The dense pile structure of loop knits slows down the absorption process. Interlock fabrics showed moderate absorption rates, falling between those of the rib and loop knits. 39
Absorption rate of the developed knitted samples.
90:10 Interlock
Top (1.2 mm/s) and bottom (2.0 mm/s): The interlock structure shows a moderate absorption rate, where the bottom layer absorbs moisture faster, probably because of its internal structure.
90:10 Loop Knit
Top (1.0 mm/s) and bottom (1.8 mm/s): The loop knit fabrics have the lowest absorption rate of all the samples. The pile surface on the top layer resists quick absorption, and the bottom layer benefits slightly because of its smoother surface.
90:10 Rib
Top (1.4 mm/s) and bottom (2.3 mm/s): Rib knit exhibits the highest rate of absorption, as its open and elastic structure easily permits moisture to penetrate and be quickly absorbed. The bottom layer absorbs more moisture than top layer because the former is relatively more permeable.
80:20 Interlock
Top (1.1 mm/s) and bottom (1.9 mm/s): The absorption rates are slightly lower than the 90:10 interlock blend. This may be due to the higher cattail content, which could decrease the porosity of the fabric.
80:20 Loop Knit
Top (0.9 mm/s) and bottom (1.7 mm/s): The absorption rate of the loop-knit fabrics is the lowest, comparable to the 90:10 blend but a little more significant in this case, as it includes additional cattail content that reduces the uptake of moisture.
80:20 Rib
Top (1.3 mm/s) and bottom (2.2 mm/s): Rib knits continue to outperform other fabric types in terms of absorption. The increased cattail content marginally slows down the absorption rate compared to the 90:10 blend but it still remains relatively high.
70:30 Interlock
Top (1.0 mm/s) and bottom (1.6 mm/s): With a higher percentage of cattail, the absorption rate is slightly decreased compared to the 80:20 and 90:10 interlock blends, but the fabric still displays moderate absorption, especially at the bottom layer.
70:30 Loop Knit
Top (0.8 mm/s) and bottom (1.5 mm/s): The absorption rate for loop knits remains the lowest, with the dense pile structure continuing to resist quick moisture uptake.
70:30 Rib
Top (1.2 mm/s) and bottom (2.0 mm/s): Rib knits with 30% cattail demonstrate a slight drop in absorption compared to the 90:10 rib but still are superior to the loop-knit fabrics.
The absorption rate results show that rib-knit fabrics have the highest efficiency of absorption and the 90:10 rib blend showed 1.4 mm/s (top) and 2.3 mm/s (bottom). The best absorption of rib knits occurs due to their flexible and open texture which allows easy absorption and penetration of moisture within a short time frame. Interlock fabrics showed middle levels of absorption due to its uniform construction allowing the steady moisture penetration. Loop-knitted fabrics, with more cattail content, showed the lowest absorption rate (0.8 mm/s top, 1.5 mm/s bottom) due to the higher surface density and a pile-based surface that hampers water intake. 16 Increasing the cattail ratio even further will impair the water intake ability because of additional hydrophobic fiber content. This finding emphasizes rib knits for applications requiring efficient moisture absorption, whereas loop knits are better suited for insulation-focused purposes.
Maximum Wetted Radius of the Developed Knitted Samples
The maximum wetted radius is a measure of how far moisture spreads across the fabric. Figure 3 shows that rib knits led in this parameter with the largest wetted radius (16.5 mm bottom for 90:10), which indicated superior moisture spreading capability. Loop knits showed the smallest wetted radii (12.2 mm bottom for 70:30), which was consistent with their structure that limits the spreading of moisture. Interlock fabrics showed moderate spreading, which suggested a balanced moisture distribution.
Maximum wetted radius of the developed knitted samples.
90:10 Interlock
Top (12.5 mm) and bottom (15.0 mm): The interlock fabric spreads moisture fairly well, although the bottom layer has a slightly higher wetted radius because of superior internal moisture spreading.
90:10 Loop Knit
Top (11.0 mm) and bottom (13.8 mm): The maximum wetted radius is the lowest for loop knits because the pile surface resists the spreading of moisture. But the bottom layer spreads moisture a bit better.
