Applying the Worker Well-Being Framework to Identify Factors that Impact Turnover Among Long-Haul Truck Drivers

Abstract

Background:

Drivers in the long-haul trucking industry have chronic health conditions, engage in unhealthy behaviors, and leave the industry at high rates. Previous work has not considered the health and safety outcomes resulting from the conditions of work in the trucking industry and their role in turnover. The goal of this study was to understand the expectations of an incoming workforce, explore how work conditions impact their well-being, and identify strategies for retention.

Methods:

Semi-structured interviews were conducted among current long-haul drivers and supervisors at trucking companies, and students and instructors at trucking schools (n = 33). Participants were asked about why they decided to enter the industry, their health challenges related to being in the trucking industry and whether these challenges were related to turnover, and strategies for retention.

Findings:

Health conditions, differences in job expectations, and work demands were associated with leaving the industry. Workplace policies and culture (e.g., lack of supervisor support, schedules that limited home time, company size, and lack of benefits) were associated with workers’ intention to leave an organization. Strategies identified to improve retention included integrating health and wellness into onboarding, creating realistic job expectations for those entering the industry, establishing relationships with drivers and dispatchers, and developing policies to limit time away from family.

Conclusion/Application to Practice:

Turnover in the trucking industry is a persistent problem and leads to a shortage of skilled workers, increases the workload, and reduces productivity. Understanding the relationship between the conditions of work and well-being provides a more holistic approach to address the health, safety, and well-being of long-haul truck drivers. Health conditions, differences in job expectations, and work demands were associated with leaving the industry. Workplace policies and culture (e.g., supervisor support, schedules that limited home time, lack of benefits) were associated with workers’ intention to leave an organization. These conditions provide an opportunity for occupational health interventions to promote the physical as well as psychological health of long-haul truck drivers.

Background

Turnover is a persistent problem in the trucking industry (Costello & Karickhoff, 2019). Previous studies examining turnover among long-haul truck drivers have focused on an organization’s culture (LeMay et al., 1993; Stephenson & Fox, 1996) or individual factors such as employee commitment (LeMay et al., 1993; Williams et al., 2011), employee motivation (Williams et al., 2011), and job satisfaction (Huang et al., 2016; Min & Lambert, 2002; Prockl et al., 2017) as predictors of turnover. An important component of job satisfaction is whether an individual’s expectations of the job are met (Porter & Steers, 1973; Prockl et al., 2017). These expectations include a realistic understanding of both the positive and negative aspects of the job and working environment and are often set prior to hire (Earnest et al., 2011; Kreisman, 2002). However, these studies overlook the health and safety outcomes that result from the work environment, organizational factors in the trucking industry, and the role they play in turnover.

The work environment for long-haul truck drivers is considered detrimental to their physical and psychological health (Lee et al., 2016). Long hours of service (Apostolopolous et al., 2013; Apostolopoulos et al., 2014, 2016; Chen et al., 2015), extended periods of seated, sedentary work (Apostolopolous et al., 2013; Apostolopoulos et al., 2014), a lack of access to healthy food (Apostolopoulos et al., 2014, 2016), and high work demands contribute to behaviors such as an unhealthy diet (Apostolopoulos et al., 2014, 2016), substance use (da Silva-Júnior et al., 2009; Davey et al., 2007), and a lack of physical activity (Apostolopolous et al., 2013; Apostolopoulos et al., 2014). Long-haul truck drivers also have high rates of chronic health conditions including obesity (Apostolopoulos et al., 2014; Robinson & Burnett, 2005; Sieber et al., 2014), sleep apnea (Apostolopoulos et al., 2014; Sieber et al., 2014), diabetes (Apostolopoulos et al., 2014; Sieber et al., 2014), hypertension (Apostolopoulos et al., 2014; Robinson & Burnett, 2005; Sieber et al., 2014), and lower back and shoulder pain as a result of prolonged exposure to whole body vibration (Apostolopoulos et al., 2014; Bovenzi, 2008, 2010).

