Teacher Professional Capital in Cross-School Professional Learning Communities of the Educational Reform Context: The Integration of Navigational Capital

Abstract

In the contemporary educational landscape, where the development of teacher learning capabilities is increasingly emphasized, the rich professional capital of teachers has become central to driving school change and improving student learning outcomes. Cross-school Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) offer a platform that fosters diverse teacher participation and learning opportunities in a collaborative environment. This study investigates whether and how participation in cross-school PLCs enhances teachers’ professional capital, identifies the components of this capital, and examines its significance within the context of educational reform in Taiwan. Focusing on a cross-school PLC in Taiwan, the research highlights the pivotal role of navigational capital in teacher professional capital, noting its integration with economic, human, cultural, social, and decisional capital. Navigational capital enhances these interactions and fosters supportive learning environments, significantly boosting professional development. By emphasizing navigational leadership and capital, the study underscores their importance in enabling teacher agency, promoting sustainable school change, and achieving comprehensive educational goals, making navigational capital vital for successful educational reform.

Introduction

Continuous school change is essential in today’s competitive knowledge society. Since the 1980s, a shift toward school restructuring has been observed (Carlson, 1996; Teddlie & Stringfield, 2006), granting schools increased autonomy and authority, a process known as second-order change (Cuban, 1988; Friedman & Berkovich, 2020). This shift has catalyzed and highlighted the importance of internal, teacher-led changes in school structures and cultures across numerous countries, including China (Bryant & Rao, 2019), the United States (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012), the United Kingdom (Durrant et al., 2002; Muijs & Harris, 2006), Kazakhstan (Qanay et al., 2024), and Taiwan (P. Chen, 2017), among others. Consequently, these changes redefine teachers’ professional identities, positioning them as active agents of learning (Pan et al., 2023), collaboration (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012), and curriculum design. This underscores the critical role of teacher leadership in improving schools (Harris & Muijs, 2004; Schott et al., 2020; Shen et al., 2020). Building on this context, Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) introduced the concept of “professional capital” to refer to teachers’ collective expertise and professional learning, reimagining our understanding of teachers’ professionalism in this new era. Professional capital is a combination of human, social, and decisional capital, integral to developing teachers’ professional identities and their role as active agents of learning and change.

Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) argue that teachers possessing substantial professional capital exhibit enhanced intellectual capacity, collaboration propensity, and decision-making confidence, which propel their professional trajectories. Their concept of professional capital, introduced in 2012, has evolved notably in response to the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. The transition to online teaching during this period necessitated a re-evaluation of traditional definitions of teacher professionalism. Hargreaves and Fullan (2020) revised their framework to underscore the necessity for adaptability and context-specific definitions, recognizing the dynamic nature of educational environments. This evolution highlights that the components of teacher professional capital are context-dependent and vary accordingly. This study adopts this context-dependent perspective to investigate the components of teacher professional capital. While Hargreaves and Fullan primarily focus on enhancing the three types of professional capital, they do not extensively explore the dynamics of teacher leadership or the capital generated through mutual influences among teachers—specifically through “navigational leadership” (Flack et al., 2013) and “navigational capital” (Yosso, 2005), which includes a role-modeling dimension of “I know what I need to learn” (Sausner et al., 2024). Consequently, Yosso’s concept of navigational capital offers a theoretical framework for exploring whether navigational capital can indeed serve as an integral component of teachers’ professional capital in contexts influenced by teacher leadership reforms. This study aims to explore the professional capital accrued by teachers in Professional Learning Communities (PLCs), examining the inclusion of navigational capital, its manifestations, and its interactive and synergistic effects with the three types of capital delineated by Hargreaves and Fullan. Moreover, Pan and Hung (2022a) have conducted research on the utilization and construction of capital by principals in enacting learning leadership within domestic contexts. Contrary to Bourdieu’s Western-centric perspective that economic capital is foundational to all forms of capital, their findings suggest that social capital serves as a supporting capital and is more critical than other forms. They advocate for leaders to concentrate on building and enriching the social capital of schools to subsequently develop professional capital. Further research by these scholars indicates that social capital is a critical catalyst for school reform (Pan & Hung, 2022b). Nonetheless, this study still considers economic capital as a component of teachers’ professional capital, as professional development, particularly in community operations, does indeed require economic support to some extent. The significance and mode of impact of economic capital, however, require further empirical verification.

Moreover, regarding the operation of professional capital, Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) emphasize that Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) are crucial for amalgamating and leveraging these forms of capital. Other studies also corroborate this (Belay et al., 2022; Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Hairon & Tan, 2017; Lee, 2021; Lomos et al., 2011; Melesse & Belay, 2022; Stoll, 2015; Ting & Chen, 2019; Vescio et al., 2008). However, Kemmis et al. (2014) and Cederlund (2018) pointed out that many studies on PLCs focus on those within individual schools, promoting teacher cohesion but often lacking external viewpoints. Conversely, research on “cross-school PLCs”—networks that bring together teachers from various institutions to share experiences and address challenges—is relatively scarce but has recently gained attention (Ye et al., 2024). These cross-school PLCs offer broader interaction, diverse perspectives, and presumably enhanced professional capital. Nevertheless, despite discussions on themes such as organizational learning (Ye et al., 2024), implementation processes (Cederlund, 2018), and practice architectures (Kemmis & Grootenboer, 2008), empirical research on their effectiveness in enhancing professional capital remains limited. Therefore, this study aims to explore teacher professional capital within cross-school PLCs.