90:10 Rib
Top (14.2 mm) and bottom (16.5 mm): Rib knits, which give the largest wetted radii, illustrate that the material spreads moisture quickly. The bottom layer spreads better and, hence, is interpreted as better moisture distribution in the fabric.
80:20 Interlock
Top (11.8 mm) and bottom (14.0 mm): Consequently, in comparison with the 90:10 interlock, cattail content increased; wetted radii are therefore a little smaller. However, moisture spreading is still good.
80:20 Loop Knit
Top (10.5 mm) and bottom (13.0 mm): Loop knits again exhibit a reduced wetted radius, as expected from their tight surface morphology.
80:20 Rib
Top (13.5 mm) and bottom (15.8 mm): The larger wetted radii for the 80:20 rib are still substantial, but slightly less than the 90:10 blend in light of the more densely constructed nature of the higher cattail content.
70:30 Interlock
Top (11.2 mm) and bottom (13.5 mm): With the increase in cattail content, the fabric has a moderate wetted radius, which means the moisture spreading is slightly less than that of the 80:20 blend.
70:30 Loop Knit
Top (10.0 mm) and bottom (12.2 mm): The spread remains restricted in the loop-knit fabric due to the surface pile structure.
70:30 Rib
Top (12.8 mm) and bottom (14.8 mm): Although the 70:30 rib still works well in terms of wetted moisture spread, the increased cattail content lowers the wetted radius by a small amount.
Maximum wetted radii results showed that rib-knit fabrics have the most significant distribution of wetting, where the 90:10 rib blend achieved 14.2 mm (top) and 16.5 mm (bottom). The open knit structure of fabrics encourages capillary action to distribute moisture across its surface easily. 40 The interlock fabrics gave modest wetted radii, which reflected the moderate porosities and distribution abilities to the tested moisture. Conversely, loop-knit fabrics, particularly the 70:30 blend, recorded the lowest wetted radii (10.0 mm top, 12.2 mm bottom), indicating poor moisture dispersion due to the pile’s resistance to lateral movement. The increase in cattail content across all fabric types led to a reduction in wetted radius, attributed to reduced porosity and increased fiber density, which restricts moisture flow. These results indicate that rib knits with lower cattail content have superior moisture dispersion properties, making them suitable for activewear applications that require efficient sweat management.
Spreading Speed of the Developed Knitted Samples
Spreading speed is an important parameter for knowing how fast the moisture spreads over the surface of the fabric. From Figure 4, the rib-knit samples showed the highest spreading speeds again, at 2.6 mm/s at the bottom for the 90:10 blend, which reflects their ability to spread moisture fast. The loop-knit fabrics showed the lowest spreading speeds (1.7 mm/s at the bottom for 70:30), meaning poor moisture dispersion. Interlock fabrics showed intermediate speeds.
Spreading speed of the developed knitted samples.
90:10 Interlock
Top (1.8 mm/s) and bottom (2.4 mm/s): The interlock displays a medium spreading speed, and the bottom layer is faster due to the movement of internal moisture.
90:10 Loop Knit
Top (1.5 mm/s) and bottom (2.1 mm/s): The spreading speeds for the loop knit are slower, in line with the dense structure that resists moisture movement.
90:10 Rib
Top (2.0 mm/s) and bottom (2.6 mm/s): Rib knits excel in moisture distribution with fast spreading speeds for top and bottom layers.
80:20 Interlock
Top (1.7 mm/s) and bottom (2.3 mm/s): A little slower than the 90:10 interlock, as expected from the slightly higher cattail content, that is less porous.
80:20 Loop Knit
Top (1.3 mm/s) and bottom (1.9 mm/s): The slower spreading speeds for the loop knits are a characteristic of the high density of the pile surface.
80:20 Rib
Top (1.9 mm/s) and bottom (2.5 mm/s): The spreading speeds for rib knits demonstrate excellent moisture dispersion that is comparable with that of the 90:10 blend.
70:30 Interlock
Top (1.4 mm/s) and bottom (2.0 mm/s): The higher percentage of cattail slows down moisture spreading more than the 80:20 and 90:10 blends.
70:30 Loop Knit
Top (1.2 mm/s) and bottom (1.8 mm/s): In the case of loop-knit fabric, the spreading speed remains the smallest because of its pile structure.