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Total Worker Health (TWH) approach has recognized that the work environment and organizational factors are important components of occupational health and safety that can directly impact health as well as work outcomes such as absenteeism, turnover, and retention (Anger et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2016). In addition to addressing traditional workplace hazards found in the physical work environment, the TWH approach broadens occupational safety and health to consider the conditions of work (e.g., long hours, work demands and stress levels, relationships with coworkers and supervisors, access to health benefits) that can impact the health, safety, and well-being of workers (Lee et al., 2016). Interventions aligned with the TWH approach have been shown to be more effective than wellness programs that focus only on health promotion (Anger et al., 2015; Carr et al., 2016; Feltner et al., 2016). This holistic approach is operationalized in the Worker Well-being Framework which identifies five domains of well-being (Chari et al., 2018). These domains include the workplace physical environment and safety culture, workplace policies and culture, work evaluation and experience, health status, and external nonwork aspects of individual’s lives (home, community, and society) that can also impact well-being (Chari et al., 2018).

This study used qualitative research methodology to understand the individual, organizational, and environmental factors that have been shown to impact the health of long-haul truck drivers and their subsequent impact on turnover and retention. Recognizing that job expectations may be set prior to taking a position (Broadbridge et al., 2007), it is important to understand the reasons individuals enter the trucking industry and their expectations about the job. Understanding these reasons, as well as why individuals choose to leave an organization or leave the trucking industry, can inform potential strategies to retain drivers and improve their health and well-being. We utilized the Worker Well-being Framework which provides a holistic approach that includes not only the traditional safety and health hazards but also the conditions of work. The goal of this work was to understand the expectations individuals have when they enter the industry and how these expectations align with the work environment, explore how the conditions of work impact well-being, and identify potential strategies for retention.

Methods

This study was focused on long-haul truck drives in the Midwestern region of the United States. The three community colleges that offered CDL programs in Iowa were contacted through convenience sampling. The students and instructors were recruited from the two colleges who agreed to participate. The CDL students were individuals enrolled in a Class A CDL course at a trucking school or community college and were enrolled into the study to understand their job expectations and reasons for entering the industry. Instructors of CDL courses included personnel who had previously worked in and had substantial knowledge about the trucking industry. They taught and supervised students in CDL courses to prepare them for driving an 18-wheeler.

Similarly, three trucking companies in Iowa and Illinois that had facilities at various locations around the country were invited to participate in the study and the supervisors and current drivers were recruited from the two organizations that agreed to participate. Supervisors included individuals who directly manage or hire truck drivers in a company, such as logistic managers, human resource personnel, distribution/dispatching managers, and health and safety officers. Due to their experience with managing and hiring drivers, supervisors have firsthand knowledge about the impacts of turnover in the trucking industry and on their organization. Current drivers included individuals who operated 18-wheelers for an organization that hauls goods regionally or nationally.

Data Collection

The project was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University of Iowa. Semi-structured interviews were conducted either in-person or via telephone depending on the preference of the participants. The interviews lasted approximately 30 minutes and each participant received $40 after completion of the interview. Interview questions were related to their decision to enter the trucking industry, the health challenges related to being in the trucking industry and whether these challenges were related to turnover, and strategies for retention. The appropriateness of the questions, duration of the interviews, as well as the format of the questions were discussed with experts in qualitative research methodology, as well as health and safety personnel who had closely observed work in the trucking industry.

Data Analysis

Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed into text, and coded. The transcriptions were then analyzed using the framework analysis approach, which is a deductive analysis approach used to identify recurring and significant themes where the researchers start with initial categories to code the data (Pope et al., 2000; Smith & Firth, 2011; Srivastava & Thomson, 2009). The transcripts from the interview were first read thoroughly to become familiar with the content. The questions asked during the semi-structured interviews were used as the initial thematic framework to create an outline of the initial themes in the interviews (e.g., reasons for entering the industry, health challenges and their relation to turnover, potential retention strategies). Then initial themes from the interview transcript were then grouped. The responses in each section were also revised and coded to identify themes within the groups. The initial themes were then sorted through charting and preliminary headings such as age, chronic health conditions, expectations, home time, company relationships, and benefits. The headings were finally mapped to the five domains in the Worker Well-being Framework (i.e., health status; work evaluation and experience; workplace physical environment and safety culture; workplace policies and culture; home, community, and society).

