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Abstract

The effect of weave on yarn pullout force of different woven fabric was studied. The effect of yarn pullout force behavior from woven fabric is a main indicator of the weave mechanism of yarn interlacement within the fabric and predicts its many mechanical properties. The study understood the effect of weave parameters on yarn pull-out force of different weaves. It was found that the amount of yarn pull-out force was related to the structural response of woven fabric. The yarn pull-out force depends on the fabric weave, density and the number of interlacements point in the fabric. In this research, the yarn pull-out force of 11 cotton woven fabrics is analyzed based on the weave parameters such as Crossing over Firmness Factor (CFF), Floating Yarn Factor (FYF), and Fabric Firmness Factor (FFF).

Keywords

Doubled Yarn Mechanical Properties Weave Structure Woven Fabrics Yarn Pull-Out Force

Introduction

The Yarn pull-out force, also known as yarn pullout strength or yarn adhesion strength, is a crucial mechanical property in the field of textiles and materials science. It measures the force required to pull a yarn out of a fabric, composite material, or another matrix in which it is embedded. This property is particularly important in industries like textile manufacturing, automotive, aerospace, and construction, where the performance and durability of materials are critical.

A detailed study on yarn pull out force as a function of yarn tension and direction of fabrics has been conducted. The yarn pull out force from fabrics has been found to disclose the inter fiber friction of yarns. Many studies have been conducted on yarn pull out force in grey and finished states. Another reason for this type of study is to find out the stability of the fabrics for certain end uses such as armor fabrics. Another utility of the study is to evaluate the effect of finishes applied on fabrics especially coated fabrics. This study has been extended to knitted fabrics also.

The study of weave structures and their effect on the properties of fabrics has attracted the attention of many research workers. Their conclusions often face challenges in practical application due to difficulties in accurately characterizing the fabrics without considering the weave parameters such as CFF, FYF, FFF, and weave factor. A fiber is characterized by its chemical constitution, strength, elongation, moisture absorption, and density. A yarn is designated by its structure, namely, ring, rotor, compact, linear density, twist and type of material used. Heretofore, a fabric is designated by seven factors such as raw material of warp and weft, count of warp and weft yarn, warp and weft sett, and type of weaves. The evaluation of weave is tougher because of the graphic view of the fabric structure. The assessment of weave has been performed by several authors.^1–4

Mehta et al.⁵ have studied the effect of weave structures on the mechanical properties of untreated and resin treated cotton fabrics. The weaves considered are crepe, plain, basket, twill, and some modified weaves. Resin treatment may alter these properties, possibly increasing strength and durability while affecting flexibility. Abou Nassif researched the effect of weave structures and weft density on the physical and mechanical properties of micro-polyester woven fabrics this study revealed that increasing weft density leads to an increase in fabric breaking load, stiffness, and crease recovery and he paid attention to weave parameters.⁶

One of the objectives of the yarn pull out studies is to engineer fabrics to enhance their ballistic performance and help to optimize fabric construction and treatment processes to enhance the mechanical properties and durability of Kevlar fabrics.⁷ The effect of softening agents on yarn pull-out force and other related properties can aid in developing fabrics that meet specific requirements for comfort and performance in various applications, such as apparel, home textiles, and technical fabrics.⁸ Li et al. discussed the importance of understanding the interplay between material properties and operational stresses in synthetic fiber ropes. By examining the effects of abrasion on different fiber types, this research contributes to the ongoing development of safer and more effective load-bearing structures in engineering.⁹ On the subject of yarn pullout force, a number of research workers have conducted studies, a comprehensive view of the factors affecting yarn pull-out behavior, fabric strength, and the influence of structural parameters and treatments on fabric properties. They offer valuable insights for researchers and professionals in the textile industry aiming to optimize fabric performance for various applications.^10–20 Yarn pull out force is an important measure to have an idea of stability of fabric and its suitability to certain specific uses. Higher pullout force is an important criterion for ballistic fabrics.

The effect of weave parameters such as Crossing over Firmness Factor (CFF), Floating Yarn Factor (FYF), and Fabric Firmness Factor (FFF) on yarn pull-out force in fabrics made from doubled yarns and with different weave structures is multifaceted. In essence, increasing CFF and FFF generally raises the yarn pull-out force due to increased interlacing firmness and fabric density. Conversely, increasing FYF often reduces the pull-out force as it implies more floating yarns and less interlacing resistance. Adjusting these factors allows for the customization of fabric properties to achieve the desired performance characteristics in various applications. There is a lacuna on the study of yarn pull out force. Thus, in order to have a better understanding of the effect of weave structures on yarn pull out force extensive studies have been carried out. These studies, doubtless, will aid in designing fabrics for specific ends.

