Living labs have recently emerged as important intermediaries for open innovations, solving social challenges, and enhancing knowledge sharing through participatory approaches. A key attribute of living labs is to bring various stakeholders together for collective activities, such as co-design and co-creation. Ensuring stakeholder motivation and sustained engagement persists as a challenge for living labs. Research reveals that serious games can improve stakeholder engagement in traditionally non-gaming sectors. However, no literature review has been conducted on the use of serious games in the context of living lab innovations. This study addresses the gap by providing a comprehensive overview of the existing applications of serious games within living lab settings for open innovations. Two scientific databases were searched in December 2024, resulting in a review of 29 relevant studies. The analysis reveals that (a) the leading sectors adopting serious games in living labs are education, environmental management, mobility, health, and energy; (b) geogames, simulation games, behavlet games, social-serious games, and exergames are the most applied types across various living lab themes; (c) through the innovation process, serious games are most often implemented during stakeholder integration and co-design phases, leveraging game characteristics such as challenges, goals, multi-players, and competition. This review highlights both the benefits and limitations of employing serious games for innovations in living labs, offering practical guidance for innovation researchers and game developers in selecting appropriate serious games for different living lab activities and game development.
AbtCC (1971) Serious Games. New York. The Viking Press, Inc., 1970. Pp. 176. 4.95 paper. American Political Science Review, 65(4), 1158–1159. https://doi.org/10.2307/1953510
2.
Al-JayyousiORDurugboCM (2020) Co-Creative learning in innovation laboratories using lego serious play workshops. International Journal of Innovation and Technology Management17(07): 2050051. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0219877020500510
3.
AldrichC (2009) Learning Online with Games, Simulations, and Virtual Worlds: Strategies for Online Instruction. John Wiley & Sons.
4.
AlessiSMTrollipSR (2000) Multimedia for Learning: Methods and Development. 3rd edition. Allyn & Bacon, Inc.
5.
BakhanovaEGarciaJARaffeWLVoinovA (2020) Targeting social learning and engagement: What serious games and gamification can offer to participatory modeling. Environmental Modelling & Software134: 104846.
6.
BeckerK (2021) What’s the difference between gamification, serious games, educational games, and game-based learning. Acad. Lett209: 1–4. https://doi.org/10.20935/al209
7.
BerberiABeaudoinCMcPheeC, et al. (2026) Enablers, barriers, and future considerations for living lab effectiveness in environmental and agricultural sustainability transitions: a review of studies evaluating living labs. Local Environment31: 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2023.2238750
8.
BisantiMPaoloRDPizziolV, et al. (2022) Digital escape games in educational programs for financial literacy. European Conference on Games Based Learning16(1): 666–674. Article 1. https://doi.org/10.34190/ecgbl.16.1.857
CaseyEJoczJPetersonKA, et al. (2023) Motivating youth to learn STEM through a gender inclusive digital forensic science program. Smart Learning Environments10(1): 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-022-00213-x
11.
CellinaFDerboniMGiuffridaV, et al. (2024) Trust me if you can: practical challenges affecting the integration of carpooling in Mobility-as-a-Service platforms. Travel Behaviour and Society37: 100832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2024.100832
12.
CerretaMDaldaniseGLa RoccaL, et al. (2021) Triggering active communities for cultural creative cities: the ‘Hack the City’ play ReCH mission in the Salerno historic centre (Italy). Sustainability13(21): 11877. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111877
ChengM-TChenJ-HChuS-J, et al. (2015) The use of serious games in science education: a review of selected empirical research from 2002 to 2013. J. Comput. Educ2: 353–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-015-0039-9
15.
CowleyBCharlesD (2016) Behavlets: a method for practical player modelling using psychology-based player traits and domain specific features. User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction26(2): 257–306. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11257-016-9170-1
16.
de OliveiraÁRaposoJNiitamoV-P (2010) Save energy: transforming human behaviour for energy efficiency. eChallenges E-2010 Conference: 1–8. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5756538
17.
de SenaÍCoccoCBrůžaV, et al. (2023) EbAcraft: engaging local communities in learning about ecosystem-based adaptation for coastal cities in Europe. In: 2023 IEEE 19th International Conference on E-Science (e-Science). Presented at the 2023 IEEE 19th International Conference on e-Science (e-Science), Limassol, Cyprus, October 9-13, 2023, pp. 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1109/e-Science58273.2023.10254941
18.
de Souza e SilvaADelacruzGC (2006) Hybrid reality games reframed: potential uses in educational contexts. Games Cult1: 231–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555412006290443
19.
DempseyJVOthersA (1996) Instructional Applications of Computer Games. NY: Paper presented at the American Education Research Association.