Results

A total of 33 participants were interviewed for the study (Supervisors, n = 5; Current Drivers, n = 7; CDL students, n = 14; CDL instructors, n = 7). Interviews lasted 20 to 60 minutes and recruitment of new participants in each category continued until no new topics were being discussed in the interviews. The drivers had been working in the trucking industry for an average of 21 years (range: 3–33 years) and worked for an average of five companies (range: 3–8 companies) while the students had recently enrolled in the CDL courses. All but two of the supervisors had also worked as long-haul truck drivers before moving into their current position. All the instructors had also worked in the trucking industry an average of 20.2 years as drivers and in different other positions, for example, as a local driver and/or supervisor.

Reason for Entering the Trucking Industry and Job Expectations

All participants were asked why they entered the trucking industry. This provided insight into their expectations about the job. The primary reasons included less physical labor, a flexible work schedule, and a higher-paying job for a high school graduate (only a high school degree or GED is required to enroll in CDL courses). Students believed that the pay scale for truck drivers was high for their level of education, which motivates them to enter the industry. Driver 4 stated that “High school was as far as I wanted to go and then I wanted to have a trade. I tried to choose the logical way to go.”

Students expressed that truck driving is better than other jobs with their education level, especially jobs that are physically strenuous (e.g., working in warehousing or construction). Students also considered truck driving to be better than other jobs where workers have fewer opportunities for promotion. For most of the students, truck driving was their retirement job as they had previously worked in a physically demanding job, and they entered the trucking industry to have a job that was less strenuous. Student 1 reported his decision to enter the trucking industry as smarter as it paid him more than his previous jobs:

I’d say my motivation with driving trucks was basically, I think more pay for less work. I used to work in warehouses that had a lot of physical labor. So truck driving I think is a lot smarter. You get less work, and you get paid more.

Factors Leading to Turnover

During the interviews, participants discussed the health challenges related to being in the trucking industry and whether these challenges were related to turnover. This included both the reasons for leaving an organization (organizational turnover) and reasons for leaving the industry (industry turnover). The participants’ responses on the interview questions were grouped into the five Worker Well-being Framework domains (Chari et al., 2018).

Health Status

The health status domain is focused on individual characteristics (e.g., physical and mental health, health behaviors, cognitive functioning) that can both impact an individual’s ability to work and also be impacted by conditions of work (e.g., injury, poor mental health). A common theme heard from all participants during the interviews was the impact of age on turnover. In addition to being a reason for some drivers to enter the industry, age was also considered by participants in all groups to be a major contributor for leaving the industry. As stated above, trucking was considered to be a retirement job by the majority of drivers and students to replace more physically demanding jobs. However, participants also mentioned that these drivers who approach retirement age are more likely to suffer from medical conditions that will disqualify them from driving because they will not be able to obtain medical certification to maintain their Commercial Driver’s License. Driver 7 stated, “Well, they get to the retirement age, where they can’t do it anymore or they can’t get a medical card or whatever, you know, at some point you’ve got to hang it up.”

The participants also mentioned age in relation to the use of technology. According to the participants in all the groups, there have been changes in the technology used in the trucking industry, specifically regarding logging work hours and providing dispatch information. Driver 1 mentioned difficulty using these new technologies as a reason why older experienced drivers are more likely to leave the industry. “All the old drivers are giving it up, because the technology’s chasing them away. They’ve lost their reasons why they loved driving truck.”