Building on the previous introduction, this research was conducted in Taiwan and focused on developing professional capital among teachers participating in cross-school PLCs. In Taiwan, PLCs function as optional professional development mechanisms for teachers (Huang, 2022) rather than mandated policy frameworks, as seen in Western countries since the 1980s (Fullan, 2006). Taiwan’s cross-school PLCs particularly emphasize teacher autonomy (Huang, 2022). Compared to other countries, where cross-school PLCs often take a kind form of “networked learning communities” (Datnow, 2021; Jackson & Temperley, 2007; Katz & Earl, 2010; Prenger et al., 2019, 2021; Szeto et al., 2023b), such as the school-to-school collaborations (Middlewood & Abbott, 2020; Naicker & Ebrahim, 2018; Prenger et al., 2021; Szeto et al., 2023a; Ye et al., 2024), most of Taiwan’s cross-school PLCs are composed of individual teachers from different schools who participate of their accord. This highlights the autonomy and democratic nature of these communities (Huang, 2022). Despite their elective nature, the number of PLCs has rapidly increased (Ting, 2014), including cross-school ones (S. C. Lin & Yu, 2021). Therefore, exploring the key factors driving this growth and operation is crucial.

The concept of teacher PLCs in Taiwan began in 2001 with the initiation of the policy of a “Nine-Year Integrated Curriculum” (C. P. Chen & Wang, 2011; Ting & Chiang, 2020). By 2010, the Ministry of Education (MOE) started subsidizing elementary and middle schools to establish teacher PLCs in line with the “Teacher Professional Development Evaluation Project” (Ting, 2013). The large-scale promotion of teacher PLCs was a vital focus of the second phase of the “High School Quality Improvement Project” introduced by the MOE in 2010 (P. Y. Chen et al., 2012). This encouraged teachers to form communities, innovate teaching methods, and develop school-specific curricula. By this period, the concept of teacher PLCs had gained substantial support in educational policy and practice (W. Y. Chen, 2019).

In 2019, the “Curriculum Guidelines for 12-Year Basic Education” (referred to as the New Curriculum Guidelines) were officially implemented, representing the most significant curriculum reform in recent years in Taiwan (Hung, 2025; MOE, 2024). This reform echoed the global trend of educational decentralization, significantly empowering school teachers. It emphasized school-based reform, allowing schools to develop curricula based on their vision and student needs. The government provided various administrative and professional resources, including institutional adjustments, organizational changes, and establishing and operating PLCs for professional knowledge sharing and practice. This granted schools and teachers more educational responsibility and professional demands; the most significant changes occurred in high school education, where the reform significantly reduced the credits for government-mandated courses and introduced school-based curricula designed and developed by teachers. Here, “credits” refer to a unit measuring the amount of instructional time a student has received and completed. Based on their unique characteristics, schools could independently design required courses (4–8 credits) and elective courses (54–58 credits). Teachers were expected to adopt student-centered approaches, develop diverse assessments, and engage in innovative teaching experiments or action research in teaching and assessment. Teachers were required to form curriculum development committees, subject curriculum review groups, and teaching research associations to support curriculum development and design. Therefore, they were encouraged to form PLCs to meet these needs and to explore and share teaching practices collaboratively.

While teachers in Taiwan have historically operated in “individualism” (Hsieh et al., 2024; Lortie, 1975; Lyle & Peurach, 2024), making professional collaboration relatively unfamiliar (Ting & Chiang, 2020), it remains encouraging rather than mandatory (Huang, 2022). Research from Ting (2014) reveals that since the MOE began subsidizing teacher PLCs in 2010, their prevalence has significantly grown. For instance, elementary school participation in PLCs increased from 256 in 2010 to 366 in 2011, with the total number of PLCs rising from 616 to 828. Additionally, cross-school PLCs have increased annually (S. C. Lin & Yu, 2021).

Therefore, this study examines whether participation in cross-school PLCs in Taiwan fosters the growth of teachers’ professional capital and integrates additional forms of capital, as Hargreaves and Fullan (2020) suggested. Additionally, this research seeks to explore the significance that different contexts bring to the discourse on PLCs and teachers’ professional capital. Employing a case study methodology, the research involves interviews and observations with teachers participating in a cross-school PLC in Taiwan. The primary objectives of this research are to:

1. Investigate whether and how participation in cross-school PLCs enhances teachers’ professional capital.

2. Explore the specific components of professional capital among teachers within cross-school PLCs.

Literature Review

As Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) propose, the concept of teacher professional capital is primarily based on human, social, and decisional capital. This study adopts this theoretical framework to explore whether and how cross-school Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) enhance teachers’ professional capital. However, following the insights of Hargreaves and Fullan (2020) and Shirley (2016), this study extends beyond these three types of capital. It also seeks to identify additional components of professional capital and their implications within the context of cross-school PLCs in Taiwan. Consequently, the literature review initially examines the three critical components of professional capital proposed by Hargreaves and Fullan (2012). It then explores relevant economic (Gao, 2002) and navigational capitals (Yosso, 2005), followed by research on within and cross-school PLCs.

Teacher Professional Capital

Human Capital

As first conceptualized by Adam Smith (1776) and expanded on by Becker (1964), human capital plays a pivotal role in developing professional capital. Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) situate human capital within education, focusing on developing essential knowledge and skills for teaching, including subject matter expertise, teaching methods, child development, cultural and familial understanding, implementing successful practices, and empathy. This study will explore how teacher professional capital embodies human capital within a cross-school PLC, its production and reproduction, and the professional growth processes that enhance it.