20.
DernatSGrillotMAndreottiF, et al. (2025) A sustainable game changer? Systematic review of serious games used for agriculture and research agenda. Agricultural Systems222: 104178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2024.104178
21.
DjaoutiDAlvarezJJesselJP (2011) Classifying serious games: the G/P/S model. In: Handbook of Research on Improving Learning and Motivation Through Educational Games: Multidisciplinary Approaches. IGI Global Scientific Publishing, pp. 118–136.
22.
DuinHBaalsrud HaugeJ (2008) refQuest: a multiplayer on-line game to support idea creation in innovation processes. In: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Web Information Systems and Technologies, Funchal, Madeira, Portugal, 4-7 May, 2008, pp. 447–454. https://doi.org/10.5220/0001520504470454
23.
EhlenzMHeinemannBSchroederU (2022) Open research tools for the learning technologies innovation lab. International Journal of Online and Biomedical Engineering (iJOE)18(14): 42–58. Article 14. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijoe.v18i14.35077
24.
El-NasrMSGrossJB (2006) Fun & games: on the process of game design. In: Proceedings of the 6th Conference on Designing Interactive Systems, Pennsylvania, US, June 26–28, 2006, 369–370. https://doi.org/10.1145/1142405.1142469
FeldmannNAdamMBauerM (2014) Using serious games for idea assessment in service innovation. In: Twenty Second European Conference on Information Systems, Tel Aviv, Israel, June 9–11,2014. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.2873.0881
28.
Fitz-WalterZJohnsonDWyethP, et al. (2017) Driven to drive? Investigating the effect of gamification on learner driver behavior, perceived motivation and user experience. Computers in Human Behavior71: 586–595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.08.050
29.
ForbatJSahakianMAnnaheimJ, et al. (2025) Assessing processes and results of living labs: toward a general framework. Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy21: 2526892. https://doi.org/10.1080/15487733.2025.2526892
30.
FowlerSMPuschMD (2010) Intercultural simulation games: a review (of the United States and beyond). Simul. Gaming41: 94–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878109352204
31.
FraternaliPBaroffioGPasiniC, et al. (2015) Integrating real and digital games with data analytics for water consumption behavioral change: a demo. In: 2015 IEEE/ACM 8th International Conference on Utility and Cloud Computing (UCC), Limassol, Cyprus, December 7–10, 2015, pp. 408–409. https://doi.org/10.1109/UCC.2015.68
32.
FulmanNBenensonIBen-EliaE (2020) Modeling parking search behavior in the city center: a game-based approach. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies120: 102800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2020.102800
33.
GardeziMAbuayyashHAdlerP, et al. (2024) The role of living labs in cultivating inclusive and responsible innovation in precision agriculture. Agricultural Systems216: 103908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2024.103908
GhomanSKSchmölzerGM (2019) The RETAIN simulation-based serious game—a review of the literature. Healthcare (Basel)8(1): 3. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8010003
36.
GiangrecoEMarassoLChettaV, et al. (2014) Modeling tools of service value networks to support social innovation in a smart city. In: Electronic Government and Electronic Participation. IOS Press, pp. 206–215. https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-61499-429-9-206
37.
GobiraPSilvaEOliveiraL (2024) Digital games and the city: about reality, commuting and gamification. AM Journal of Art and Media Studies34: 11–25. https://doi.org/10.25038/am.v0i28.561
38.
GordanMKountcheDAMcCrumD, et al. (2024) Protecting critical infrastructure against cascading effects: the PRECINCT approach. Resilient Cities and Structures3(3): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcns.2024.04.001
39.
GradeREisaSPardalML (2022) Bluetooth peer-to-peer location certification with a gamified Mobile application. IEEE 21st International Symposium on Network Computing and Applications (NCA)21: 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1109/NCA57778.2022.10013607
HabiyaremyeA (2020) Knowledge exchange and innovation co-creation in living labs projects in South Africa. Innovation and Development10(2): 207–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/2157930X.2019.1580940
42.
HakkarainenLHyysaloS (2013) How do we keep the living laboratory alive? Learning and conflicts in living lab collaboration. Technology Innovation Management Review16–22.
HuangJThomasE (2021) A review of living lab research and methods for user involvement. Technology Innovation Management Review11: 88–107. https://doi.org/10.22215/timreview/1467
45.
IIIRR (2004) Game design: theory and practice. In: Theory and Practice. 2nd edition. Jones & Bartlett Learning.
KalinauskaiteIBrankaertRLuY, et al. (2021) Facing societal challenges in living labs: towards a conceptual framework to facilitate transdisciplinary collaborations. Sustainability13(2): 614. Article 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020614
48.