Work Evaluation and Experience

An individual’s satisfaction, support at work, job demands (e.g., long hours of work), and job expectations are components of the work evaluation and experience domain. Both instructors and supervisors identified unrealistic job expectations as contributing to industry turnover, particularly among those new to the industry. For example, Student 3 mentioned that he will look for a trucking job that stays local and has a more stable schedule as soon as they graduated: “. . . some places you’ll be home every day. You drive four hours there, four hours back. That’s what I’m going to be doing, which is why I’m really not worried about the physical aspects of it.” However, according to the instructors and drivers, getting a local job right after graduation could be difficult because it typically requires several years of experience and tenure in the industry. Instructor 1 talked about the incoming students’ expectations regarding the trucking industry:

Students . . . don’t have a real knowledge of what the industry is and they come here and . . . often say, ‘I want to be local, I want to be home every day. I want to work from 7:00 till 4:00 in the afternoon. Well that’s not the trucking industry.

Moreover, students planning to enter the trucking industry stated that long-haul trucking provides opportunities for travel. However, according to the participants currently working in the trucking industry, this is a misconception, travel as a long-haul truck driver typically includes seeing only the highways or the roads. These unrealistic job expectations can contribute to industry turnover.

Time-sensitive loads and work demands were also identified by drivers and supervisors as contributing to industry turnover. Drivers identified high work demands as a contributor to industry turnover. Driver 7 mentioned the unforeseen situations that may add to the demand:

My job is to get there before they quit taking, or, you know, their people go home. But you got to deal with the elements, the weather, the traffic, roadwork, and that’s, I guess in a way, a lot of times, makes you late.

In addition, Driver 3 reported that long-haul truck drivers are required to dispatch numerous deliveries to their customers within their hours of service, creating a demanding work schedule:

So the demands of this job is the reason the turnover rate is so high. They just demand an unreasonable amount of time from you, and they get people to think, because you’ve got the hours, that you have to do that job.

Support at work was also identified in the interviews; however, it was described as a reason for leaving an organization and not the industry. Drivers indicated that they are in constant communication with the dispatcher because they are the ones who act as the liaison between the drivers and everyone else on the delivery chain. However, the drivers are likely to leave the organization due to a poor interpersonal relationship, particularly if it impacts the work demands. Instructor 4 mentioned that

Relationship with dispatcher is the biggie. You can have a bad dispatcher, someone that’s really growly. Just, poor communication as far as, “Hey, you’re supposed to pick up this load.” Or, “Hey, it’s like that load’s not going to be done till tomorrow, but we want you here yesterday.” So then you sit there and you’re waiting and you’re waiting.

Support was also identified by supervisors as a factor for leaving the organization, “Most drivers are actually leaving the company, it’s because they feel like the company is not paying attention to their needs. And all of them are actually looking for companies that, put their needs as a priority.”

The size of the organization can also play a role. The rates of organizational turnover are particularly high among bigger trucking companies. Participants discussed the distinction in the work environment between a smaller or medium-sized company and a big company with respect to the relationships they have within those organizations. Current drivers stated that they prefer working at small or mid-sized companies because they are able to work more closely with other drivers and their supervisors. Bigger companies have a large number of employees who might not interact regularly. Driver 4 focused on the interpersonal relationships among workers in small and medium-sized companies:

You’re going to be happier at the smaller company. Because when you work for a bigger company, you’re not really a person you’re just a number; when you call up you don’t give them your name you give them your number. Like this is driver 178. At my company I call up and say, “hey, this is NAME.” You know, it’s attractive, it has a more human element and I have all the benefits, if not more than working for a big trucking company.

Workplace Physical Environment and Safety Culture

Long-haul truck drivers typically work 70 hours a week, which is higher than the 40 hours worked by employees in other occupations (Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration [FMCSA], 2015, 2018). Participants stated that these long hours contribute to both industry turnover and organizational turnover. The hours-of-service regulations allow long-haul drivers to work a 14-hour shift in a 24-hour day, which includes driving for a maximum of 11 hours and breaks (FMCSA, 2015, 2018). Driver 3 emphasized the demanding, yet sedentary, nature of their job with an example:

Sometimes this job is so demanding, that it doesn’t allow you to get out of the truck. Like I’ll give you an example. We go to a customer, some of these customers will restrict you from even getting out of your truck, or they’ll have you go in the break room and sit there. They won’t allow you to roam or walk on their property or do anything. You end up sitting there waiting for your truck to be unloaded or loaded. And then you’re off and running to the next pickup or delivery, and same thing there.

