Abstract
Individual competencies that transcend traditional academic skills are essential for success in today’s complex and interconnected world. These competencies enable young adults to navigate personal and professional challenges effectively. Given the limited research on structured interventions that foster these competencies, this study examined the effectiveness of the leisure makerspace (LMS)—a recreative intervention designed to develop personal competencies and enhance well-being—using a rigorous quasi-experimental Solomon four-group design. The intervention was implemented for 120 min per week over 6 weeks, engaging participants in creative, active, and emotional leisure activities. A total of 111 young adults (aged 19–24) with limited work experience participated from Mersin University, serving as a controlled context for testing the intervention’s theoretical propositions. Results revealed significant improvements in cognitive restructuring, self-efficacy, and well-being across experimental groups, with consistent observed through both within-group and between-group analyses. Additionally, session-by-session assessments of emotional expressions indicated increased positive affect and reduced negative emotional communication, providing indirect evidence of the intervention’s fidelity. Overall, the findings provide exploratory yet replicable evidence that the LMS intervention can serve as a scalable framework for enhancing well-being and competency development among young adults through structured leisure-based experiences.
Plain Language Summary
Many young adults today face stress, uncertainty, and challenges when transitioning to professional life. Traditional education focuses mainly on academic knowledge, but success in the modern world also requires emotional and social skills such as self-awareness, coping, and confidence. This study explored a new approach called the Leisure Makerspace (LMS), which uses creative and recreational group activities to help young adults strengthen these skills. Over 6 weeks, participants engaged in sessions that combined relaxation, collaboration, and reflection. The results showed that students who joined LMS sessions improved their thinking patterns, confidence, and overall well-being compared to those who did not participate. They also expressed more positive emotions after each session. These outcomes suggest that LMS can be used as a practical and enjoyable way to build personal and emotional skills that support success in everyday life, education, and work. The study shows that well-structured leisure programs can make learning more meaningful and life-oriented, helping people grow both personally and socially.
Keywords
Introduction
Individual competencies that transcend traditional academic skills have become essential for success in the present complex and interconnected world (Hilton & Pellegrino, 2012; Trilling & Fadel, 2009; Wagner, 2010). These cognitive and social skills—often referred to as 21st-century competencies—enable individuals to navigate modern life’s multidimensional challenges (National Research Council, 2012). Global frameworks, such as those proposed by the World Economic Forum (WEF), the International Red Cross, and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), converge on similar competencies, including cognitive coping, active learning, analytical thinking, creativity, self-efficacy, empathy, and adaptability (Cross, 2013; Di Battista et al., 2023; OECD, 2018). Such competencies are particularly vital for young adults, who must cope with the developmental transitions of higher education, career entry, and social independence (Arnett, 2000). Cognitive coping mechanisms provide strategies to manage stress, adapt to rapid changes, and make sound decisions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), while self-efficacy supports confidence and persistence in pursuing personal and professional goals (Bandura et al., 1999). Despite the widespread conceptualization of these competencies, empirically tested, structured interventions for developing them remain scarce. Leisure-based experiences, particularly those grounded in recreational and therapeutic frameworks, offer a promising pathway for such development. Casual leisure activities driven by relaxation and hedonism may provide temporary relief but do not inherently contribute to sustained competence development unless they involve serious or eudaimonic engagement (Elkington & Stebbins, 2014; B. G. Kim & Lee, 2018). Rooted in Aristotelian eudaimonia—the pursuit of human flourishing and actualization of potential (Aristotle, 350 B.C.E./2004)—eudaimonically oriented leisure fosters meaning, personal development, and alignment with intrinsic values, consistent with the psychological well-being proposed by Ryff and Singer (2008). Conversely, hedonically oriented leisure centers on short-term pleasure and sensory gratification (Kahneman et al., 1999). While casual leisure supports hedonic well-being, serious leisure promotes psychological well-being through self-actualization and recreation (Maslow, 1943; Stebbins, 2020). Deyell Hood and Carruthers (2016) proposed a strengths-based contemporary service delivery model of therapeutic recreation (TR)—the Leisure and Well-Being Model (LWM)—provides an integrative framework illustrating how structured leisure fosters well-being and develops personal competencies. Moving beyond the traditional view of leisure as mere relaxation, the LWM conceptualizes it as a dual-pathway process—simultaneously restorative (hedonic) and developmental (eudaimonic)—that enhances human potential through positive emotion and self-actualization. Drawing on this foundation, this study introduces and empirically tests the leisure makerspace (LMS) intervention—a structured, leisure-based design that merges creativity, collaboration and reflection to strengthen cognitive restructuring (CR), self-efficacy, and holistic well-being. The LMS intervention operationalizes the LWM’s dual-pathway structure by integrating eudaimonic engagement with hedonic enjoyment, which offers participants both immediate affective benefits and long-term competence development. Furthermore, this study examines emotional expression patterns before and after LMS sessions to explore the affective dynamics which underpin cognitive and efficacy-related change. By demonstrating that eudaimonic well-being can be enhanced without neglecting hedonic satisfaction, the LMS intervention extends the understanding of leisure as a strategic developmental and therapeutic mechanism. The framework provides a replicable intervention for use across educational, organizational, and community contexts—bridging the gap between recreation management, human capital development, and well-being research.
Conceptual Background
Leisure and Recreation
Leisure is a precondition of recreation (Patmore, 1983), characterized by time spent, activities undertaken, and experiences gained (Sivan & Stebbins, 2011). It is shaped by the perception of freedom (Neulinger, 1982) and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Additionally, it is associated with positive or productive behavior, as opposed to negatively charged characteristics of free time (Torkildsen, 2006). Leisure is therapeutic and contributes positively to health (Caldwell, 2005). It is considered a coping mechanism for life demands and contributes to self-protection, self-restoration, and transformation (Kleiber et al., 2002). Recreation is an activity or experience that fulfills higher-order needs for self-actualization and personal growth (Maslow, 1943). From the perspective of recreation, leisure transcends mere time away from obligations; rather, it transforms into a purposeful experience that enhances the quality of life and fosters holistic well-being (Kelly, 2012). In this study, leisure forms the primary conceptual framework by viewing it as a chosen activity driven by intrinsic motivation and perceived freedom, encouraging participants’ active involvement in the LMS process. Leisure is perceived not merely as passive relaxation but as a meaningful pursuit aligned with self-actualization, where individuals express their autonomy, interests, and aspirations for personal development. Drawing on serious leisure theory (Stebbins, 1992), this study positions leisure experiences as structured, effortful, and identity-shaping activities that enhance well-being and foster the development of self-resources such as cognitive coping and self-efficacy. Similarly, recreation is acknowledged as a dynamic process of self-renewal and experiential learning, offering individuals opportunities to acquire new skills, rejuvenate, and enhance adaptive functioning. In this dual framework, leisure and recreation collectively function as tools to facilitate participants’ competency development, and well-being during the LMS intervention.