Social Capital

The concept of social capital, as defined by scholars like Bourdieu (1986), Coleman (1988), Putnam (1995), and N. Lin (2001), is significant in the context of educational policy reform. Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) integrated social capital into teacher professional capital, defining it as the quality and quantity of interactions and relationships that influence knowledge access, trust, expectations, and adherence to norms. They emphasized that developing social capital involves joint learning and mutual development, enhancing human capital through collaboration. This study posits that teachers’ social capital is vital to their professional capital and will analyze its generation, operation, and value within a cross-school PLC. It will also investigate how social capital affects human capital growth and stimulates other forms of professional capital.

Decisional Capital

Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) define decisional capital as the expertise professionals gain through experiences, practices, and reflections, enabling informed judgments in uncertain situations. Key characteristics include development through extensive practice, akin to the 10, 000-hour mastery rule, and reliance on social capital, as collaboration enhances decisional capital. The principle is that extensive practice and collaborative judgment improve decision-making skills. This study investigates the impact of a cross-school PLC on teachers’ decisional capital and its interrelation with other forms of professional capital.

This study is based on the three forms of professional capital proposed by Hargreaves and Fullan (2012). However, as previously mentioned, professional capital is an open concept influenced by context, which is also the theoretical approach of this research.

Economic Capital

Economic capital comprises various elements of production, economic assets, diverse forms of income, and economic benefits (Gao, 2002). According to Bourdieu (1986), economic capital forms the foundation of all other types of capital—cultural, social, and symbolic. He posited that these non-economic forms of capital are essentially transformations and disguises of economic capital, which enables investment in other types of capital and significantly influences their potential through economic structures. Therefore, this study considers economic capital as an integral part of teacher professional capital, acknowledging that professional development, particularly within informal cross-school communities, requires economic support to facilitate organizing workshops, invitations, and activities.

Navigational Capital

Navigational capital was first introduced by Yosso (2005), who critiqued Bourdieu’s (1986) discourse on cultural capital and its application by later scholars for privileging mainstream class culture as more “valuable.” To address this, Yosso proposed the Community Cultural Wealth (CCW) theory, which recognizes the cultural assets of marginalized groups. In this framework, these groups must build six forms of capital—aspirational, linguistic, familial, social, navigational, and resistant—to navigate and adapt within a mainstream-dominated society. Navigational capital refers to the skills required to maneuver through social institutions.

Subsequent scholars have applied the concept of navigational capital to investigate how marginalized groups in the United States navigate through social and educational landscapes to achieve success. This body of work underscores the importance of role models and peer support in offering emotional, academic, and professional assistance to foster collective advancement (Cawthon et al., 2016; Covarrubias et al., 2022; Damas & Benson, 2021, 2022; Listman & Dingus-Eason, 2018). Focusing primarily on the educational sector, this study utilizes the concept of navigational capital to explore interactions among teachers within cross-school Professional Learning Communities (PLCs). It specifically examines the impact of teacher leadership on other members (Lieberman & Miller, 2011; Muijs & Harris, 2003; Wenner & Campbell, 2017; York-Barr & Duke, 2004). This approach is particularly pertinent in Taiwan, where teacher professional learning communities—introduced around 2009 and emphasized again in the 2019 curriculum policy as a mechanism for professional development—are not widely familiar to many teachers. Initially, many educators resisted these communities, perceiving them as extraneous to their responsibilities. Hence, such communities often require navigational leaders who can foster a highly supportive collegial environment (Yosso, 2005) to encourage and lead teacher participation in PLCs.

While numerous studies on Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) have demonstrated their potential to enhance teacher professional capital (P. Y. Chen, 2017; Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012; Mac & Hansen, 2020; Osmond-Johnson, 2017; Ting & Chen, 2019), there remains a gap in research concerning the role and impact of teacher leadership within these communities. Yosso’s (2005) concept of navigational capital, which emphasizes role models and social and professional support among peers, provides a theoretical lens to investigate the leadership dynamics of teachers within these communities. This perspective enables an examination of how cross-school PLCs under teacher leadership utilize their navigational capital to enhance other forms of professional capital, thereby integrating navigational capital into the professional capital framework of teachers. Furthermore, teachers participating in PLCs can potentially transfer this type of navigational capital back to their home schools, establishing similar characteristic PLCs. There, they continue to exert navigational leadership (Flack et al., 2013), enhancing the professional capital of other teachers within their schools.

Research on Within-School PLCs and Cross-School PLCs

The emergence of Professional Learning Communities (PLCs), driven by bottom-up school reforms since the post-1980s (Carlson, 1996), has underscored the value of teacher collaboration for professional learning (Rosenholtz, 1989; Sai & Siraj, 2015; Senge, 1990). Initially described as a “Professional Community of Learners” (Astuto et al., 1993) and later termed “professional learning community” by Hord (1997), PLCs focus on collaborative professional learning among teachers (Olsson, 2019).