Experimental

Materials

Yarns Used for the Production of Fabrics

Sixty Ne ring spun yarns were produced from the cotton mixing and they were doubled. Doubling yarns can significantly increase the strength and durability of the fabric. This makes it useful in applications where fabrics need to withstand more wear and tear or support heavier loads.

Methods

Fabric Production

Eleven fabric samples, which were identical in warp and weft sett but differing in weave structure, were woven on an automatic loom. Weave structures include plain, 2/2 twill, 4/4 twill, 2/2 pointed twill, eight thread twilled hopsack, thread weft sateen, eight thread honey comb, eight thread brighten honey comb, eight thread huck-a-back, eight thread crepe cord, and eight thread pin head crepe. While the plain weave has more interlacement of warp and weft yarns, the 2/2 weave have ridges on the fabric surface and the eight thread weft sateen has weft floats. Crepe weave is a derivative of the plain weave. Figure 1 give the fabric structure and weave factor P1.

Figure 1.

Weave structures of the chosen fabrics.

Weave Factor

The weave factor (P1) represents the number of interlacements of warp and weft which are obtained from the weave matrix. It may be noted that Milasius et al.^21–23 had proposed two weave factors P1 and P′ in their study. We have calculated P1 which was elaborated by them. FYF proposed by Morino et al.²² can be taken as a measure of floats in the fabric. It has a high correlation with weave factor.

Fabric Processing

These fabrics were subsequently bleached with hydrogen peroxide with a material: liquor ratio of 1:10, a hydrogen peroxide concentration of 1.5%, caustic soda 1.2%, wetting agent 0.5%, lubricant oil-0.3%, stabilizer (sodium silicate) 0.2%, 90°C for 45 min.

Measurement of Porosity

All the tests were carried out at the conditions 65% ±2% RH, and 25 ± 2°C

The porosity of cotton fabric was determined by the following equation

Porosity (%) = 1 - \frac{ρ_{fab}}{ρ_{fib}},

where ρ_fab is fabric bulk density and ρ_fib is fiber density of cotton fiber which is 1.55 g/cm^3–24 The bulk density of the fabric is calculated from the following equation.

\begin{matrix} Fabric bulk density (g / cm 3) = \frac{GSM / 10000}{Thickenss of fabric in cm} \end{matrix}

where GSM represents grams per square meter.

Measurement of Thickness

Thickness was measured by using thickness tester by following ASTM D1777 standards.

Measurement of Areal density

Areal density in GSM (grams per square meter) was measured by using ASTM D3776 standard.

Definition of the Parameters of the Weave Structures

Crossing-Over Firmness Factor (CFF)

This is defined as:

CFF = \frac{Number of crossing over lines in the complete repeat}{Number of interlacement po int in the complete repeat}

Ogawa²⁵ originally coined this term. The only disadvantage was that it was not clearly understood for further investigation. In order to obviate this, Morino et al.²², redefined the Crossing over Firmness Factor (CFF), as follows:

CFF = N_{c} / N_{i}

where N_c = Number of crossing-over lines in the complete repeat and N_i = number of interlacing points in the complete repeat.

The details of CFF for plain weave structure are shown in Figure 2. The crossing-over line number is counted as 1 when the interlacing point changes, for example, the warp yarn changes from over to under the weft yarn, or vice versa in the warp direction. The number is summed up in the complete repeat. In the case of plain weave, there are eight crossing over lines in the complete repeat (c1–c4 warp crossing over line and c5–c8 weft crossing over line) and four interlacing points (i1 and i2 warp interlacement point and i3 and i4 weft interlacement point). Hence, there are eight crossing over lines and four interlacement points. Therefore, the CFF becomes 2. This was explained by Thanikaivimal,²⁴ using the formula given by Milasius.²⁶CFF is useful for understanding yarn interaction and interlacing firmness but lacks density consideration.

Figure 2.

Details of crossing over firmness factor (CFF).

Floating Yarn Factor (FYF)

The floating yarn factor is defined as follows: Figure 3 shows detail of the floating yarn type from which each weight was decided. FYF focuses on the length of yarn floats and is best for analyzing fabrics with long floats but may be less useful for tighter weaves.

FYF = \frac{({Type}_{I ~ IX} - 1) \times (Existing number of {type}_{I ~ IX} in the complete repeat)}{Number of interlacing point \sin the complete repeat}

Figure 3.