Makerspaces
As innovative learning methods continue evolving, new models are emerging that transcend conventional educational and production environments. Among these models, makerspaces are acknowledged as environments that enhance learning experiences by encouraging active involvement in creative production. However, a precise definition of makerspaces is lacking. Generally, the term refers to environments where participants can convene to create and co-create knowledge (Mersand, 2021). Makerspaces enable individuals to develop their creative thinking skills, increase their problem-solving competencies, and collaborate on teamwork-based projects. These spaces support participants in generating original ideas and developing their skills. Makerspaces can be designed in various configurations using diverse arrays of tools. They enable individuals to transition from consumers to producers and render transparent access to ideas and tools, enabling all participants to create and learn collaboratively (Harron & Hughes, 2018). Makerspaces are valued for their potential to enhance participants’ learning outcomes (Dougherty, 2016). These outcomes are categorized as affective (attitudes, beliefs, and feelings), cognitive (knowledge), psychomotor (physical skills), and behavioral (behaviors; Mersand, 2021). Affective outcomes are the most prevalent and encompass self-sustained learning processes, disposition (e.g., self-efficacy), engagement, social competencies, and empathy as primary outcomes (Mersand, 2021). Makerspace experiences positively correlate with variables such as creativity (Soomro et al., 2023), self-efficacy (Andrews et al., 2021), problem-solving skills (Sheridan et al., 2014), and motivation to learn (Clapp et al., 2016). Furthermore, makerspaces enhance self-confidence and foster positive attitudes toward lifelong learning (Halverson & Sheridan, 2014). This study conceptualizes a makerspace as an environment conducive to learning and experiential engagement, facilitating cognitive and affective development via active involvement in creative production processes. Consequently, makerspaces transcend mere technical skills training. They are recognized as dynamic environments that enhance creativity, promote collaboration, and significantly motivate lifelong learning. Hence, makerspaces create environments that foster leisure experiences in a collective setting. The participants themselves can be the input of the makerspaces, and they can execute the processing of this input. Thus, participants in LMS inverventions can engage in the development of their states of self, thereby contributing to the development of 21st-century competencies.
Cognitive Restructuring (CR)
CR refers to the process of identifying and replacing individuals’ dysfunctional or distorted thought patterns with more realistic and functional ones (Beck, 1976). CR serves as a coping strategy for positively altering emotional reactions and behavioral outcomes. This concept has been developed as a core component of cognitive therapy (Beck, 1976) and rational emotive behavioral therapy (Ellis, 1962). The technique facilitates the questioning of preconceived judgments regarding situations, the recognition of cognitive distortions (such as overgeneralization and catastrophizing), and the development of more adaptive and positive cognitive alternatives (Bruch et al., 1982). CR is an effective method for treating various psychopathological conditions, including depression (Beck et al., 1979), anxiety disorders (Clark & Beck, 2010), stress management (Leahy, 2006), and posttraumatic stress disorder (Mueser et al., 2015).
CR is also widely employed in day-to-day management of stress and enhancement of well-being. Coping strategies are cognitive, emotional, and behavioral methods that individuals utilize to manage stressful situations in their daily lives (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). As a coping strategy, CR is a therapeutic skill that helps individuals reconstruct their cognition of the situation and subsequent behaviors and emotions in a more positive direction (Larsson et al., 2016). CR can change emotional responses to stressful anxiety-inducing situations and enhance psychological flexibility and emotional well-being (Gross, 2007). Studies have demonstrated that individuals who regularly practice CR techniques have reduced stress levels, enhanced emotional regulation skills, decreased depression and anxiety, and enhanced psychological well-being (Garnefski et al., 2001; Hofmann et al., 2012). In particular, CR was a strong mediator between positive reappraisal and well-being (Troy et al., 2010).
In this study, CR was considered a supportive factor that increases individuals’ ability to develop more functional cognitive responses to life experiences that they perceive negatively. CR techniques are important coping skills that can help individuals gain cognitive flexibility in stressful situations and increase their level of well-being. CR supports individuals in developing healthier and more functional patterns in their cognitive processes, enabling them to persevere in the face of life’s challenges and protect their well-being. Within the scope of research, it can be considered an essential resource for 21st-century life.
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to individuals’ beliefs about their competence in designing and performing the behaviors necessary to achieve a specific goal (Bandura, 1977). Researchers are greatly interested in self-efficacy, which is accepted as a strong predictor of success in the context of both daily life and business. According to social cognitive theory, the belief that one can successfully manage a certain situation forms the basis for self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). This belief directly affects motivation, emotional reactions, and performance and is critical in the achievement of success. The concept is considered at two levels: task-specific and general. Task-specific self-efficacy refers to the perception of competence associated with a specific task or behavior, whereas general self-efficacy is based on a general perception of competence in various areas of life (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995; Sherer et al., 1982). More specifically, it is an undaunted and optimistic belief in one’s competence to effectively cope with stressful situations. An individual’s self-efficacy belief determines the motivation level, thereby determining the effort they will make in an activity and the resistance they exhibit while confronting obstacles (Bandura, 1989). The experiences gained from overcoming challenges instill the importance of effort in achieving success (Bandura, 1994). The stronger an individual’s self-efficacy belief, the higher the goals they set and the more robust their goal orientation (Bandura, 1994). General self-efficacy positively correlates with psychological well-being (Schunk & Pajares, 2002), self-awareness (Zajacova et al., 2005), academic achievement (Chemers et al., 2001), psychological resilience (Luthans et al., 2007), and stress coping skills (Jerusalem & Schwarzer, 1992). High general self-efficacy can enhance adaptability and bolster holistic well-being during challenging life events. The WEF recognizes self-efficacy as one of the work competencies of the 21st century (Di Battista et al., 2023). This study posits general self-efficacy as a predictor of perseverance and positive beliefs regarding challenges encountered across various life domains. It is considered integral to the study’s conceptual framework, particularly due to its contribution to job performance and holistic well-being. Consequently, general self-efficacy is recognized as a competency that enhances the ability to manage difficulties in diverse areas of life and supports holistic well-being.
Well-Being
Well-being is a fundamental concept in understanding individuals’ quality of life and psychological functioning. In contemporary positive psychology literature, well-being is explored as a multidimensional construct evaluated through subjective and objective criteria (Diener et al., 1999; Ryan & Deci, 2001). Broadly speaking, well-being encompasses individuals’ positive assessments of their lives, emotional states, and functional competencies (Dodge et al., 2012). This concept has been examined via two primary dimensions: hedonic and eudaimonic. Hedonic well-being is rooted in happiness, pleasure, and life satisfaction, particularly focusing on the individual’s experience of positive emotions and avoidance of negative ones (Kahneman et al., 1999). The term subjective well-being closely relates to the hedonic approach (Diener, 1984). Conversely, eudaimonic well-being emphasizes finding meaning in life, personal growth, and living in alignment with one’s values. The main purpose of this dimension is the actualization of personal characteristics that enable the individual to live in accordance with their potential in a manner that aligns with their daimon (essence, self; Giles et al., 2020). Psychological well-being, rooted in the eudaimonic approach, encompasses dimensions such as autonomy, environmental mastery, personal development, life purpose, positive relationships, and self-acceptance (Ryff, 1989). Recently, researchers have contended that well-being cannot be solely defined by hedonic pleasure-seeking or eudaimonic meaning making (Huta & Ryan, 2010). Consequently, holistic models have been developed to integrate both the experience of positive emotions and the pursuit of meaningful and valuable goals. These dimensions reflect a holistic view of well-being that balances contentment in life, the pursuit of meaningful goals, and the actualization of potential (Waterman, 2008). Seligman’s PERMA model (2011) includes the following well-being dimensions: (P) positive emotions, (E) engagement, (R) relationships, (M) meaning, and (A) accomplishment. PERMA offers a comprehensive structure that addresses both hedonic and eudaimonic elements. This study examined the interaction between positive emotional experiences that contribute to individuals’ quality of life and the processes of actualizing their potential and finding meaning and purpose in life. Therefore, well-being is considered a holistic structure with hedonic and eudaimonic dimensions. In the literature, many variables positively correlate with holistic well-being. Variables such as mindfulness and self-awareness (Brown & Ryan, 2003), self-efficacy (Bandura et al., 1999), social support (Diener & Seligman, 2002), self-compassion (Neff, 2003), and meaning in life (Blackburn & Owens, 2014) have been reported to significantly increase hedonic and eudaimonic well-being levels. These findings support the theoretical basis of the study’s treatment of well-being as a multidimensional construct.