In Taiwan, PLC development has advanced significantly, with notable strides in 2010 and further integration following the 2019 New Curriculum Guide. This prompts intensive teacher engagement in curriculum design and innovative teaching. Initially task-oriented and within-school, PLCs have expanded to cross-school collaborations with voluntary teacher participation. Most of Taiwan’s cross-school PLCs differ from the school-to-school or groups of school collaborations mentioned in “networked learning communities” (Jackson & Temperley, 2007; Katz & Earl, 2010; Prenger et al., 2019), as they are composed of individual teachers who participate at their discretion.

However, regardless of whether individual teachers participate voluntarily, research on cross-school PLCs remains less prevalent and needs further exploration. Existing studies explore themes such as learning units (Cederlund, 2018), trust and collaboration (Middlewood & Abbott, 2020), social, emotional, and instructional support (Stokes et al., 2020), effectiveness (Prenger et al., 2021; Szeto et al., 2023a), systemic change and policy development (Hardy & Melville, 2018; Naicker & Ebrahim, 2018), leadership (Ye et al., 2024), contributions to individual school communities (Prenger et al., 2021), and different cultural context (L. Chen, 2020; Hairon, 2020; Pang & Wang, 2016). Findings suggest that cross-school PLCs offer diverse and creative learning resources, benefiting policy implementation, school transformation, and individual teacher learning. However, there is limited research on whether and how teacher participation in cross-school PLCs contributes to teachers’ professional capital.

While within-school PLCs enhance teachers’ professional capital, they may need more than comprehensive professional learning, necessitating cross-school PLCs. The significant impact of cross-school PLCs on professional capital indicates a need to explore how teachers’ professional capital flows, multiplies, and expands within these PLCs, leading to capital gains. Therefore, this study investigates how teachers’ participation in cross-school PLCs enhances their professional capital.

Methodology

This research adopted a case study methodology to explore whether and how teachers’ participation in cross-school PLCs promotes their professional capital, the specific components of this professional capital, and its implications. To achieve this research objective, the study focused on an optional cross-school PLC in Taiwan as the case and utilized semi-structured interviews and observations for data collection.

The Cross-School PLC Case

The cross-school PLC in this study was selected based on the reputation and recommendations of relevant scholars, identifying it as the best-performing cross-school PLC. It is Taiwan’s most prominent English teacher PLC and has been operational for 8 years. The members of this community frequently share their operational outcomes at various related conferences. It originated from a high-achieving senior high school and is open nationwide to high school English teachers. Core members are from three regional high schools, and the community’s activities are primarily held at these schools. The community’s Facebook page has thousands of members and hosts weekly professional development activities.

Data Collection

This study employed semi-structured interviews with 10 participants, including teachers deeply involved in the community from three core high schools, and 12 instances of participant observation of the community’s activities. All participants were informed about research ethics and rights, provided consent, and signed informed consent forms. To ensure anonymity, the names of schools and teachers have been coded. All coding methods used in this study are randomized. For example, “TA” represents one of the interviewed teachers, while “RH” denotes one of the core high schools. Observation records are also coded based on the session observed, ranging from D1 to D12. These sessions cover a variety of themes, including workshops, teacher-sharing sessions, university lectures, collaborative lesson planning, and lesson observation and discussion. Details regarding the teachers’ years of service and roles within the community are provided in Table S1.

Data Analysis

This study conducted a textual analysis of semi-structured interviews and observational data, adhering to the qualitative research principles outlined by Gerring (2017), Ezzy (2013), and Susanto et al. (2024). The analysis was facilitated by the use of NVivo software (Dhakal, 2022), which assisted in organizing, analyzing, and composing the data. To ensure the trustworthiness of the research findings, the study followed Adler’s (2022) criteria. This involved using interviews and observations for triangulation and engaging in peer review to enhance the persuasiveness, coherence, and consistency of the narratives and interpretations.

Findings

Findings will be presented based on the professional capital components re-identified within this cross-school PLC: economic, human, cultural (Bourdieu, 1986), social, decisional, and navigational capital (Yosso, 2005). These components will be discussed according to the research objectives.

Economic Capital

While Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) did not include economic capital in their conception of teacher professional capital, Bourdieu (1986) considered it crucial. In this study, economic capital is essential for the successful operation of this community, as organizing events and inviting experts require financial resources. For example, during the 12 community activities observed, 8 invited university professors and teachers from other counties to share their insights and practices (D2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12). Teacher TG noted the challenge of addressing current educational changes without external resources. Although not typically part of teachers’ professional capital, economic capital significantly influences its acquisition and enhancement. As the community grows, financial needs increase, highlighting the role of economic resources in sustaining and expanding the community’s activities and impact on professional development.

Teacher TA, one of the community founders, emphasized the importance of funding for development. By collaborating with teachers from other schools and applying for project funds, she helped sustain and grow this community. This collaborative funding effort significantly expanded this community, attracting more teachers and their school-specific projects, “leading to steady funding” (TA). As a result, the community organized almost weekly activities, allowing teachers to choose topics and sessions, thus enhancing the diversity of professional development opportunities.

Economic capital is also vital for encouraging teachers to share their expertise. Teacher TH noted that teachers at her school were often reluctant to share publicly. However, financial incentives made teachers “feel their expertise was respected” (TH) and contributed to a habit of open sharing and collaboration.

In summary, economic capital is essential for this community’s operation and indirectly affirms participating teachers’ professionalism. Additionally, the diverse characteristics of the many members in this cross-school PLC contribute to its abundant economic capital. Therefore, economic capital can be considered one of the critical forms of professional capital for teachers within the context of cross-school PLCs.