The long hours and sedentary work were also described by Instructor 4:

You know the long-haul guys they’re possibly sitting for 11 hours a day ‘cause that’s what you can drive and even when you gotta take your 30 minute break after eight hours, it’s not like you’re going to get out and do jumping jacks.

Participants also indicated that external factors, such as strict regulations, can impact turnover. Even though these regulations in the trucking industry are intended to keep drivers safe, they were reported to contribute to turnover. Instructor 1 reported long-haul trucking to be one of the “most heavily regulated industries . . . for a regular guy with high school diploma entering one of the most heavily regulated industries in the nation, I don’t want to add more regulation.” The drivers mentioned that the change in regulations is the primary reason for truck drivers leaving the industry. They believe that in recent years the trucking industry has become intensively regulated that have created additional demands on the drivers’ workload. Driver 5 stated, “It is related to government policies. I mean, I’m an old driver, and the ones that are getting out of it are the older drivers because the government has made so many changes in policies against the drivers.”

Workplace Policies and Culture

The workplace policies and culture domain include tangible benefits such as pay and health insurance, as well as perceived organizational support, and policies such as scheduling that address work and nonwork conflict. These include work schedules that keep drivers on the road and away from families, the size of the company, and the benefits offered.

Schedules often mean that a driver is spending a lot of time on the road. This was emphasized by the instructors. Instructor 2 stated, “you know truck drivers can work 365 days a year, morning, noon, and night, your time is going to vary over the road. You know, it just . . . that’s just the way it is.” Instructor (1) also stated, “And then it’s also, people get into it, and they’re gone for four or five weeks at a time.” These schedules can lead to conflict between work and nonwork activities. Driver 2 agreed that a driver will move to a different organization to spend more time with their families: “Most the time, when I got off the road, it was mostly because of family reasons to be home with my kids. I was tired of being gone all the time, yeah.”

Both supervisors and instructors stated that long-haul truck drivers regularly look for better opportunities and switch between companies instead of leaving the industry. According to Instructor 4, “. . . once you are in that driving mode, typically yes you’re always looking maybe for something else if you’re not happy. But that’s the turnover, it’s not that they’re leaving the industry. Unfortunately, they’re just switching jobs.” Therefore, not providing good benefits in the form of insurance—medical, dental, vision—as well as training programs to integrate drivers into the company could also lead to turnover among long-haul truck drivers. Participants in all the groups mentioned the importance of competitive pay and a good benefits package to retain drivers. Supervisor 5 particularly mentioned that the reasons “vary from not having any benefits, any medical benefits, dental, vision, not having any 401(k) or company match. Paid Time Off, so they’re only getting a week off versus two weeks or three weeks within the first year.”

Home, Community, and Society

Lack of home time was recognized by participants in all groups as a reason for leaving an organization. Drivers were more likely to leave a company for a local trucking job (organizational turnover) than to leave the industry as a whole (industry turnover), due to lack of home time. This time away from home and family can impact mental health. As Student 2 stated, “It’s emotion because people got wives and kids and girlfriends and it’s just emotionally draining, you know, because you’re away from your house probably months, you know.”

Strategies for Retention

Participants in all groups mentioned various strategies for retention. Most of these strategies described programs and policies at the organizational as well as at the industry level. Several drivers and instructors mentioned reducing the permitted age of drivers to enter the trucking industry to reduce industry turnover. Currently, the age requirement to become a long-haul truck driver is 21 years. The instructors suggested that bringing the age down to 18 years would lead to more people entering the industry right after high school before they choose a different career path. Instructor 6 reported that if these individuals are provided with proper training and enter industry at a younger age, it could help solve the issue of turnover from the trucking industry:

They need to open up this industry for the 18-year-olds. I mean . . . if they can go fight for their country, they can go out of [the state]. I might say put them with the driver for a year, a team operation and see how they are, then turn them loose. But I think we’d get more people. Everybody stopped for college. How many people, if you’d go up to [the local] high school that’s graduating, they don’t want to go to college, but they want to make money. They want to travel, guess where they can do it? Truck driving.