Details of floating yarn factor (FYF).

In a plain weave:

FYF = \frac{(0) \times (1)}{4}

Each warp yarn passes over one weft yarn and under the next, and vice versa.

In a plain weave, every warp yarn interlaces with every weft yarn

FYF evaluate the length of parts of floats

Fabric Firmness Factor (FFF)

This was computed using the formula given by Milasius^26,27. FFF offers a more comprehensive analysis of fabric firmness but can be complex and may not account for specific weave characteristics.

φ = \sqrt{\frac{12}{π}} \frac{1}{P 1} \sqrt{\frac{T_{av}}{ρ}} S_{2} \frac{1}{1 + \frac{2}{3} \sqrt{\frac{T_{1}}{T_{2}}}} S_{1} \frac{\frac{2}{3} \sqrt{\frac{T_{1}}{T_{2}}}}{1 + \frac{2}{3} \sqrt{\frac{T_{1}}{T_{2}}}}

where $ρ = \frac{S_{1} ρ_{1} + S_{2} ρ_{2}}{S_{1} + S_{2}}$ and $T_{av} = \frac{S_{1} T_{1} + S_{2} T_{2}}{S_{1} + S_{2}}$ . T₁, T₁, T₂, and T_av are, respectively, the warp count, weft count and average count in Tex. P1 is the Milasius weave factor and ρ is the fiber density. S₁ and S₂ are the ends and picks per decimeter, and ρ₁ and ρ₂ are the fiber density of warp and weft.

Yarn Pullout Force

This was determined on an Instron tensile tester following the procedure adopted by Nilakantan and Gillespiel.⁷ The fabric particulars are shown in Table 1. A clamp was fabricated and fixed to the Instron tensile tester. The fabric was fixed with clamp and a single yarn was pulled out from the fabric. Figure 4 shows the experimental setup for the model.

Table 1.

Fabric particular.

S.no.	Fabric particulars	GSM	Thickness(cm)	Porosity(%)	CFF	FYF	FFF	Warp and weft count	Weavefactor	Ends/cm	Picks/cm
1	Plain	97.58	0.034	80.639	2	0	0.49	19z.08tex	1	22	23
2	2/2 twill	98.64	0.042	84.192	1	1	0.4		1.265	23	25
3	4/4 twill	91.34	0.048	87.207	0.5	1.5	0.28		1.789	23	24
4	2/2 pointed twill	94.72	0.044	85.648	1	1	0.39		1.265	23	23
5	Eight thread twilled hopsack	93.68	0.045	86.244	1	1	0.38		1.321	23	24
6	Eight thread weft sateen	91.24	0.047	87.167	0.5	1.5	0.27		1.789	22	22
7	Eight thread honey comb	98.02	0.046	85.917	1.19	0.81	0.37		1.253	23	20
8	Eight thread brighten honey comb	102.8	0.057	87.977	1.5	0.5	0.44		1.109	22	23
9	Eight thread huck-a-back	96.26	0.053	88.674	1.25	0.75	0.4		1.188	22	22
10	Eight thread crepe cord	96.84	0.057	88.674	1.5	0.5	0.44		1.109	23	23
11	Eight thread pin head crepe	91.78	0.053	88.368	1.13	0.88	0.38		1.249	22	22

Figure 4.

Schematic diagram of yarn pull-out force.

Results and Discussions

Table 2 presents data on the yarn pull out force in respect of 11 weaves both in warp and weft directions

Table 2.

Yarn pull-out force.

S.no	Fabric particular	Conventional/conventional warp way (gf)		Conventional/conventional weft way (gf)
S.no	Fabric particular	Mean	95% CI	Mean	95% CI
1	Plain	142.82	±0.79	102.40	±2.80
2	2/2 twill	65.43	±2.81	57.59	±0.52
3	4/4 twill	31.63	±0.66	27.60	±0.31
4	2/2 pointed twill	66.82	±1.27	52.24	±1.43
5	Eight thread twilled hopsack	61.68	±1.31	54.65	±2.78
6	Eight thread weft sateen	27.50	±0.20	23.49	±1.20
7	Eight thread honey comb	57.78	±1.89	55.22	±0.70
8	Eight thread brighten honey comb	82.53	±2.71	71.87	±1.14
9	Eight thread huck—a—back	68.45	±2.02	58.65	±1.54
10	Eight thread crepe cord	80.77	±0.19	64.16	±0.86
11	Eight thread pin head crepe	46.84	±0.67	38.79	±2.61

95% CI = 95% confidence interval for mean.