Human and Cultural Capital

This community enhances teachers’ human capital and ultimately contributes to their embodied state of cultural capital, such as mannerisms and dispositions (Bourdieu, 1986), which are internalized over time and become inherent aspects of one’s nature and talent, significantly contributing to habitus formation.

Firstly, participating in the PLCs for teachers in Taiwan lacks consistent habitus. However, new educational policies require teachers to engage in PLCs for professional growth to meet the demands of the New Curriculum Guideline for teacher competencies. Therefore, this cross-school PLC offers weekly professional development at different schools. The 12 community activities observed in this study were held at three high schools and one university (D1 to D12). They also “have everyone fill out Google forms to express their needs” (TH) and invite various experts (D2, 5, 8, 9, 10) and scholars (D3) to give lectures or workshops, “increasing the opportunity for everyone to participate in professional development” (TA). In addition, a Facebook group has been established, providing a platform for members to exchange professional knowledge. This group now has several thousand members. Novice Teacher TJ said, “I feel that the topics are quite new and benefit us.”

Whether through in-person activities or new knowledge posts on social media, this community offers professional growth for members at various stages, fostering mutual learning. Even experienced teachers acknowledge the value of learning from their younger colleagues. For instance, Teacher TC emphasized “observing what new teachers are capable of now to enhance one’s abilities... it is all about learning from each other.” Mid-career Teacher TI also mentioned the value of these diverse learning opportunities.

Joining this community inspires me. It allows me to gain new insights into teaching and student needs through other teachers’ perspectives, helping me re-evaluate my methods. (TI)

This community exerts substantial effort and strategies to augment the human and cultural capital essential for teachers’ professional development.

Secondly, this community is influenced by the Japanese concept of Lesson Study (Stigler & Hiebert, 1999), which involves collaborative lesson planning, observation, and discussion, along with an educational philosophy of not criticizing teachers or students. In one instance of community observation, the researcher experienced this philosophy practiced. “During lesson discussions, participants provided objective feedback on students’ learning conditions without criticizing teachers or students, emphasizing student learning outcomes” (D7). This aligns with the new curriculum’s student-centered educational philosophy and directs this community’s human and cultural capital development. Collaborative lesson planning, observation, and discussion each semester provide significant benefits. Novice Teacher TJ noted the “tremendous gains,” while mid-career Teacher TD mentioned, “The greatest benefit has been through preparing, observing, and discussing lessons.” This highlights the profound impact of collaborative learning on professional growth and instructional efficacy.

Lastly, through frequent, convenient, and student-centered professional development activities tailored to teachers’ needs, this community fosters teachers’ human and cultural capital and reshapes their collective habitus (Bourdieu, 1986). This shift moves from individual efforts to team collaboration and from schools as closed to open fields. It demonstrates a collective habitus of teachers pursuing professional growth, which they then bring back to their schools to establish additional PLCs.

Our school used to be more insular, but it has become more open due to this cross-school PLC. I think this openness is quite essential. (TD)

Teacher TI also said, “Now, sharing feels natural in the community organized by Teacher TH at their school.” Sharing and continuous professional growth have become their new collective habitus.

They are all willing to try new things. If they are unsatisfied with their performance, they will consult their colleagues in the community, think about adjustments, and share their methods. (TG)

In summary, this community enhances its human capital, improves teachers’ professional knowledge, and reshapes their collective habitus, making collaborative learning and sharing a common practice. Therefore, in addition to human capital, cultural capital is also a significant aspect of the professional capital within this community.

Social Capital

Pan and Hung (2022b) suggest that a school with substantial social capital can enhance its agency and performance, significantly impacting the operation of an organizational group in the Taiwan school context. In this study, the growth and development of this cross-school PLC are also built on its openness to all teachers, which brings rich social capital. The participation of teachers from various schools brings rich economic, human, cultural, and social capital. The interaction of these diverse forms of capital leads to exponential growth, creating a more extensive social network and cohesive social bonds that further benefit the professional capital growth of more teachers.

Firstly, this community has fostered a friendly environment, allowing teachers unfamiliar with participating in PLCs to learn and share. This community “has no strict requirements on what teachers must do, allowing everyone to engage and express themselves freely” (TJ). It is a “quite comfortable, casual group” (TD), as Teacher TA noted because the first step in professional growth is establishing a safe learning environment that encourages teachers to step out of their comfort zones.

Teaching innovation means stepping out of your comfort zone, requiring a safe environment for experimentation and trials, and needing encouragement and support from others. (TA)

Secondly, this community cares about teachers’ professional lives and attends to their personal lives. In addition to providing emotional and social support, various community activities welcome teachers to bring their children along. As Teacher TC stated, “We use the power of the community to support these teachers.” This exemplifies a model that “work and personal life can be combined” (TB), fostering a supportive environment that accommodates family life.

Lastly, this social support network, which feels like a family, provides teachers with a sense of belonging and encouragement at different career stages. It acts as a latent social structure that stabilizes and enables the agency of the teachers within it (Coleman, 1990; Lin, 2001). As a result, teachers feel a sense of camaraderie and receive support during career challenges, leading to a more significant commitment to their teaching work and professional growth. Teacher TA emphasized, “We are like a family,” where members care for each other’s well-being and share personal life events. Teacher TD noted the importance of professional development and personal care within the community. Teacher TJ, a newer member, highlighted the “crucial emotional and psychological support” provided by this community. Teacher TC shared how the community has significantly supported her professional development and boosted her sense of self-efficacy as a teacher.