When their expectations about finding a local job or travel is not met, drivers are more likely to leave the industry. Instructor 1 reported that “the majority of the turnover that leaves the industry happens within that first year.” The instructors shared the importance of helping the students set realistic expectations about the job so that they are aware of the long hours and the difficulty of finding a local job. To set more realistic expectations, Instructor 6 mentioned that “they (students) need to be educated to what’s going to happen . . .” Instructor 6 particularly reported sharing personal stories and background information about the trucking industry during their classes to better inform the students as “It (trucking) is not a nine to five job and never will be.” The instructors also mentioned that orientation is effective in explaining the drivers’ responsibilities in a company. Orientation or onboarding is a way to ensure drivers understand the expectations and work demands. It is also an opportunity to build rapport with supervisors and the dispatchers.

Supervisor 1 focused on “more time off. Be more family friendly” to retain drivers in the industry. In relation to home time, the supervisors also stated that their companies have started using a relay system to reduce the time spent by drivers on the road. In a relay system, multiple drivers are hired to carry a load from one coast to another instead of having a single driver carry the load across the country. Supervisor 1 reported that drivers now operate within their region where they can return home on the same day as:

People can’t stand that long period of time away from their families. And in order for the owner of the company to compensate that, we started to create more opportunities, instead of taking this load and running, let’s say for 1,500 miles or 2,000 miles, or let’s say, across country. We will have you run it for three hundred miles, drop it at a location, and another driver picks it up from that location and runs it for another two or three hundred miles.

Although not being able to adapt to new technology was mentioned as one of the contributors of industry turnover, supervisors mentioned that technology that improves communication can assist with retention, allowing drivers to connect more easily and more often with their family and their supervisors. Supervisor 4 noted that

Backseat Wi-Fi, which will have the capabilities to where they can get Internet. A lot of the truck stops, you can get their free Wi-Fi but it’s kind of dicey. But if we had our own Wi-Fi in the truck then, that kind of technology would help them to see or feel more like with family when they’re on their own.

Instructors also stated the importance of team driving to provide hands-on training to new drivers and reduce organizational turnover. This can also assist with building a good relationship or rapport among drivers and supervisors/dispatchers and regular communication with the drivers encourages them to stay in the company. In addition to communicating about their schedule, Supervisor 5 reported that companies that have managers available to respond to driver questions and concerns have higher retention rates:

Yeah. I think that when a driver is upset or disgruntled for whatever reason, it’s very apparent. And I think that rather than ignoring . . . you should address it right there and then and ask what’s going on . . . So I think communication is key, and openness, and having that trust and that rapport built with your driver. Very important. You don’t work with them every single day. You don’t see them every day . . . you work with them, but you don’t see them. They’re not your cubemate where you can build that camaraderie on a daily basis like you normally would with another coworker. So you have to find new ways to build that relationship.

The participants in all the groups mentioned that a positive organizational culture where the employees are welcomed and treated well encourages drivers to stay longer. In addition, providing opportunities that allow drivers to switch roles or be promoted into new positions if they no longer want to work as drivers can retain drivers in the organization. Supervisor 1 stated that the managers should

Focus more on creating other opportunities for drivers when they are ready to make a career change. Say, you’ve been driving for five years but you want to get out of the truck . . . And those are the things that we have been doing a lot that help us to maintain a lot of those drivers. Not as drivers, but still as employees.

The supervisors mentioned that, at a time when drivers are leaving one company for marginal wage increases, it might be important for companies to provide competitive salaries and benefits packages to retain drivers in their companies. Participants believed that an annual increase in the drivers’ pay will also encourage drivers to stay with a company. Supervisor 2 mentioned that long hours and regulations could be compensated with a good salary and benefits package to retain drivers:

I think you have to start with a really good package in order to recruit and retain . . . Our benefits are day one. Our 401k has a really good match . . . . And then, like our PTO policy, our drivers get 17 days of PTO in their first year plus eight paid holidays and a floating holiday.