70:30 Rib
Top (1.8 mm/s) and bottom (2.3 mm/s): It can be found that rib knits with high cattail contents have moderate spreading speeds, but those are still much higher than for the loop knit.
The spreading speed analysis indicates that rib-knit fabrics have the highest efficiency of moisture transfer; the highest recorded values were those from the 90:10 rib blend (2.0 mm/s top and 2.6 mm/s bottom). This can be attributed to the flexibility and increased capillarity of the rib structure. Interlock samples had moderate spreading speeds, with the structure well-balanced but losing some efficiency as the cattail content increased. The lowest spreading speeds were recorded in the case of loop-knit fabrics, especially the 70:30 blend, at 1.2 mm/s top and 1.7 mm/s bottom. This is because the dense pile structure of these fabrics prevents moisture from moving through them. The drop in spreading speed with higher cattail content is because of the reduced wicking capacity and increased hydrophobicity of the fiber. These results suggest that sport-related applications, in particular, for sportswear, are preferred when the ratios are lower for knit rib-cattail-dependent materials. 40
AOTI
The AOTI is the capacity of the fabric to transport moisture from one side to the other. From Figure 5, the highest values of AOTI were for rib knits, at 48.5% for 90:10, showing excellent moisture transport. The lowest AOTI values were those of loop knits, which were at 36.2% for 70:30, showing poor transfer of moisture from top to bottom. The interlock had moderate AOTI values, showing balanced transfer of moisture.
AOTI of the developed knitted samples.
90:10 Interlock
Top (1.8) and bottom (2.3): The interlock knit structure allows moisture transportation to a moderate degree, more toward the bottom because of the internal piles.
90:10 Loop Knit
Top (1.5) and bottom (2.1): The AOTI is lower for loop knits, since the moisture movement across the pile surface is slower. The bottom layer performs slightly better, probably due to easier internal transport.
90:10 Rib
Top (2.2) and bottom (2.7): Rib knits have the highest AOTI, which is attributed to their excellent moisture transport due to their open structure. The bottom layer continues to exhibit better transport capacity.
80:20 Interlock
Top (1.7) and bottom (2.2): Similar to the 90:10 interlock but slightly slower due to the higher cattail content, which reduces the overall transport efficiency.
80:20 Loop Knit
Top (1.3) and bottom (1.9): Loop knits have lower transport values caused by the pile surface that resists the motion of moisture.
80:20 Rib
Top (2.0) and bottom (2.6): Rib knits continue to have excellent transport properties but lower than the 90:10 rib due to the higher cattail content.
70:30 Interlock
Top (1.5) and bottom (2.0): As the cattail content increases, the interlock structure shows moderate transport, and the bottom layer is somewhat better.
70:30 Loop Knit
Top (1.1) and bottom (1.7): Loop knits continue to have the lowest AOTI because of the constrictive pile structure that hinders moisture transport.
70:30 Rib
Top (1.9) and bottom (2.4): Rib knits with 30% cattail have a lower moisture transport capacity than the 90:10 and 80:20 blends but still outperform the loop knits.
The AOTI results show that rib-knit fabrics offer the highest moisture transport efficiency, with the 90:10 rib blend attaining the highest AOTI (48.5%), followed by the 80:20 (46.0%) and 70:30 (43.8%) rib blends. The transport properties of rib knits are superior because of their open structure and effective capillary channels that facilitate unidirectional moisture flow from the top to the bottom layers of the fabric. 19 Moderate AOTI values were shown for interlock fabrics, as a result of a balanced moisture transfer capability. Loop-knit fabrics revealed the lowest AOTI values, especially the 70:30 blend at 36.2%, which resulted from the thick pile structure not allowing free moisture movement. It was also noted that an increase in cattail percentage reduced AOTI, indicating a decrease in the efficiency of moisture transfer. Hence, in applications that demand more excellent moisture transport, rib knits with less cattail content are the most useful. 40
OMMC
The OMMC gives an overall measure of the moisture management efficiency of the fabric. From Figure 6, rib knits had the highest OMMC (0.90 for 90:10), meaning they were the most effective in moisture management. Loop knits, with their low AOTI and poor moisture spreading capabilities, had the lowest OMMC (0.70 for 70:30). Interlock fabrics performed fairly well, with consistent OMMC values across the different blends. 40
OMMC of the developed knitted samples.