Fighting alone can be exhausting. However, this community quickly provides what you need, even things you have not encountered yet. (TC)

Teacher TD added, “Participating in this gives a sense of belonging.” Especially, “before and after each community activity, teachers enthusiastically catch up with each other about their recent lives, including work and family life” (D11, 12). As Teacher TA mentioned, mutual support and companionship in professional and personal aspects are the vital adhesive elements of this community.

This group has a solid emotional connection. We have grown together from young women to mothers, creating a solid bond. It is like a network that supports everyone, making you feel upheld. This network has supported and sustained us, reassuring us that we are not alone in teaching. (TA)

In summary, social capital and other types mentioned above are intricately interwoven within this cross-school PLC. This community is built on friendliness, support, and holistic teacher development, resulting in solid teacher cohesion. Consequently, the growth of other types of capital is also facilitated.

Decisional Capital

With the infusion of human and cultural capital and alleviating feelings of powerlessness and confusion through professional and emotional support, teachers gain the network support of social capital. This enrichment of social capital enhances the decisional capital necessary for curriculum development, teaching, and career progression (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012).

Firstly, this cross-school PLC has transformed teachers’ habitus (Bourdieu, 2018, 1986), providing a new perspective on professional development. Teacher TB noted that “there is a willingness to try and a more open mindset towards teaching,” which encourages teachers to “reflect more on their teaching practices” (TC). This shift breaks the isolation of working alone, fostering “a more positive and open attitude towards collaboration” (TB). This change in mindset has influenced how Teacher TB approaches teaching and treats her students, emphasizing respect for the students as the focal point of learning.

I was more teacher-centered in the past, but after participating in this cross-school PLC, I have become more considerate of the students’ needs. (TB)

Teacher TB highlighted that this shift appeared permanent as she prioritized students’ learning experiences. This change has become her new habitus, offering a fresh perspective and approach to her teaching and leading to new professional decisions.

I have adjusted myself within this community, including how I view students. I am willing to try and am confident in my willingness to experiment. (TB)

Secondly, the change in perspective is progressive, evolving with the different stages of a teacher’s career and fostering growth accordingly. In this community, teachers “see themselves at different career stages and needs” (TA). For example, they provide “substantial help to novice teachers” (TJ). Mid-career Teacher TC, who started as a novice teacher at another school in Taipei before moving to RH School, mentioned the community’s Facebook page:

It is helpful for those lacking confidence in teaching. Their posts are diverse, covering not only teaching methods but also class management and sharing of teaching experiences. It is a significant source of psychological support and guidance for someone new to the profession. (TC)

This community also “offers experienced teachers opportunities for reflection” (TB). As teachers’ professionalism grows in tandem with the community, it becomes a place of confidence, enriching their decisional capital at every stage of their teaching careers.

They see different possibilities in teaching and are willing to try. By observing various teaching methods in different classrooms, they witness success. This reflection leads to enhanced confidence in their teaching. (TA)

Lastly, the most significant benefit for teachers in the community is the decisional capital gained through cycles of practice, discussion, and re-practice. It shapes them into educators who are willing to experiment and committed to ongoing professional development.

Teachers grow from this experience and may apply it in their teaching, then return to share with us, creating a cycle of growth and exchange. (TH)

As Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) indicated, decisional capital is built upon social capital, meaning collaboration among teachers is crucial for enriching their decisional capital. This cross-school PLC offers a more diverse and enriched form of collaboration than traditional within-school PLCs, leading to a broader spectrum of professional development experiences. Consequently, teachers consistently emphasize the community’s significance for their professional development.

Navigational Capital

The changes in teacher human, cultural, social, and decisional capital within this cross-school PLC align with an accepting, inclusive, and learner-centered direction. This shift is guided by confident leaders or role models (Cawthon et al., 2016) who leverage their “navigational capital” (Yosso, 2005) and exercise their “navigational leadership” (Flack et al., 2013) to steer the community. Simultaneously, these leaders also enhance the community members’ navigational capital.

Navigational capital was first introduced by Yosso (2005) in her critique of Bourdieu’s (1977) concept of cultural capital, which she argued privileged mainstream class culture. Yosso proposed the Community Cultural Wealth (CCW) theory to recognize the cultural assets of marginalized groups, identifying six forms of capital necessary for these groups to navigate and adapt within a mainstream-dominated society, with navigational capital being one of the most important. Navigational capital refers to the skills required to maneuver through social institutions. Subsequent scholars have used this concept to explore how marginalized groups in the United States navigate social and educational realms to achieve success, emphasizing the importance of role models and peer support in providing emotional, academic, and professional assistance (Cawthon et al., 2016; Covarrubias et al., 2022; Damas & Benson, 2022; Listman & Dingus-Eason, 2018). Role models often play a “navigational leadership” role (Flack et al., 2013), employing their navigational capital to guide members in adapting to society and overcoming challenges, embodying the role-modeling aspect of “I know what I need to learn” (Sausner et al., 2024).