However, supervisors did mention that their companies have already been using pay and benefits packages to hire and retain drivers.

Discussion

Using the Worker Well-being Framework (Chari et al., 2018), interview responses were organized into five domains. All participants indicated that health status was an important factor for turnover from the industry. Age and health of the drivers were described not only as reasons for entering the industry, but also as contributors to industry turnover in the current study. The average age of current long-haul truck drivers is above 40 years (Apostolopoulos et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2015; Hege et al., 2017; Sieber et al., 2014). The results in the current study suggest that long-haul trucking is not always the first occupation of drivers and most of the drivers enter the industry mid-career or later in search of a less-physically demanding job. Therefore, the drivers might already be entering the industry with preexisting health conditions. For example, it was identified that the drivers entering the industry have preexisting conditions that may get worse due to the physical as well as psychological risk factors in the trucking industry such as long hours of work, prolonged sitting, and time away from the family. Recognizing the association between turnover and health outcomes, employers should consider using strategies to integrate health and wellness as part of their new hire and ongoing training (Lee et al., 2016).

Other factors associated with industry turnover included components in the workplace physical environment and safety climate domain. Specifically, the long hours which may result from regulations designed to protect workers (i.e., by limiting the number of hours they can work and require breaks). Long-haul truck drivers may work up to 70 hours per week and can be away from home for more than 3 weeks at a time (Apostolopoulos et al., 2014, 2016; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). The participants in the study reiterated this information and emphasized the relationship between lack of home time and industry turnover among long-haul truck drivers. They also indicated that this could lead to many hours of sedentary work. Long hours are also associated with organizational turnover. There has been an increase in organizational turnover among larger companies delivering freight to a single customer (which can include longer distances) compared with smaller companies delivering smaller packages to multiple locations located closer together (Costello & Karickhoff, 2019; Costello & Suarez, 2015). As a solution, the supervisors discussed using a relay system or team driving, which allows the drivers to be home sooner. Team driving allows drivers to work in shifts, one driving and one resting, which shortens their time away from home. This can also increase camaraderie and reduce alone time.

Industry turnover among new employees is higher within the first 90 days in an organization in both trucking and other industries (Kammeyer-Mueller et al., 2013; Sayer, 2019). The participants in the current study also discussed this, particularly among bigger trucking carriers that have many employees. Unrealistic job expectations, job demands, and support at work, components of the work evaluation and experience domain, were associated with both leaving an organization and leaving the industry. Receiving support and having a good relationship with their dispatcher or supervisor was important to drivers. As lone workers, the dispatcher is a driver’s primary contact with the company. Drivers reported that it is often easier to establish these relationships in smaller organizations as compared with larger organizations. These factors were more likely to result in a driver leaving an organization but remaining in the industry.

However, unrealistic job expectations and the demands of the job were more likely to result in industry turnover. There was a clear distinction between the CDL students and the other participants about job expectations in the trucking industry. While students in CDL courses were very positive about finding a local job as soon as they graduate, the participants in other groups, who had worked or were currently working as long-haul truck drivers, stated that it requires several years of experience as a driver to get a local job. Moreover, the instructors, supervisors, as well as the current drivers stated that after they start working as long-haul truck drivers, their long hours of service did not provide consistent breaks and kept them away from their families. The students were unaware of these work demands and had unrealistic expectations (e.g., that they would get to travel around the country and would not have to work much for a good salary). Time away from family falls into the home, community, and society domain and was a key reason for leaving an organization in search of a workplace with different schedules or a local job.

A clear need to provide students with more realistic job expectations to reduce turnover was identified. Trucking schools and organizations play an important role in training and orienting the incoming workforce into the trucking industry. The instructors mentioned sharing personal stories to set realistic expectations among the students and discussed the importance of orientation programs to help new drivers understand their job responsibilities, which could reduce organization turnover.