Emotion
Emotion is a complex psychological state that involves subjective, physiological, and behavioral experiences (Izard, 2010). Basic emotions, such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust, are universal across cultures (Ekman, 1992). Emotions serve adaptive functions and aid individuals in effectively responding to environmental challenges and opportunities (Gross, 2014). They are influenced by genetic predispositions and environmental experiences, which reflect the dynamic interactions between nature and nurture (Plutchik, 2001). Cognitive appraisal is critical in shaping emotional experiences as individuals interpret events and assign meaning to them (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Emotional states, which are closely correlated with affective states, also influence self-efficacy and goal attainment, demonstrating their impact on motivational and behavioral outcomes (Bandura et al., 1999). Thus, emotions are fundamental to human functioning, decision-making, social interactions, and well-being (Barrett et al., 2007; Seligman, 2011). In this study, the concept of emotion was considered a supportive variable in understanding individuals’ cognitive coping skills, self-efficacy, and holistic well-being levels. The ability to regulate emotions more functionally through CR is essential for strengthening self-efficacy perceptions and increasing holistic well-being. In conclusion, the concept of emotion is not limited to reflecting an individual’s emotional state. The concept also functions in various dimensions, such as cognitive regulation, self-efficacy, and quality of life. Furthermore, to support the theoretical framework indicating that emotions positively impact cognition, self-efficacy, and well-being, this study examined the impact of the LMS intervention on changes in emotional expression before and after the sessions.
Theoretical Framework
Serious leisure theory, developed by sociologist Stebbins (1982), describes a systematic framework for understanding leisure activities that require sustained effort, skill development, and personal commitment. According to Stebbins (2007), serious leisure refers to the pursuit of activities that individuals find fulfilling and based on which they consequently develop personal and social identities. These activities are distinguished by six defining qualities: perseverance, leisure career, considerable personal effort, durable benefits, unique ethos, and identification with pursuits (Stebbins, 1992). Serious leisure can include hobbies, sports, volunteer activities, and liberal arts, providing participants with a sense of accomplishment, self-actualization, and community connections (Elkington & Stebbins, 2014).
Higher engagement in serious leisure enhances well-being primarily through increased satisfaction derived from the leisure experience (Tian et al., 2020). Serious leisure participation enhances motivation to volunteer, thereby positively influencing well-being (Pi et al., 2014). Engaging in serious leisure activities enhances higher levels of flow, which contributes to well-being (Heo et al., 2010). Engaging in serious leisure activities develops coping mechanisms that help to manage daily stress (Hayosh, 2017). Participants in serious leisure activities reported higher life satisfaction and health perception (J. Kim et al., 2011). Finally, engaging in serious leisure activities dissimilar to one’s work enhances psychological resources such as self-efficacy and resilience, thereby supporting a sustainable career (Kelly et al., 2020). In summary, deeply engaging, skill-based and self-resources developing serious leisure pursuits contribute not only to individual fulfillment but also to well-being. This study extends serious leisure literature by examining its relevance within the domain of career and daily life sustainability. Specifically, it aimed to support the achievement of LMS participants in actualizing their potential, that is, in developing their 21st competencies.
Cognitive appraisal theory is a psychological framework that explains how individuals evaluate and respond emotionally to events based on their interpretation or appraisal of a situation. Developed by Lazarus (1966) and expanded by Lazarus and Folkman (1984), this theory posits that emotions are not automatic reactions to external stimuli but stem from an individual’s cognitive evaluation of an event’s significance for their personal well-being. According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984), cognitive appraisal entails two main processes: primary appraisal, whereby a person assesses if an event is relevant and poses a threat, challenge, or harm, and secondary appraisal, whereby they evaluate their ability to cope with the event.
Threat appraisal, centrality, and avoidant emotional coping correlate with higher stress levels, whereas self-control and active coping strategies mitigate stress and fear (Ali et al., 2022). Personal interpretations of events, specifically threat versus opportunity appraisals, significantly predict emotional outcomes, such as anxiety, hope, and determination. Appraisals characterized by high control and goal relevance are consistently associated with emotions such as determination and hope, whereas appraisals involving low control and high threat are linked to fear and helplessness (Yeo & Ong, 2024). Challenge appraisals, which represent growth opportunities, are associated with positive outcomes such as engagement and motivation, whereas hindrance (obstacles to progress) and threat (potential for harm or loss) appraisals predict negative emotions and diminished well-being (Chen et al., 2024). These findings underscore the practical significance of CR, as modifying maladaptive appraisals and replacing them with more adaptive, self-regulated thoughts can effectively reduce stress and anxiety during uncertain periods. The theory was selected to enable the participants in LMS interventions to restructure their cognitive evaluations positively.
Social cognitive theory, developed by Albert Bandura, helps understand how individuals learn and perform behaviors through the interplay of personal, behavioral, and environmental influences. Bandura (1977) posits that learning occurs in a social context through direct experience or observation of others; this process is known as observational learning or modeling. Self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and the influence of environmental and social factors on behavior are among the key components of social cognitive theory (Bandura et al., 1999). Four primary sources of self-efficacy beliefs are mastery experiences—successfully completing tasks strengthens self-efficacy as individuals gain confidence from previous accomplishments (Bandura et al., 1999); vicarious experiences (observational learning)—observing others perform tasks successfully, particularly those perceived as similar, can enhance self-efficacy by demonstrating the feasibility of success (Schunk, 1987); and verbal persuasion—encouragement from others can bolster one’s belief in one’s abilities, particularly when it originates from trusted sources such as mentors or peers. Constructive feedback helps individuals believe they can succeed (Maddux & Stanley, 1986). Moreover, affective states, that is, emotional and physical responses such as anxiety, excitement, and fatigue impact self-efficacy. Positive emotions and low stress enhance self-efficacy, whereas negative emotions and high stress diminish it (Bandura et al., 1999).
Higher levels of self-efficacy and optimism significantly enhance cognitive, emotional, and physical dimensions of job engagement, thereby positively influencing job performance (Chhajer et al., 2018). Group members’ self-efficacy beliefs significantly predict collective performance outcomes, with goal-setting serving as a mediator in the relationship between self-efficacy and group effectiveness (Prussia & Kinicki, 1996). Although group efficacy generally boosts performance, this positive effect diminishes or reverses when the group includes members with notably low competency (Park & Shin, 2022). Moreover, self-efficacy significantly predicts academic achievement in both theoretical and practical learning contexts (Lee & Mao, 2016). These findings underscore that social cognitive theory is a well-established theory that has been tested across various fields. This theory supports the active, emotional, and physical participation of the LMS. It was assumed that through group participation, the LMS would positively impact self-efficacy development.
The PERMA theory of well-being comprises five initial elements of holistic well-being: (P) positive emotions, (E) engagement, (R) positive relationships, (M) meaning, and (A) achievement (Seligman, 2011). Supporting these aspects can increase an individual’s well-being, resulting in a successful life. These elements have been significantly linked to physical health, life satisfaction, and academic performance in both university students and general community samples (Coffey et al., 2016). These findings support the multidimensional structure of the PERMA theory and underscore its significance in understanding holistic well-being in both educational and non-educational contexts. Significant correlations have been identified between the five PERMA elements, key character strengths (such as curiosity, gratitude, love of learning, and humor), and indicators like flourishing and resilience (Leontopoulou, 2020). These results endorse the use of PERMA elements as a model for promoting holistic well-being. A positive correlation exists between PERMA elements and innovative work behavior across various countries and industries. The findings suggest that fostering PERMA-related holistic well-being can enhance innovation capacity in the workplace (Ibrahim et al., 2023). A recent study explored a workplace’s happiness level using the PERMA model as a theoretical framework (Pérez Mayo et al., 2019). They observed low levels of both work-related happiness (31.34%) and life satisfaction (33.79%), particularly in the dimensions of meaning and engagement. These findings highlight the necessity for interventions that support workplace well-being based on the PERMA model. Positive relationships and meaning significantly mediate the connection between positive emotions and accomplishments among employees (Goh et al., 2022). These findings indicate that fostering positive relationships and a sense of meaning can effectively enhance the sense of accomplishment. In conclusion, studies affirm that the PERMA model constitutes a comprehensive and adaptable framework for comprehending well-being and is suitable for assessing the LMS interventions’ hedonic and eudaimonic effects.