In this study, many leaders within the community possessed navigational capital and exhibited the spirit of navigational leadership, thereby enhancing the navigational capital of the members. The successful establishment and longevity of this group, spanning over 8 years as Taiwan’s critical cross-school English PLC, are primarily attributed to the pivotal role of leadership. For instance, Teacher TA is often regarded as the community’s key person. Her leadership is central, setting the road for the community’s interactions. Her navigational capital enabled her to lead the community toward initiatives such as fostering a “non-judgmental environment during lesson observations, where neither students nor teachers are criticized” (TB). This also gave members solid navigational capital, enabling them to say, as Sausner et al. (2024) described, “I know what I need to learn.” Teacher TJ noted that these “teachers always express their opinions positively.” Additionally, Teacher TC mentioned, “Sometimes, when you feel unmotivated to teach, this community serves as a place to recharge.” This approach cultivates a supportive atmosphere and encourages the growth and development of both navigational and decisional capital among teachers. The essence of this community’s navigational capital can be seen through the leadership of its Teacher TA.

Firstly, Teacher TA employs the metaphor of “home” to create a welcoming environment for every distant traveling “ship” to return to the “dock” for rest and recharging. This approach fosters a sense of freedom and belonging, encouraging teachers to see the community as a haven to rejuvenate without feeling constrained by rigid structures or duties. As novice teacher TJ mentioned, “Teacher TA often says that we need to accept ourselves, the good and the bad, which I think is very important for new teachers to gain confidence.”

Secondly, for the entire community, this group also functions as an “island of hope” (TA), where teachers realize that familiar aspects of their work can unfold into numerous possibilities for exploration and creation. This environment reignites their passion for teaching. In this supportive and innovative space, teachers are encouraged to rethink and expand their teaching practices, discover new methodologies, and collaborate with peers to refine their approaches, ultimately enhancing their professional growth and student outcomes. This navigational teacher leadership fosters mutual guidance and peer support (Flack et al., 2013), increasing members’ navigational capital.

Teacher TA recognizes novice teachers’ challenges and believes multifaceted support is crucial for building their confidence. Teacher TJ, who has been participating in this community since her internship, likens the leaders to warm parents, making participation feel like coming home. The community’s navigational capital aids teachers in navigating transitional periods due to new curriculum guidelines and career stages. Teacher TB notes that the care extends beyond professional support to a personal level, emphasizing the profound impact of such leadership.

In alignment with Cawthon et al. (2016), such role models act as institutional agents, utilizing their social resources, status, and experience to assist or empower novices who lack resources. This is a clear manifestation of navigational leadership as described by Flack et al. (2013), a form of navigational capital (Yosso, 2005) that enhances teachers’ professional capital by providing the guidance and support needed to navigate the complexities of the educational environment.

The spirit of acceptance and inclusion championed by this community has not only supported many novice teachers, like Teacher TJ. However, it has also influenced many mid-career teachers, like Teacher TE, who said,

Previously, it was each person for themselves, but now it is a state of mutual benefit. In the community, everyone supports each other. (TE)

Teacher TF observed that engaging in the community demonstrated that “schoolwork need not be a solo endeavor; it can be a collaborative group activity.” This realization led them to integrate this collaborative professionalism (Hargreaves, 2019) into their school’s community management, serving as a source of navigational capital (Damas & Benson, 2022; Listman & Dingus-Eason, 2018). This approach fosters an empowering and appreciative environment, encouraging teachers to apply these principles to enhance their school’s culture and effectiveness. Teachers TH from SH school and TD, TF from QH school have initiated community management within their schools, integrating these resources into cross-school PLCs. Teacher TA’s ethos—prioritizing experience sharing, comfortable expression, and personal care for teachers—has influenced the leadership styles of Teachers TH, TD, and TF, helping them successfully operate their within-school PLCs. Teacher TJ noted that the community atmosphere established by Teacher TH at SH is “very similar, very warm, caring, not demanding, with lots of encouragement” (TJ).

Community members consistently embody navigational leadership, demonstrating how navigational capital within this cross-school PLC fosters individual professional capital. They emphasize the importance of role models and peer support in providing emotional, academic, and professional assistance to promote collective advancement (Covarrubias et al., 2022; Damas & Benson, 2022). This navigational capital extends to their respective schools, where the pooling of human and cultural capitals shapes a collective habitus geared toward professional growth and community engagement, facilitated by growing social capital. This accumulated navigational capital benefits individual teachers and contributed to a cultural shift in their schools.

This study found that this cross-school PLC possesses abundant navigational capital to facilitate teacher adaptation to new educational policies and professional learning within these communities. This is particularly evident in how teacher leadership functions as navigational leadership, significantly impacting other members’ navigational capital (Lieberman & Miller, 2011; Wenner & Campbell, 2017).

Discussion

Taiwan’s teacher-initiated and self-directed cross-school PLC does not exhibit the limitations of traditional knowledge-oriented individual teacher development (Guskey, 2002) and differs from other within-school or cross-school PLC collaboration models studied, as the participants’ internal navigational capital drives it. Utilizing various forms of capital, teachers co-structure knowledge through a collective habitus (Bourdieu, 1986) via various activities and physical or social media platforms, bringing together teachers at different career stages to engage in collaborative learning and sharing, thereby enhancing their professional capital, with navigational capital serving as the guiding force.

Before discussing the findings, it is important to acknowledge the study’s limitations. First, the selected case is based on expert recommendations due to reputation and may not represent all cross-school PLCs in Taiwan. Second, the study lacks data from other school teachers and students, focusing mainly on the experiences and beliefs of the participating teachers.