90:10 Interlock
Top (4.8) and bottom (5.4): Interlock fabrics have medium OMMC. The bottom one outperforms the other because it can absorb and spread moisture faster.
90:10 Loop Knit
Top (4.5) and bottom (5.0): The OMMC is lower in the case of loop knit fabrics because its dense surface structure does not let moisture get absorbed, spread, and transported rapidly. The bottom one performs slightly better but remains behind other fabrics.
90:10 Rib
Top (5.0) and bottom (5.7): Rib knits have the highest OMMC values because they can absorb moisture and distribute it very well. The bottom layer is even better, indicating better moisture management.
80:20 Interlock
Top (4.5) and bottom (5.2): The 80:20 interlock fabric has lower OMMC because of higher cattail content, which slows down the moisture absorption of the fabric. Nevertheless, it still works well.
80:20 Loop Knit
Top (4.2) and bottom (4.7): Loop knit fabrics have the lowest OMMC because of their slow absorption and restricted spreading. The pile structure prevents moisture from moving, thus it has a lower moisture management efficiency.
80:20 Rib
Top (4.8) and bottom (5.4): Rib knits with higher cattail content still perform relatively well in terms of moisture management but slightly less than the 90:10 rib fabrics because of reduced moisture absorption.
70:30 Interlock
Top (4.0) and bottom (4.5): The 70:30 interlock fabric has a moderate OMMC with more cattail content. The bottom layer is slightly better as it distributes of internal moisture.
70:30 Loop Knit
Top (3.7) and bottom (4.2): The lowest OMMC is seen in the loop knits with more cattail content. The increased density of the pile structure limits the absorption and movement of moisture.
70:30 Rib
Top (4.4) and bottom (5.0): The 70:30 rib knit fabric continues to perform well with moderate moisture management. The increase in cattail content slightly reduces the OMMC compared to the 90:10 and 80:20 blends.
The OMMC results validate that the best overall moisture management performance is presented from rib-knit fabrics as determined from the testing, and thus the 90:10 rib blend had the highest OMMC value at 0.90 followed by the 80:20 at 0.88 and 70:30 at 0.82. This is because rib knit has an open structure that promotes ease of absorption, good transport, and spreading. Interlock shows almost balanced performance, and the OMMC values are kept moderate. On the other hand, loop knitted fabrics show the lowest values, especially for the 70:30 blend (0.70). As anticipated, higher cattail contents result in lower OMMC values due to both reduced porosity and enhanced hydrophobicity of the fabric. These findings point to rib-knit fabrics with lower cattail content as the most suitable for sportswear applications where efficient moisture management is critical to performance and comfort.31–34
The variations in moisture management characteristics among the fabric samples can be explained on the basis of two main variables, fiber blend ratio (cotton–cattail ratio) and fabric construction (knit type). The highly hydrophilic nature of cotton fibers as a result of their high cellulose content and amorphous nature makes them effectively absorb and hold moisture. On the contrary, cattail fibers possess more lignin and wax, and hence, they are relatively hydrophobic in nature, decreasing their water-absorbing capacity. As the content of cattail rises from 10 to 30%, the fabrics showed a drop in rate of absorption and wicking properties, leading to increased wetting times and reduced total moisture management capability (OMMC). This can be evidently seen in OMMC values, where the highest OMMC (0.90) has been shown by the 90:10 rib-knit blend and the lowest (0.82) by the 70:30 blend. Fabric structure has a very strong impact on moisture management performance and characteristics. Rib knits had better moisture transport characteristics as a result of their higher porosity and excellent capillary action, which allows them to wick and spread more quickly. On the other hand, loop-knit (fleece) materials, which have a dense texture and are pile-based, have a greater resistance to the movement of moisture, resulting in longer wetting times and lower AOTI. Interlock materials, having a balanced texture, show intermediate moisture absorption and transport efficiency. These results evidently show that rib-knit fabrics with lower cattail content are best for sportswear use, as they provide quick moisture absorption, higher wicking rates, and better overall moisture management.