Leisure Makerspace (LMS)
The LMS process involves recreational interventions that incorporate leisure and well-being based on the TR model (Deyell Hood & Carruthers, 2016). These creative hubs utilize the therapeutic aspects of leisure experiences (Caldwell, 2005) and holistic well-being elements (Seligman, 2011) for recreation. The LMS process primarily aims to empower participants by developing their competencies. In LMS intervention, participants engage simultaneously in the process of recreation and being recreated through leisure experiences and elements of well-being. This approach is called “producer + consumer = prodsumer” in the experience marketing literature (Koçak, 2011). As “prodsumers,” participants in the LMS intervention equally engage in content creation, thereby enhancing their competencies by improving leisure experiences and promoting the components of well-being. Moreover, consumer social responsibility strongly predicts anti-consumption behaviors (Farah & Shahzad, 2020). In the LMS process, participants frequently engage in productive, hands-on learning and innovation as they are motivated by a desire to create rather than consume. Behavioral intentions mediate anti-consumption behavior via attitudes and perceived control, which are integral to self-efficacy. Within the context of the LMS process, participants are more inclined to engage in purposeful and value-driven leisure activities rather than passive or impulsive consumption (Shahzad et al., 2019). Consequently, the individual not only flourishes, but the participants also benefit collectively. Figure 1 shows how the LMS intervention enhances leisure experiences and contributes to well-being components.
Design of leisure makerspaces.
The recreative intervention supported by the LMS intervention comprises three stages: emotional, active, and creative layers of Nash’s hierarchical pyramid interpretation of his theory of leisure (1960) from the leisure experience dimension. Their outcomes are defined as positive recreation. In the emotional layer, individuals are emotionally engaged in an activity. The active layer includes both emotional and performative active participation. In the creative layer, the creation process is experienced by transcending something (above active participation), turning to oneself, and presenting the value of individual competencies (Nash, 1960).
Competencies identified within the scope of this study are CR and self-efficacy. The PERMA theory of well-being (Seligman, 2011) constitutes the holistic well-being component of the LMS intervention. The PERMA factors guide individuals to actualize their potential within the scope of developing competencies. This model shows that leisure experiences and well-being components exhibit a mutually reinforcing relationship.
Method
Research Design
This study was conducted within a university setting, utilizing available undergraduate students as part of a quasi-experimental research design based on the Solomon four-group design. This design aids in controlling potential pre-test effects and enables researchers to assess whether the act of pre-testing influences the study outcome (Solomon, 1949). While this design is traditionally employed in experimental contexts, it can be adapted as a quasi-experimental approach due to practical limitations concerning random assignment (McGahee & Tingen, 2009). Participants were recruited through convenience sampling within two available academic cohorts. However, group assignment followed a randomized block design based on academic levels to minimize selection bias and ensure transparency in the allocation process. Potential confounding variables, such as academic year and age, were monitored to maintain reasonable comparability among groups. Table 1 lists the design parameters.
Quasi-Experimental Solomon Four-Group Design.
Note. LMS = Leisure Makerspace intervention.
Experimental Group 1 received a pre-test, an intervention (LMS, independent variable), and a post-test. Control Group 1 received a pre-test, with no intervention, and a post-test. Experimental Group 2 received the intervention (LMS) and a post-test without pre-test. Control Group 2 received only the post-test, with no pre-test or intervention. This design enables researchers to evaluate (a) the impact of the intervention by comparing the post-test results between the experimental and control groups, (b) the impact of pre-testing alone by comparing the post-test results of the pre-tested and non-pre-tested groups, and (c) the interaction between the pre-test and intervention, thereby determining whether pre-testing influences the intervention outcomes (Edmonds & Kennedy, 2016). This structure provides a replicable framework for future interventions examining pre-test sensitivity and intervention effects in educational, organizational, and community settings.
In addition to the Solomon-based pre- and post-test comparisons, the intervention included a session-by-session assessment of participant’s emotional expressions throughout the six LMS sessions. These assessments captured fluctuations in positive and negative affect during the intervention process. The aggregated data from these assessments were later used to examine the overall change in emotional expressions, which provides indirect but systematic evidence of the intervention’s fidelity and participants’ cognitive-emotional engagement.
Participants
The participants were young adults aged 19 to 24 years, had limited work experience, and were enrolled as undergraduate students at Mersin University. Participants were recruited through departmental announcements in the Recreation Management program. Participation was voluntary, and no compensation was provided. They comprised four distinct groups drawn from two academic levels. Experimental Group 1 and Control Group 1 included third-year students, while Experimental Group 2 and Control Group 2 included first-year students. The final sample comprised 111 participants assigned to four groups: Experimental Group 1 (n = 21), Control Group 1 (n = 31), Experimental Group 2 (n = 26), and Control Group 2 (n = 33). The overall mean age was 20.67 years (SD = 1.05), with participants aged 19 to 24 years. The average age for Experimental Group 1 and Control Group 1 was 22.0 (SD = 1.2) and 22.1 (SD = 1.1), respectively. Experimental Group 2 and Control Group 2 had lower mean ages of 19.5 (SD = 0.9) and 19.4 (SD = 1.0), respectively. Across the entire sample, 53.2% of participants identified as female, while 46.8% identified as male. Table 2 shows participant demographics by group.
Participant Demographics by Group.
Note. Total sample size = N = 111.
A key inclusion criterion was that all participants had limited professional experience, ensuring homogeneity in life stage and early career status. Differences in group sizes reflect the natural enrollment distribution across academic years, with first-year classes typically comprising larger cohorts. The research team intentionally maintained this proportional representation to evaluate how the LMS intervention functions in both smaller and larger class contexts. Based on accessibility, scheduling, and willingness to participate, participants were selected using a convenience sampling strategy. Although this approach may limit generalizability, it aligns with established practices in field-based quasi-experimental research, which emphasizes replicability and ecological validity in educational and work-related settings (Creswell, 2015; Driver et al., 1991).
Data Collection
In accordance with the decision dated August 28, 2023, and with decree number 190, ethics committee approval was obtained from the Mersin University Social and Human Sciences Ethics Committee. The LMS sessions were conducted at the Recreation Workshop of Mersin University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Recreation Management, between October 5, 2023, and November 14, 2023. Informed consent form was obtained from all participants. In accordance with the Solomon four-group design, only Experimental and Control Group 1 received a pre-test, whereas Experimental and Control Group 2 did not. Data were collected using printed self-report instruments, which were distributed and retrieved by trained research assistant who ensured standardized administration procedures. The experimental groups received a brief orientation on the LMS intervention’s objectives and procedures, while the control groups were not informed about the intervention content to prevent expectation bias. The study involved minimal risk to participants, limited to routine emotional reflection during leisure activities. Participation in the questionnaires and LMS intervention was voluntary, and participants could withdraw from the study at any time. The potential benefits—including enhanced cognitive coping and well-being—were considered to outweigh these minimal risks. Nevertheless, the significance of full attendance for the validity of the research was emphasized. Participants were assured that their responses would remain confidential and used solely for academic research. The experimental groups then participated in the LMS intervention. During each LMS session, participants completed brief mood reflection forms designed to capture their immediate positive and negative emotional expressions; these were later aggregated to examine overall emotional trends throughout the intervention, which provides indirect evidence of fidelity. Upon completion of the intervention, post-test assessments were administered in person to all four groups under similar standardized conditions.