KalluriBVishnupriyaVArjunanP, et al. (2024) Net-zero energy campuses in India: blending education and governance for sustainable and just transition. Sustainability16(1): 87. Article 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16010087
49.
KanstrupAM (2017) Living in the lab: an analysis of the work in eight living laboratories set up in care homes for technology innovation. CoDesign13(1): 49–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/15710882.2016.1146304
KennyRFGunterGA (2007) Endogenous fantasy-based serious games: intrinsic motivation and learning. International Journal of Social Sciences2: 8–13.
52.
KhenissiMAEssalmiFJemniM (2015) Comparison between serious games and learning version of existing games. Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci., The Proceedings of 6th World Conference on educational Sciences191: 487–494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.380
53.
KieferPMatyasSSchliederC (2006) Learning about cultural heritage by playing geogames. In: HarperRRauterbergMCombettoM (eds) Entertainment Computing—ICEC 2006. Springer, pp. 217–228. https://doi.org/10.1007/11872320_26
54.
KoensKStompffGVervloedJ, et al. (2024) How deep is your lab? Understanding the possibilities and limitations of living labs in tourism. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management32: 100893. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2024.100893
55.
KoflerI (2023) Beyond disciplinary constraints: designing transdisciplinary research and collaboration in real-world laboratories. Societies13(9): 205. Article 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc13090205
56.
KonstantinidisEBamparopoulosGBamidisP (2017) Moving real exergaming engines on the web: the webFitForAll case study in an active and healthy ageing living lab environment. IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics21(3): 859–866. https://doi.org/10.1109/JBHI.2016.2559787
57.
LaamartiFEidMEl SaddikA (2014) An overview of serious games. International Journal of Computer Games Technology2014(1): 358152. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/358152
58.
Le MarcCMathieuJ-PPallotM, et al. (2010) Serious gaming: from learning experience towards user experience. In: 2010 IEEE International Technology Management Conference (ICE), Lugano, Switzerland, 21-23 June,2010, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICE.2010.7477028
59.
LeeL-KWeiXChuiKT, et al. (2024) A systematic review of the design of serious games for innovative learning: augmented reality, virtual reality, or mixed reality?Electronics13: 890. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13050890
60.
LeminenSNiitamoV-PWesterlundM (2017) A brief history of living labs: from scattered initiatives to global movement. In: Proceedings of the Open Living Labs Research Day, Krakow, Poland, August 29 to September 1, 2017, pp. 42–58.
61.
LepperMRCordovaDI (1992) A desire to be taught: instructional consequences of intrinsic motivation. Motivation and Emotion16: 187–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00991651
62.
LiBSomaTSpringleN, et al. (2023) Reflections from implementing a virtual social innovation lab. International Journal of Qualitative Methods22: 16094069221149871. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069221149871
MačiulienėMSkaržauskienėA (2020) Sustainable urban innovations: digital co-creation in European living labs. Kybernetes49(7): 1969–1986. https://doi.org/10.1108/K-07-2019-0514
65.
MairitthaNMairitthaTInoueS (2019) Optimizing activity data collection with gamification points using uncertainty based active learning. In: Adjunct Proceedings of the 2019 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing and Proceedings of the 2019 ACM International Symposium on Wearable Computers, London, UK, 9-13 September, 2019, pp. 761–767. https://doi.org/10.1145/3341162.3345585
66.
MaloneTWLepperMR (1987) Making learning fun: a taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. In: Aptitude, Learning, and Instruction. Routledge.
67.
MancusoVFHamiltonKTeslerR, et al. (2013) An experimental evaluation of the effectiveness of endogenous and exogenous fantasy in computer-based simulation training. Int. J. Gaming Comput.-Mediat. Simul. IJGCMS5: 50–65. https://doi.org/10.4018/jgcms.2013010104
68.
MarcusWangW (eds) (2018) Design, User Experience, and Usability: Users, Contexts and Case Studies. Springer International Publishing, pp. 67–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91806-8_6
MartinACaonMAdorniF, et al. (2020) A Mobile phone intervention to improve obesity-related health behaviors of adolescents across Europe: Iterative Co-Design and feasibility study. JMIR mHealth and uHealth8(3): e14118. https://doi.org/10.2196/14118
71.
MarvinSBulkeleyHMaiL, et al. (2018) Urban Living Labs: Experimenting with City Futures. Routledge.
72.
MastelicJ (2019) Stakeholders’ Engagement in the co-design of Energy Conservation Interventions: The Case of the Energy Living Lab. Université de Lausanne.