Influence of Yarn Pull-Out Force of Conventional/Conventional Fabrics

It is apparent that yarn pull out force shows the highest value for plain weave and the lowest value for eight thread weft sateen. The other fabrics also demonstrate that the values are lower. This is mainly due to the greater interlacements in the plain woven fabric. The correlation between the weave parameters and yarn pull out force is given in Table 3.

Table 3.

Correlation coefficient of weave structures and yarn pull-out force.

Weave parameters	Conventional/conventional
Weave parameters	Warp direction	Weft direction
Crossing over firmness factor (CFF)	0.929*	0.943*
Floating yarn factor (FYF)	−0.930*	−0.945*
Fabric firmness factor (FFF)	0.904*	0.934*

Significant at 95% level.

The relationship between yarn pull out force in respect of warp and weft produced form conventional/ conventional and weave structures such as CFF, FYF, and FFF are represented in Figures 5 –8. It is apparent that the correlation is highly significant. When the CFF is high, yarns are more tightly interlaced, creating a strong fabric structure. This increases friction between yarns and makes it more difficult for individual yarns to slip out when subjected to a pulling force. Thus, yarn pull-out force increases. A lower CFF indicates fewer interlacing points or looser interlocking between yarns, which reduces friction and makes it easier for yarns to move. Consequently, yarn pull-out force decreases. Porosity plays a significant role in determining yarn pull-out force. Fabrics with low porosity tend to have higher pull-out force due to increased friction and interlocking between the yarns. This is in substantial agreement with the findings of Bilisik.¹³ Bilisik¹⁴ has produced plain rib and satin weaves having the same fabric sett, but he has not considered the weave parameters to correlate then with yarn pull out force. His work also shows that the highest CFF is associated with the highest yarn pull out force. The yarn pull out force is influenced by inter fiber friction and contact since the contacts are more in plain weave, and the yarn pull out force is greater. Also, in many cases the conventional/ conventional yarn exhibits a highest value obviouslydue to it having the highest friction. This is shown in Figures 9 –11.

Figure 5.

Relationships between yarn pullout force and crossing over firmness factor (CFF) of conventional/conventional doubled yarn fabrics.

Figure 6.

Relationship between yarn pullout force and floating yarn factor (FYF) of conventional/conventional doubled yarn fabrics.

Figure 7.

Relationship between yarn pullout force and fabric firmness factor (FFF) of conventional/conventional doubled yarn fabrics.

Figure 8.

Relationship between yarn pullout force and porosity (%) of conventional/conventional doubled yarn fabrics.

Figure 9.

Effect of weave parameters crossing over firmness factor (CFF) type on yarn pull-out force.

Figure 10.

Effect of weave parameters floating yarn factor (FYF) type on yarn pull-out force.

Figure 11.

Effect of weave parameters fabric firmness factor (FFF) type on yarn pull-out force.

The yarn pull out force in respect of weft way is lower than that of warp way in all the cases which is attributed to yarn crimp. Weft crimp is greater than that of warp crimp and weft yarns are not in straight configuration. Thus the area of contact between the yarns is less which leads to a lower pull out force. Another reason is yarn to yarn friction which is greater in warp way in comparison to weft. Thus a plain woven structure exhibits more stability and can be considered for ballistic applications.

Conclusion

Yarn pull out force in respect of plain fabric was by far found to be the highest in comparison to other weaves. Lowest value of pull out force was found to occur in weft sateen weave. More importantly, this study has demonstrated that the frictional yarn sliding behavior of a fabric is highly dependent on the weave structures. Fabric designers and engineers must carefully consider these factors to tailor fabric properties to specific applications. Higher pull-out forces may be desirable in applications where fabric stability, durability, and strength are critical, such as in technical textiles, protective clothing, or composites used in aerospace and automotive industries. This also underscores the potential for optimizing the fabric performance.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Rajesh Kumar

J. Thanikai Vimal

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Effect of Weave Parameters on Yarn Pull-Out Force of Woven Fabrics Made From Doubled Yarns and With Different Weave Structures

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Experimental

Materials

Yarns Used for the Production of Fabrics

Methods

Fabric Production

Weave Factor

Fabric Processing

Measurement of Porosity

Measurement of Thickness

Measurement of Areal density

Definition of the Parameters of the Weave Structures

Crossing-Over Firmness Factor (CFF)

Floating Yarn Factor (FYF)

Fabric Firmness Factor (FFF)

Yarn Pullout Force

Results and Discussions

Influence of Yarn Pull-Out Force of Conventional/Conventional Fabrics

Conclusion

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

ORCID iDs

References