LMS Process
For Experimental Groups 1 and 2, LMS sessions were conducted weekly for 120 min on separate days. The LMS intervention, which is designed to facilitate a quasi-experimental structure, employed narration, discussion, case studies, the tell–show–do technique, problem-solving, and improvisation (Demirel, 1999). Each session followed a comprehensive manual that detailed the goals, activities, and anticipated results. Regular observations were conducted to evaluate how well the session plans were followed and to offer feedback to the facilitator. Detailed session protocols are presented in the Supplemental Appendix.
The emotional leisure experience (Nash, 1960) constituted the first stage of the LMS session which corresponds to the facilitator’s transmission of content and the emotional bonding participants developed with it. Participants were then encouraged to engage in practices supporting their active leisure experiences. During the active phase, they applied the transferred content as directed and subsequently transitioned to a creative leisure experience. After the application process, they transitioned to a creative leisure experience. A connection exists between creative leisure (Hegarty, 2009) and creative participation at the top of Nash’s leisure hierarchy (1960) and the self-actualization stage of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1943). In the creative phase, participants analyzed their LMS experiences and integrated emotional (content) and active (practice) leisure with facilitation. Finally, they reorganized their understanding based on the new insights gained from the LMS sessions.
The LMS intervention aims to help participants incorporate their cognitive competencies into work. CR (Tobin et al., 1989), a cognitive coping strategy for unexpected situations in daily life, enable individuals to organize their cognitions more positively by modifying beliefs and assessing things from a different perspective (Larsson et al., 2016). Participants were expected to change their cognitive structure as they worked on various topics during the LMS intervention. They were encouraged to perceive unexpected situations by considering the highs and lows in life from a broader and positive perspective and to restructure their cognition through mutual interactions and alternative solutions.
Experience, vicarious experience, social support, and affective states are essential for enhancing self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). The LMS intervention is designed to support self-efficacy. Considering mastery experiences within the LMS process, it was appropriate to examine (revive, analyze, and re-evaluate) a situation the participants encountered in their day-to-day lives. Thus, the LMS sessions are aimed to help participants cope with the challenges of daily life and develop self-efficacy. To provide vicarious experiences, examples from the life stories of professionals, including doctors, businesspeople, and athletes, were analyzed. Their difficulties and strategies for coping with challenges were examined. Within social persuasion, participants were encouraged to leverage strategies for life’s uncertainties. To activate the affective state, this study examined participants’ preferred coping strategies to overcome the unforeseen situations during the LMS process and the emotional outcomes they achieved through success.
The PERMA components (Seligman, 2011) that constitute the well-being support of the LMS intervention encompass both eudemonic and hedonic leisure-time gains (Elkington & Stebbins, 2014; Stebbins, 1992). Participants had the opportunity to experience positive emotions, flow, positive relationships, meaning, and a sense of accomplishment (Seligman, 2011) through the LMS process. By integrating each participant’s perspective and derived meaning, the target outcome of the LMS sessions was experienced as co-creation. In other words, the participants shaped their leisure experiences with creativity and positive emotions (P), participated in the “flow” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1988), which is another term for engagement (E), and attained their learning outcomes (production) via co-creation. This process fostered positive relationships (R) and simultaneously created meaning (M). Finally, a sense of accomplishment (A) was attained (Seligman, 2011). Consequently, participants actualized their potential through leisure experiences, developed their self-resources, and enhanced their holistic well-being through the PERMA elements.
Data Collection Tools
CR was measured using the Coping Strategies Inventory (CSI) developed by Tobin et al. (1989). The CSI comprises eight dimensions: problem-solving, CR, emotional expression, social support, problem avoidance, wishful thinking, self-criticism, and social withdrawal. Among these, the CR subscale was selected because it directly aligns with the theoretical foundation of the LMS intervention, which is grounded in cognitive-behavioral and TR principles. Specifically, CR captures the process of reinterpreting experiences and generating adaptive appraisals—core mechanisms targeted through leisure-based problem-solving and mastery tasks in the intervention. Prior to the main study, the CR subscale was adapted and validated in Turkish using an independent sample of 229 undergraduate students, who possessed relatively limited work experience and represented a comparable developmental profile to the main study participants. Although the original CR subscale included more items, the factor analysis indicated that six items represented a psychometrically sound and theoretically coherent structure. A principal component analysis with varimax rotation confirmed the unidimensionality of the CR subscale. Sampling adequacy was verified using the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin measure (KMO = 0.775), and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (χ2(15) = 413.77, p < .001), supporting the factorability of the correlation matrix. A single factor with an eigenvalue greater than 1 explained 51.14% of the variance. Factor loadings ranged from 0.605 to 0.771, and communalities ranged from 0.366 to 0.595. Internal consistency was good (Cronbach’s α = .805, α standardized = .807). These results demonstrate that the six-item CR subscale captures a reliable and unidimensional construct suitable for assessing the CR outcomes expected from the intervention. Furthermore, we used the General Self-Efficacy Scale, which was originally developed by Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995), in its Turkish version adapted by Aypay (2010). The scale comprises 10 items. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a two-factor structure, which accounted for 47% of the total variance. The internal consistency coefficient was reported as Cronbach’s α = .805. The General Well-Being Scale (GWBS
Data Analysis
Analyses were conducted using IBM SSPS Statistics 25.0. Before performing inferential statistics, assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance were tested. The Shapiro–Wilk test was used to assess normality, whereas Levene’s test was employed to evaluate the homogeneity of variances. Given the 2 × 2 structure of the mixed design, sphericity assumptions were not applicable (Field, 2024). Once assumptions were verified, descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were calculated to summarize group scores across measurement times. A mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA; 2 [Group: Experimental 1 vs. Control 1] × 2 [Time: pre-test vs. post-test]) was conducted to examine the effects of the LMS intervention between pre-tested groups. Consistent with the logic of the Solomon design, baseline between-group comparisons were not emphasized; instead, inference focused on Group × Time interactions and within-subject change, which are more appropriate for quasi-experimental settings with naturally occurring baseline variation. Pairwise comparisons using repeated-measures analyses were then performed to explore within-group changes. Specifically, pre- and post-test scores for Experimental Group 1 and Control Group 1 were compared separately to evaluate the effect of LMS intervention. The Bonferroni correction was applied to control for Type I error in multiple comparisons. Where the assumption of homogeneity was violated (for CR), Welch’s ANOVA was used with Games–Howell post-hoc tests to provide robust estimates; otherwise, Bonferroni adjusted post-hoc comparisons were applied. An alpha level of .05 (two-tailed) was used for all inferential tests. Effect sizes were reported as partial η2 for ANOVA effects and r for Mann–Whitney U analyses. To account for smaller group sizes, interpretation focused on effect magnitudes (η2 ≥ .06) rather than statistical power, which emphasizes practical significance. In quasi-experimental contexts, effect size may possess more interpretive weight than raw significance values (Lakens, 2013). A one-way ANOVA was used to compare the post-tests of all four groups (Experimental 1, Control 1, Experimental 2, and Control 2). Homogeneity of variances, as tested by Levene’s test, was upheld in most cases. Figure 2 illustrates the analytic framework employed for comparisons using the Solomon four-group design.
Comparisons using the Solomon four-group design.
To examine process-level changes during the LMS intervention, brief emotion checklists were completed before and after each of the six sessions by participants in the experimental groups. Positive (P) and negative (N) emotional expressions were aggregated across sessions (E1: P1–P2, N1–N2; E2: P3–P4, N3–N4). Because normality was not satisfied (Kolmogorov–Smirnov test), Mann–Whitney U tests were conducted to compare the aggregated change scores between the two intervention groups. Tracking affective changes across sessions provided indirect, process-level evidence of intervention fidelity which indicates consistent engagement with the cognitive-emotional aims of the LMS intervention (Bellg et al., 2004).