MastelicJEmeryLPrevidoliD, et al. (2017) Energy management in a public building: a case study co-designing the building energy management system. In: 2017 International Conference on Engineering, Technology and Innovation (ICE/ITMC), Madeira Island, Portugal, June 27–29, 2017, 1517–1523. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/8280062/
76.
MolinariMAnund VogelJRolandoD, et al. (2023) Using living labs to tackle innovation bottlenecks: the KTH Live-In lab case study. Applied Energy338: 120877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.120877
NestiG (2015) Urban living labs as a new form of co-production. Insights from the European experience. In: ICPP-international Conference on Public Policy II,Milan, Italy, July, 1–4. https://www.ippapublicpolicy.org/file/paper/1434298683.pdf
79.
OtienoFNalakurthiS-RNRajiM, et al. (2024) Farmer’s attitudes towards GHG emissions and adoption to low-cost sensor-driven smart farming for mitigation: the case of Ireland tillage and horticultural farmers. Smart Agricultural Technology9, 1-16. Article 100622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2024.100622
80.
PallotMMarcCLRichirS, et al. (2012) Innovation gaming: an immersive experience environment enabling Co-creation. In: Handbook of Research on Serious Games as Educational, Business and Research Tools. IGI Global Scientific Publishing, pp. 1–24. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-4666-0149-9.ch001
81.
PietrapertosaFTancrediMSalviaM, et al. (2021) An educational awareness program to reduce energy consumption in schools. Journal of Cleaner Production278: 123949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123949
82.
PoplinA (2025) Geogames: an expanded definition, application areas, geogame types, and a proposed research agenda. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/23998083251382383
83.
RaybournEM (2007) Applying simulation experience design methods to creating serious game-based adaptive training systems. Interact. Comput19: 206–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intcom.2006.08.001
84.
RiazKMcAfeeMGharbiaSS (2023) Management of climate resilience: exploring the potential of digital twin technology, 3D city modelling, and early warning systems. Sensors23(5): 2659. Article 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052659
85.
SalemePDietrichTPangB, et al. (2023) Co-creating and evaluating social marketing programs: a living lab approach. Journal of Social Marketing13(3): 399–418. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSOCM-06-2022-0124
86.
SanzanaMRAbdulrazicMOMWongJY, et al. (2023) Gamified virtual labs: shifting from physical environments for low-risk interactive learning. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education16(1): 208–221. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-09-2022-0281
87.
SchliederCKieferPMatyasS (2006) Geogames: designing location-based games from classic board games. IEEE Intelligent Systems21(5): 40–46. https://doi.org/10.1109/MIS.2006.93
88.
SchuurmanDLeminenS (2021) Living labs past achievements, current developments, and future trajectories. Sustainability13(19): 10703. Article 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131910703
89.
ScozziBBellantuonoNPontrandolfoP (2017) Managing open innovation in urban labs. Group Decision and Negotiation26: 857–874. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10726-017-9524-z
90.
SpitzRQueirozFPereiraCCardarelli LeiteLFerrantiMPDamP (2018) Do You Eat This? Changing Behavior Through Gamification, Crowdsourcing and Civic Engagement. In:MarcusAWangW (eds) Design, User Experience, and Usability: Users, Contexts and Case Studies. DUXU 2018. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 10920. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91806-8_6
91.
TekinbasKSZimmermanE (2003) Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals. MIT Press.
92.
TeneTVique LópezDFValverde AguirrePE, et al. (2025) A systematic review of serious games as tools for STEM education. Frontiers in Education10: 1432982. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2025.1432982
93.
UbachukwuEPickJRiebeselL, et al. (2023) LLEC energy dashboard suite: user engagement for energy-efficient behavior using dashboards and gamification. In: Proceedings Ofecos2023, the 36th International Conference on Efficiency, Cost, Optimization, Simulation and Environmental Impact of Energy Systems, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria,Spain, 25-30 June, 2023.
94.
WargnierPPhuongEMarivanK, et al. (2016) Virtual promenade: a new serious game for the rehabilitation of older adults with Post-fall syndrome. In: 2016 IEEE International Conference on Serious Games and Applications for Health (Segah), Orlando, Florida, US, 4-13 May, 2016, pp. 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1109/SeGAH.2016.7586267
95.
WitteveenLRoosminiDMansoorA, et al. (2024) Design and development of serious games for future proof peatland management: option for virtual living labs. E3S Web of Conferences485: 03007. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202448503007
96.
ZiebaGadelha (2023) Proceedings of the Open Living Lab Days Conference, 20-23 September, 2022, Turin, Italy.
97.
ZipfelNHorrehBHulshofCTJ, et al. (2022) The relationship between the living lab approach and successful implementation of healthcare innovations: an integrative review. BMJ Open12(6): e058630. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-058630
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