Influenced by the global educational reform movement (Sahlberg, 2016), Taiwan, alongside other Asia-Pacific nations influenced by Confucian philosophy, places a significant emphasis on academic achievement. This is reflected in the numerous strategies implemented to develop PLCs aimed at enhancing school performance and student learning. In this regard, Taiwan aligns with other countries in the Asia-Pacific region that prioritize academic performance as a crucial goal within teacher PLCs, deeply rooted in Confucian cultural values. However, the role of PLCs within the educational system in Taiwan diverges from other Asia-Pacific nations and also differs from practices in Anglo-American countries. Despite shared cultural backgrounds and hierarchical systems across Asian countries (P. Chen & Wang, 2015), varying national contexts in the Asia-Pacific lead to diverse interpretations and implementations of PLCs, which are originally rooted in Anglo-American educational frameworks (P. Chen & Wang, 2015). In Anglo-American contexts, PLCs are often embedded within policy frameworks (Huang, 2022), while research in Asia-Pacific regions such as Singapore, China, Hong Kong, and South Korea frequently highlights within-school PLCs (Hairon, 2020; Hairon & Dimmock, 2012; Pang & Wang, 2016) or cross-school PLCs facilitated by government-led structures (Szeto et al., 2023b; Ye et al., 2024). In contrast, Taiwan has developed a distinctive model of “teacher-initiated” and “elective” cross-school PLCs, as evidenced in this study. Unlike the Anglo-American approach, where PLCs are mandated within educational policy, or the more hierarchical, government-managed systems observed in other Asia-Pacific countries, Taiwan’s PLCs primarily emphasize fostering diverse teacher professional capital. While these PLCs still uphold Confucian values by prioritizing student learning, they operate in a non-mandatory and non-institutionalized manner, offering an informed and flexible perspective for teacher collaboration. Each educational system’s approach to PLCs holds contextual value, and the findings of this study provide insights that may inform policymakers and educators in other countries.

Taiwanese teachers emphasize teacher leadership and peer trust over the significant role of school or officer leaders in PLCs found in other countries (Pang & Wang, 2016; Ye et al., 2024). This highlights Taiwan’s emphasis on teacher-initiated PLC within its large power-distance Asia society (Hairon & Dimmock, 2012). This study reveals that trust-based teacher leadership forms navigational capital, directs professional capital growth, and synergizes other forms of professional capital.

The emergence of navigational capital in optional cross-school PLCs signifies teachers’ reflective agency toward professional growth (Huang, 2022). This requires both human, social, and decisional capital (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012) and economic, cultural (Bourdieu, 1986), and navigational capital (Yosso, 2005) to support professional development, foster continuous collaborative learning, and guide future professional growth. This democratic engagement in professional development reflects a sense of purpose, ownership, teacher agency, and empowerment in the decentralization era.

Taiwan’s flexible funding encourages, rather than mandates, the formation of communities that support the growth of teacher professional capital. As Fullan (2015) suggests, proactive “purposeful actions” generating meaning within school reform can be a reference for bottom-up teacher professional development and school change.

Conclusion and Implications

Several conclusions and implications can be drawn from this study, emphasizing the role of navigational capital in the discourse of teacher professional capital in the cross-school PLC. First, teachers’ professional capital is open-ended and context-dependent, encompassing economic, human, cultural, social, decisional, and, notably, navigational capital in Taiwan’s educational reform context. Second, the interactions among these forms of professional capital are complex and interwoven, with navigational capital acting as a pivotal and catalytic force. Third, cross-school PLCs provide a rich learning environment that fosters diversity, personal care, trust, commitment, and well-being, aligning with teachers’ agency and needs. This environment, shaped by navigational leadership, significantly enhances professional development. Lastly, through navigational leadership and the enrichment of navigational capital within teachers’ professional capital, teacher agency can be enabled, promoting sustainable school change and achieving the goal of the “total teacher.” Therefore, this study advocates for navigational capital as a vital supplement to teachers’ professional capital, which is crucial for educational reform. This study implies that to establish a bottom-up, cross-school PLC that fosters democratic and self-directed teacher professional growth, creating a supportive environment abundant in various forms of capital needed is essential. Furthermore, developing teacher leaders (Wilson, 2016) who can serve as navigational capital for the community members—referred to as “navigational leadership”—is critical for success.

In addition to these contributions, this study suggests several directions for future research. First, given the context-dependent nature of professional capital identified in this study, future research could examine whether and how navigational capital operates in different institutional and policy contexts, such as more centralized or accountability-driven systems, where teacher autonomy is more constrained. Comparative studies across national or governance contexts would further clarify the boundary conditions and transferability of navigational capital. Second, while this study adopts a qualitative case approach, future research could employ longitudinal or process-oriented designs to investigate how navigational capital is accumulated, sustained, and transmitted over time within and across professional learning communities. Such approaches would deepen understanding of the dynamic interactions among different forms of professional capital. Finally, future studies may extend the unit of analysis beyond individual teachers to examine how navigational capital contributes to school-level or system-level professional capacity and reform sustainability. Exploring these multilevel effects would further advance theorization of professional capital in educational reform contexts.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-sgo-10.1177_21582440261426070 – Supplemental material for Teacher Professional Capital in Cross-School Professional Learning Communities of the Educational Reform Context: The Integration of Navigational Capital

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-sgo-10.1177_21582440261426070 for Teacher Professional Capital in Cross-School Professional Learning Communities of the Educational Reform Context: The Integration of Navigational Capital by Jui-Hsuan Hung in SAGE Open