Results
The distribution of pre-test and post-test measurements in the research groups confirmed that the pre- and post-test data exhibited a normal distribution. Detailed results presented in the Supplemental Appendix. Upon completing normality tests for data distribution, the Levene’s test was used to assess the homogeneity of variances.
Descriptive and comparative analyses were conducted to evaluate data distribution and variance. Table 3 presents each group’s descriptive statistics, including the mean (X) and standard deviation (SD).
Descriptive Statistics.
Note. Exp = Experimental Group; Cont = Control Group.
A mixed-design ANOVA was conducted to examine the effect of group (experimental vs. control) and time (pre-test vs. post-test) on CR scores (Table 4). The main effect of time was not statistically significant, F(1,50) = 2.109, p = .153, indicating that CR scores did not significantly change over time when collapsing across groups. The partial eta squared was .040, reflecting a small effect size, and the observed power was relatively low (0.296). However, a significant interaction effect was observed between group and time, F(1,50) = 5.127, p = .028, implying that the change in CR scores over time differed between the experimental and control groups. The partial eta squared for this interaction was .093, indicating a moderate effect size. The observed power was 0.603, indicating moderate sensitivity to detect the interaction effect. Additionally, the main effect of the group (between-subjects) approached significance, F(1,50) = 3.330, p = .053, with a small-to-moderate effect size (η2p = .073) and low statistical power (0.494), indicating a baseline difference.
Mixed-Design ANOVA Results for Cognitive Restructuring.
A pairwise comparison was conducted to assess changes in CR scores between pre-test and post-test within experimental and control groups (Table 5). In the experimental group, the mean score increased from M = 3.64 (pre-test) to M = 4.14 (post-test). This difference was statistically significant, F(1,50) = 5.792, p = .020, with η2p of .104, indicating a medium effect size (Cohen, 1988). The observed power was 0.656, suggesting a moderate ability to detect this effect. In contrast, the control group demonstrated a slight decrease in mean scores from M = 3.65 to M = 3.54, which was not statistically significant, F(1,50) = 0.408, p = .526. The effect size was minimal (η2p = .008), while the observed power was low (0.118), indicating insufficient sensitivity to detect a real change.
Pairwise Comparison Results for Cognitive Restructuring.
Note. Exp = Experimental Group; Cont = Control Group.
As shown in Figure 3, the post-test scores increased significantly in the experimental group.
Estimated marginal means of cognitive restructuring.
A mixed-design ANOVA was conducted to examine the effects of group (Experimental 1 vs. Control 1) and time (pre-test vs. post-test) on self-efficacy scores (Table 6). The main effect of time was not statistically significant F(1,50) = 0.382, p = .540. This indicates that self-efficacy scores did not significantly change over time when collapsing across groups. The partial eta squared was low (.093), suggesting limited sensitivity to detect this main effect. However, a significant interaction effect was found between group and time, F(1,50) = 8.083, p = .006), indicating that the change in self-efficacy scores over time differed significantly between Experimental Group 1 and Control Group 1. The partial eta squared for this interaction was .139, indicating a moderate to large effect size, and the observed power was acceptable (0.796), reflecting sufficient sensitivity to detect this interaction. The main effect of group (between-subjects) was not significant, F(1,50) = 0.022, p = .882, with an extremely small effect size (η2p = .000) and significantly low observed power (0.022), indicating no overall difference in self-efficacy scores among groups regardless of time.
Mixed-Design ANOVA Results for Self-Efficacy.
Pairwise comparisons were conducted to examine the differences in self-efficacy scores between the pre-test and post-test for Experimental Group 1 and Control Group 1 (Table 7). Although descriptive observations indicated that Experimental Group 1 had lower scores at the pre-test, the pairwise comparisons revealed a substantial improvement in the post-test scores. This implies that the LMS intervention had a significant positive effect, despite the group’s initial disadvantage. In Experimental Group 1, the self-efficacy scores increased from M = 3.46 (pre-test) to M = 3.86 (post-test). This increase was statistically significant, F(1,50) = 5.023, p = .029) with a partial eta squared of .091, indicating a moderate effect size (Cohen, 1988). The observed power was 0.594, suggesting a fair likelihood of detecting the effect using the given sample size. In contrast, Control Group 1 exhibited a non-significant decrease from M = 3.81 (pre-test) to M = 3.55 (post-test) F(1,50) = 3.065, p = .086. The partial eta squared for this group was .058 (small-to-moderate effect), while the observed power was low (0.404), indicating limited sensitivity to detect change.
Pairwise Comparison Results for Self-Efficacy.
Note. Exp = Experimental Group; Cont = Control Group.
As shown in Figure 4, the post-test scores increased significantly in the experimental group.
Estimated marginal means of self-efficacy.
A mixed-design ANOVA was conducted to examine the effects of group (Experimental 1 and Control 1) and time (pre-test vs post-test) on well-being scores (Table 8). The main effect of time was not statistically significant, F(1,50) = 1.081, p = .303, indicating that when collapsing across groups, well-being scores did not significantly change from pre-test to post-test. The partial eta squared was .021, reflecting a small effect size, while the observed power was low (0.175), suggesting limited ability to detect a main effect over time. However, a significant interaction effect between group and time was observed, F(1,50) = 5.514, p = .023. This indicates that the change in well-being scores over time differed significantly between Experimental Group 1 and Control Group 1. The partial eta squatted for this interaction was .099, indicating a moderate effect size, and the observed power was acceptable (0.634). Furthermore, a significant main effect of group (between-subjects) was observed, F(1,50) = 6.131, p = .017). This suggests that regardless of time, overall well-being scores significantly differed between Experimental 1 and Control Group 1. The partial eta squared for the group effect was .109, representing a moderate effect size, and the observed power was relatively strong (0.680).
Mixed-Design ANOVA Results for Well-Being.
To evaluate the effects of the LMS intervention on well-being, pairwise analyses were performed for the experimental and control groups by comparing their pre-test and post-test scores (Table 9). Participants in the experimental group demonstrated a statistically significant improvement in well-being scores, increasing from M = 3.48 at pre-test to M = 3.97 at post-test. This difference was confirmed through statistical analysis F(1,50) = 4.814), p = .033, and partial eta squared of .088, which reflects a moderate effect size. The observed power (0.576) was adequate for detecting the observed difference. In contrast, the control group showed a decrease in well-being scores (M = 3.46 to M = 3.27); however, this change was not statistically significant F(1,50) = 1.060, p = .308. The associated effect size was small (η2p = .021). The observed power was notably low (0.174), suggesting that the analysis lacked sufficient sensitivity to identify a meaningful effect.
Pairwise Comparison Results for Well-Being.
Note. Exp = Experimental Group; Cont = Control Group.
As shown in Figure 5, the post-test scores increased significantly in the experimental group.
Estimated marginal means of well-being.
To examine group differences in post-test scores for CR, self-efficacy, and well-being across four independent groups (Experimental Group 1, Experimental Group 2, Control Group 1, and Control Group 2), ANOVA was conducted for each dependent variable (Table 10). Due to potential violations of homogeneity of variances, Welch’s ANOVA was also reported to ensure robustness of the findings. ANOVA revealed a statistically significant difference among the four groups on post-test CR scores F(3,107) = 9.117, p < .001, with a corresponding Welch’s test confirming the result, p = .000. This indicates that at least one group significantly differed from the others regarding CR following the LMS intervention. Post-hoc tests (see next section) are required to identify the specific group differences. A significant effect of group was also identified for self-efficacy, F(3.107) = 3.974, p = .010. The Welch test confirmed the robustness of this finding, p = .012. This suggests meaningful differences in self-efficacy among the groups after the LMS intervention. Post-hoc tests are required to clarify which groups differ significantly. Finally, a significant group effect was observed for well-being scores, F(3.107) = 8.023, p < .001. The result remained significant under Welch’s correction, p = .000. This implies that well-being outcomes varied significantly across the four groups at post-test. Additional analysis is required to specify the group differentiations.