The participants discussed that the drivers who have been in the industry for more than a year tend to switch between companies in search of better opportunities, pay and benefits, factors that fall into the workplace policies, and culture domain. These factors have been associated with organizational turnover in trucking as well as in other industries (Anitha & Begum, 2016; Billingsley & Cross, 1992; Dockel et al., 2006; Estryn-Béhar et al., 2007). Turnover leads to an increase in costs to an employer, including the hiring and training of new drivers for companies who already have a shortage of truck drivers. New driver trainings, CDL examinations, job fairs, and orientation programs are additional opportunities to orient new drivers about the work conditions, responsibilities, pay and benefits within an organization so they can make informed decisions about joining the trucking industry or joining a particular organization within the industry.

There also was a difference between the reported reasons for turnover and the strategies for retention. While technology, such as electronic logging, was discussed in terms of age to be a reason for turnover, other forms of technology such as backseat Wi-Fi were also discussed as a strategy for retention. Both current drivers and students discussed the impact of change in technology on industry turnover, especially among older and more experienced drivers. However, supervisors discussed the use of backseat Wi-Fi to promote retention, as it would allow more virtual family time among the truck drivers and also would make communication with their supervisor easier. Similarly, policies addressing long hours of work were mentioned as a factor for turnover by all groups except the supervisors. However, this was not discussed as a retention strategy, even though the policy with regard to reduction in the age to enter the industry was mentioned by the instructors. Further studies among the stakeholders might be necessary to understand this difference in the responses.

Another important finding was the awareness that different factors were associated with industry turnover compared with organizational turnover. Most studies examining turnover, in trucking as well as other industries, use these two types of turnover interchangeably and do not report separate numbers or reasons for each type of turnover (Costello & Karickhoff, 2019; Costello & Suarez, 2015; Kreisman, 2002). The current study provided a distinction between organizational and industry turnover and identified different reasons for each type of turnover. The most effective strategies to reduce both organizational and industry turnover should be at the policy level and should include changes to the work environment.

There are various limitations of the study. The participants enrolled in the study were from schools and organizations in Iowa and Illinois. Therefore, the participants discussed the programs and topics that are relevant to the schools and organizations in the Midwest. There might be schools in other regions that might discuss additional topics than the ones discussed in the current study. Thus, additional studies with participants in other regions could be beneficial in understanding the difference in the perception by region. Due to the sample size of 33 participants, the study findings may not be generalized to a larger sample. However, the study provides important information on how the conditions of work can impact workplace outcomes, turnover, and well-being. This study can serve as a first step for future research, and in designing programs, practices, and policies to promote health and safety and to reduce turnover.

Implications for Occupational Health Practice

Long-haul truck drivers suffer from chronic health conditions (Apostolopoulos et al., 2014; Robinson & Burnett, 2005; Sieber et al., 2014), engage in unhealthy behaviors (Apostolopoulos et al., 2014, 2016; da Silva-Júnior et al., 2009; Davey et al., 2007), and leave the industry at high rates. Although previous work has identified factors associated with turnover, it has not considered the health and safety outcomes that result from the work environment and organizational factors in the trucking industry and the role they play in turnover. A more holistic approach which includes not only the traditional safety and health hazards but also the condition of work is needed to develop effective interventions that address the health, safety, and well-being of workers.

Applying Research to Occupational Health Practice

Turnover in the trucking industry is a persistent problem and leads to a shortage of skilled workers, increases the workload, and reduces productivity. Findings show that trucking was often a second career, if not a retirement job, for the majority of the participants, leading to individuals who have worked in other industries entering the trucking industry at older ages and some with chronic health conditions. In addition to the physical conditions, the participants also mentioned psychological challenges related to being away from the family and working alone. Health conditions, differences in job expectations, and work demands were associated with leaving the industry. Workplace policies and culture (e.g., supervisor support, schedules that limited home time, lack of benefits) were associated with workers’ intention to leave an organization. These conditions provide an opportunity for occupational health interventions to promote the physical as well as psychological health of long-haul truck drivers.