The mechanism of moisture transport in textiles consists of three major steps, absorption, wicking and spreading, and evaporation. Absorption takes place when moisture comes into contact with fiber surfaces, depending on fiber hydrophilicity. Wicking and spreading enable lateral movement of moisture through capillaries, and evaporation allows for moisture release into the atmosphere. Knit structure has a major influence on these processes. Rib knits, being open and flexible, facilitate capillary action, giving the shortest wetting time, highest AOTI, and maximum spreading velocity. Interlock knits, as they are denser, show moderate moisture transfer. Loop knits (fleece) trap moisture as they have a dense pile, resulting in increased wetting times and lower moisture transport efficiency.
Statistical Analysis
The experimental data was evaluated using the SAS System (version 8 for Windows), and the significance of the blend ratio and the knitted textiles’ moisture management qualities was assessed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) at the 95% confidence level. The p-values were analyzed in order to determine whether or not the parameters are significant. The statistical analysis of Table 3 shows that the OMMC values, with p > 0.05 for the mix ratio and moisture management properties, respectively, are important determinants.
Two-way analysis of variance without replication on OMMC of knitted fabrics with blend ratio and moisture management properties.
Conclusion
Excellent moisture control for athletics and active sports is exhibited by rib-knit fabric structures, especially those with a 90:10 blend, based on a detailed analysis of moisture management properties at various cotton–cattail blend ratios and knit structures. With an AOTI of 48.5% and an OMMC of 0.90, the developed fabrics demonstrated exceptional moisture transport and overall performance. The loop-knit fabrics are good for insulation but have poor moisture dispersion, which limits their application in warmer climates. The results indicate an inverse relationship where elevated cattail content lowers porosity, resulting in lower absorption rates and spreading speeds. A clear decreasing trend is observed with the 70:30 blend. The results confirm that fabric structure has a significant effect on moisture management, and rib knits performed better because of their open construction and rapid moisture transfer. 90:10 Rib is the best with the highest values of AOTI across the top and bottom layers, meaning better moisture transport properties. Next is 80:20 rib and 70:30 rib, which perform well but a little behind compared to 90:10 rib. 90:10 Rib again is at the top of the list as it shows the best moisture management by giving the highest OMMC values. In this case, 80:20 rib and 70:30 rib also give very good moisture management but slightly low because of the greater cattail content. Nevertheless, loop knits, specifically, have the smallest OMMC, particularly for the 70:30 ratio, which implies that their moisture management is least effective because the structure of the pile is compact. With the cattail proportion increasing (in the 80:20 and 70:30 ratios), AOTI as well as OMMC values are revealed to be lower. The increasing cattail proportion makes the porosity of the fabric lower, resulting in the absorption and spreading of the moisture. Nevertheless, the rib knits continue to exhibit superior moisture management compared to other structures, even with higher levels of cattail content. The results of this study therefore suggest that attention should be geared toward optimizing knit structures and blend ratios to offset moisture management versus other functional requirements. Although loop-knit fabrics can trap heat, they are inappropriate for use in sportswear application and active wear in warmer climates and lack good moisture management properties. Fabric structure has a significant influence on moisture management properties, especially in sportswear and activewear where comfort and moisture management properties are important. Among all the samples tested, the 90:10 rib-knit fabric showed the most effective moisture management, with an OMMC of 0.90 and an AOTI of 48.5%. These properties make it most suitable for active sportswear, especially during hot and humid environments where fast sweat wicking and dispersion are mandatory for thermal comfort. Low cattail content rib-knits merge sustainability with excellent performance. The 90:10 rib fabric exhibited maximum moisture absorption and spreading speed, owing in part to its lower thickness (1.1 mm) and intermediate GSM (230 g/m2), which favor rapid transfer. Its CPI of 27 and WPI of 35 facilitate a more open structure, which favors capillarity. In contrast, loop knits with greater GSM and thickness exhibited reduced wicking owing to the high pile density resisting lateral moisture flow. Statistical analysis validated that both fabric structure and blend ratio have a significant effect on OMMC (p < 0.05), supporting observed trends in moisture transport behavior.
Footnotes
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.