One-Way ANOVA Results for Post-Test Score Comparisons Among Groups.
Following the significant one-way ANOVA for CR, Bonferroni-corrected pairwise comparisons were conducted to determine which group differences were statistically significant (Table 11). The analysis revealed that Experimental Group 1 scored significantly higher on CR than both Control Group 1 (MD = 0.502, p = .012) and Control Group 2 (MD = 0.494, p = .013). Similarly, Experimental Group 2 also scored significantly higher than both Control Group 1 (MD = 0.513, p = .005) and Control Group 2 (MD = 0.505, p = .005). The results suggest that both experimental groups benefited from the LMS-based recreative intervention regarding CR abilities. No significant differences were found between the control groups (p = 1.000), indicating that the LMS was similarly effective in both experimental conditions and that natural improvement in the absence of intervention was not observed. This pattern supports the interpretation that the LMS intervention was a key factor in enhancing participant’s capacity for CR.
Bonferroni Post-Hoc Comparison Results for Cognitive Restructuring.
Note. Exp = Experimental Group; Cont = Control Group.
Following the significant one-way ANOVA for self-efficacy, Bonferroni-corrected pairwise comparisons were conducted to determine which group differences were statistically significant (Table 12). The analysis indicated that Experimental Group 2 scored significantly higher on self-efficacy than both Control Group 1 (MD = 0.534, p = .017) and Control Group 2 (MD = 0.483, p = .035). These results indicate that the LMS intervention was particularly effective in enhancing self-efficacy. No statistically significant differences were observed between Experimental Group 1 and any of the other groups (p > .05). The difference between the two experimental groups was also non-significant (p = 1.000), although the mean difference was notable. However, the significant difference in the pre-test scores of Experimental Group 1 disappeared in the post-test. This also indicates that the LMS intervention for self-efficacy improvement was effective.
Bonferroni Post-Hoc Comparison Results for Self-Efficacy.
Note. Exp = Experimental Group; Cont = Control Group.
Following the significant one-way ANOVA for well-being, Bonferroni-corrected pairwise comparisons were conducted to determine which group differences were statistically significant (Table 13). Experimental Group 1 had significantly higher well-being scores than those of both Control Group 1 (MD = 0.703, p = .002) and Control Group 2 (MD = 0.631, p = .005). Similarly, Experimental Group 2 also scored significantly higher than both Control Group 1 (MD = 0.610, p = .004) and Control Group 2 (MD = 0.537, p = .014) did. No statistically significant difference was observed between the two experimental groups (p = 1.000) nor between the control groups (p = 1.000), indicating that both experimental conditions produced comparable improvements in well-being, whereas control groups remained similar without meaningful change. These findings indicate that the LMS intervention was effective in enhancing participants’ well-being, with consistent benefits observed across various experimental conditions.
Bonferroni Post-Hoc Comparison Results for Well-Being.
Note. Exp = Experimental Group; Cont = Control Group.
Table 14 presents a comparative analysis of the alterations in positive and negative emotional expressions measured before and after the 6-week LMS sessions in Experimental Group 1.
Mann–Whitney U Results of Positive and Negative Emotion Expressions: Experimental Group 1.
A statistically significant increase was observed in positive emotional expressions for Experimental Group 1 from pre- to post-intervention. Additionally, a statistically significant decrease was observed in negative emotional expressions.
Table 15 summarizes the corresponding results for Experimental Group 2.
Mann–Whitney U Results of Positive and Negative Emotion Expressions: Experimental Group 2.
A statistically significant increase was observed in positive emotional expressions for Experimental Group 2 from pre- to post-intervention. Additionally, a statistically significant decrease was observed in negative emotional expressions.
Discussion
Competencies of the 21st century represent adaptive skills that can be cultivated through experiential and reflective learning rather than traditional instruction. In line with this perspective, empirical efforts have increasingly examined how leisure-based interventions can foster these competencies. Mercanoğlu and Şimşek (2023), for instance, employed a Solomon four-group design to test the impact of workplace recreation programs on employee productivity, demonstrating that experimental designs rooted in leisure context can yield valid and generalizable findings. Similarly, Koçak et al. (2025) provided further evidence that camp-based quasi-experimental programs significantly enhanced university student’s like skills and subjective well-being, underscoring the developmental potential of structured leisure experiences. Building on this growing body of research, this study introduces the LMS process—an experiential, leisure-based intervention designed to promote cognitive, emotional, and social competencies among young adults. While TR frameworks emphasize clinical outcomes and require professional expertise (Carter & Van Andel, 2019), the LMS intervention draws inspiration from their developmental orientation but adapts it into a more accessible, non-clinical form applicable across educational and organizational environments. Informed by the LWM (Deyell Hood & Carruthers, 2016), the LMS intervention integrates the dual aims of leisure—recreation and development—by fostering CR, self-efficacy, and holistic well-being through intrinsically motivated creative engagement. Thus, the LMS intervention offers an inclusive and empirically supported pathway to developing 21st-century competencies through leisure.
From a theoretical standpoint, the findings can be interpreted through the lens of serious leisure theory (Stebbins, 1992). According to this perspective, leisure is not merely passive recreation but a systematic pursuit of personally enriching, skill-based, and identity-building activities. The LMS intervention embodies key principles of serious leisure by emphasizing intentional participation, collaborative creativity, and engagement with meaningful, skill-oriented goals. Through this structure, the LMS intervention may have simultaneously promoted hedonic satisfaction and a longer-term orientation toward self-actualization and personal growth—core dimensions of eudaimonic well-being. This interpretation resonates with Stebbins’ proposition that serious leisure generates enduring personal transformation beyond momentary pleasure. Given that participants were young adults navigating identity formation and role exploration, their engagement in LMS activities may have cultivated a serious, instinctually motivated commitment to personal and developmental growth.
Extending this interpretation to the cognitive domain, a significant change was observed in the CR of participants engaged in the LMS intervention. These changes align with cognitive appraisal theory (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), which posits that individuals’ emotional and behavioral responses to stress depend on how they interpret and evaluate events. By modifying maladaptive appraisals, CR facilitates a shift from threat-based perceptions to more controllable, challenge-oriented, and growth-focused evaluations. This outcome suggest that participants leaned to reinterpret stressors through adaptive cognitive reorganization during LMS activities. Such findings correspond with meta-analytic evidence linking appraisal flexibility to positive emotional outcomes (Yeo & Ong, 2024). Moreover, previous research indicates that CR can be cultivated through diverse experiential and digital interventions, including coping training programs (Smith, 1988), web-based adaptive tools (Sharma et al., 2024), self-administered healthy living strategies (Allespach et al., 2019), and empowerment-focused initiatives (Ghasemi, 2023). The present findings extend this literature by demonstrating that a structured leisure-based framework—such as the LMS intervention—can similarly enhance CR as a form of serious leisure engagement. Supporting prior evidence that recreation-based makerspaces foster cognitive competencies (Mersand, 2021), these results suggest that cognitive reframing of adverse experiences plays a central role in promoting holistic well-being among young adults. Brief, structured CR-focused leisure programs may thus strengthen adaptive coping during transitional periods, potentially mitigating long-term emotional distress.
According to Bandura’s social cognitive theory (1977), self-efficacy develops through reciprocal interactions among cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors, shaping motivation, affect regulation, and adaptive functioning. Within this framework, the LMS intervention provided an experiential environment that fostered efficacy beliefs through mastery experiences, collaborative support, and cognitive reframing—mechanisms empirically shown to strengthen self-regulation and goal-directed behavior (Chemers et al., 2001; Luthans et al., 2007). The pairwise analyses revealed that participants with initially lower efficacy scores, particularly those in Experimental Group 1, exhibited substantial improvement, suggesting that structured leisure-based engagement can cultivate mastery and confidence over time. Empirical evidence from recreation-based interventions, including TR programs (Stumbo & Peterson, 2009), leisure camps (Mater, 2020), and makerspace activities (Andrews et al., 2021; Mersand, 2021), corroborates these outcomes, emphasizing that self-efficacy can be strengthened even through short-term, intrinsically motivated experiences. For young adults navigating transitions and identity exploration, enhanced self-efficacy serves as a psychological buffer against academic and occupational stress, promoting persistence and long-term adaptability. Overall, the LMS intervention findings reinforce the theoretical premise that leisure contexts can operate as scalable, development-oriented environments for efficacy enhancement and holistic well-being.
The broader literature based on the PERMA model of well-being (Seligman, 2011) provides a framework for interpreting the observed improvements in well-being. This model conceptualizes flourishing as the development of five interrelated elements—positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment—that together sustain psychological growth. Empirical evidence supports that interventions activating these components significantly enhance mental health and functioning (Goh et al., 2022; Kern et al., 2016). Within this framework, the LMS intervention appears to have fostered well-being by strengthening positive emotions through creative engagement, supporting relational bonds in group settings, and enhancing meaning and accomplishment via mastery experiences and CR. These mechanisms correspond with previous findings linking serious leisure engagement to both hedonic satisfaction and eudaimonic fulfillment (Le Nguyen & Fredrickson, 2017; H. Liu & Yu, 2015). Improvements in well-being scores observed in this study therefore reflect not only short-term emotional relief but also longer-term personal growth, consistent with the PERMA framework. For young adults managing academic and professional transitions, leisure-based programs such as LMS activities may thus provide a sustainable pathway to flourishing—integrating emotional regulation, self-efficacy, and meaning making within an accessible, non-clinical setting.
Leisure experiences inherently generate positive emotions (Fredrickson, 2009). Similarly, LMS sessions produced a consistent increase in participants’ positive emotional expressions and a reduction in negative ones, as recorded through checklists administered before and after each session. According to cognitive appraisal theory (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), positive restructuring of cognition leads to more adaptive emotional responses. Additionally, affective state—one of the determinant of self-efficacy (Bandura et al., 1999)—is influenced by positive emotional expressions, thereby reinforcing efficacy beliefs. This patterns pattern also aligns with the broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2009), which explains how positive emotions expand cognitive and behavioral repertoires, fostering adaptive coping and personal growth. Finally, within the PERMA framework (Seligman, 2011), positive emotions represent a key route to holistic well-being. In summary, these emotional dynamics clarify the affective mechanisms linking CR, self-efficacy, and well-being, thereby validating the emotional processes underlying the effectiveness of the LMS intervention.
This study contributes to the growing body of evidence emphasizing leisure as a developmental domain rather than merely restorative one. Theoretically, it advances understanding of how structured leisure-based interventions (such as the LMS intervention) integrate cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes to promote 21st-century competencies and well-being. By combining elements of cognitive-behavioral and experiential learning frameworks within a leisure context, the LMS intervention operationalizes the principles of serious leisure and the LWM in a non-clinical, accessible form. This integration extends the theoretical boundary of leisure research by demonstrating how CR, self-efficacy, and positive emotion co-function as mediating mechanisms that enhance well-being.
Practically, the study highlights the potential of the LMS intervention as a scalable framework that can be adapted to diverse contexts—educational, organizational, and community-based—where personal development and well-being are desired outcomes. By offering a structured yet intrinsically motivated framework, the LMS intervention allows recreation managers, educators, and facilitators to act as mentors who guide participants toward experiential mastery and meaning making. Such applications can contribute not only to personal growth but also to workplace adaptability and social connectedness, addressing contemporary demands for transferable life skills and emotional competence. Ultimately, the LMS intervention represents a replicable approach for integrating leisure, learning, and well-being in ways that are both theoretically grounded and practically viable.
Conclusion
This study examined the effects of the LMS intervention on CR, self-efficacy, and holistic well-being. Post-test analyses showed that participants engaged in LMS processes reported significantly higher scores across all variables compared to non-participants. Notably, the group that began with lower self-efficacy levels demonstrated substantial post-intervention improvement, whereas control groups showed no significant change. Repeated-measures analyses confirmed that the LMS intervention significantly enhanced CR, self-efficacy, and well-being, indicating that observed gains were attributable to the intervention. Session-based evaluations of emotional expressions further supported the LMS intervention as an effective recreation-based approach. Collectively, these findings suggest that the LMS intervention facilitates adaptive CR, strengthens efficacy beliefs, and promotes overall well-being—highlighting its potential as an accessible, structured leisure intervention for developing competencies and fostering holistic well-being.
Limitations and Recommendations
This study was limited to CR and self-efficacy, two core 21st-century competencies. Future research could extend the intervention to include other competencies such as analytical thinking, empathy, creativity, resilience, self-esteem, which may also be enhanced through leisure-based interventions. The study focused on young adults aged 19 to 24 years with limited work experience who were enrolled at a single university, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. However, this design aligns with contemporary methodological perspectives in applied management and field-based quasi-experimental research that emphasize transferability and replicability across comparable contexts rather than population generalization (Aguinis & Solarino, 2019). The 6-week duration and self-report measures represent additional methodological limitations; longer interventions and multi-informant or behavioral data could provide richer evidence. Emotional expression data, adapted from the PANAS checklist, supported process-level monitoring but limited assessment depth. Although pre-test self-efficacy scores differed across groups, the within-group improvements indicate a significant intervention effect. Future research could replicate and refine the LMS structure across diverse age groups, cultural context, and organizational settings to evaluate its scalability and long-term outcomes in developing competencies and well-being.
Supplemental Material
sj-docx-1-sgo-10.1177_21582440251410625 – Supplemental material for Enhancing Young Adults’ Cognition, Self-Efficacy, and Well-Being Through Leisure Makerspace Interventions
Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-sgo-10.1177_21582440251410625 for Enhancing Young Adults’ Cognition, Self-Efficacy, and Well-Being Through Leisure Makerspace Interventions by Göknil Nur Koçak and Melih Deniz Işcen in SAGE Open
Supplemental Material
sj-docx-2-sgo-10.1177_21582440251410625 – Supplemental material for Enhancing Young Adults’ Cognition, Self-Efficacy, and Well-Being Through Leisure Makerspace Interventions
Supplemental material, sj-docx-2-sgo-10.1177_21582440251410625 for Enhancing Young Adults’ Cognition, Self-Efficacy, and Well-Being Through Leisure Makerspace Interventions by Göknil Nur Koçak and Melih Deniz Işcen in SAGE Open
Footnotes
Ethical Considerations
All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the Mersin University and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. In accordance with the decision dated 28.08.2023 and with the decree number 190, ethics committee approval was obtained from Mersin University Social and Human Sciences Ethics Committee.
Consent to Participate
Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, G.N.K. and M.D.İ.; Methodology, G.N.K. and M.D.İ.; Formal Analysis, M.D.İ.; Data Collection, M.D.İ.; Writing—Original Draft, G.N.K. and M.D.İ.; Writing—Review & Editing, G.N.K.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data Availability Statement
The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Supplemental Material
Supplemental material for this article is available online.
References
Supplementary Material
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