Preparing Special Needs Educators for Mainstream School Practice in Ethiopia: A Study of the Special Needs and Inclusive Education Professional Preparation Program

Abstract

This study examined Ethiopia’s Special Needs and Inclusive Education (SNIE) professional preparation program and its effectiveness in preparing Special Needs Educators (SNEs) for inclusive education in mainstream schools. Using a qualitative descriptive phenomenological design, data were collected from 12 Bachelor of Arts (BA)-level SNEs across 1 regional state and 1 city administration. The findings indicate that although the program maintains clear academic admission standards, incorporates practicum components, adopts a discrete model, and integrates medical, social, and human rights perspectives on disability, its overall effectiveness is limited by several critical gaps. The 4-year modular structure, reliance on lecture-based instruction, dominance of summative assessment, shortage of instructional materials, and limited integration of inclusive pedagogy reduce the program’s practical relevance. Addressing these challenges requires a context-sensitive and phased strategy that includes embedding inclusive pedagogy, social justice, and equity principles across all courses; implementing pedagogical reforms that emphasize trainee-centered approaches to admission, instruction, and assessment; enhancing practicum partnerships; and strengthening alignment between policy and curriculum.

Plain Language Summary

How Special Needs Educators in Ethiopia Are Trained for Inclusive Teaching in Regular Schools

This study explored how effectively Ethiopia’s Special Needs and Inclusive Education (SNIE) program prepares Special Needs Educators (SNEs) to support all learners in regular schools. Interviews with twelve SNEs revealed that although the program provides structured training and practical components, it relies heavily on lectures and examinations. Participants also identified limited opportunities for hands-on learning, low attention to trainee motivation, and insufficient emphasis on social justice. The study recommends expanding practical experiences, promoting student-centered teaching and assessment, and strengthening collaboration between universities and schools to enhance the quality of inclusive education in Ethiopia.

Introduction

The adoption of the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education in 1994 marked a milestone in global education policy, establishing inclusive education as a guiding principle. Inclusive education has since evolved into a worldwide movement and is widely recognized as a strategy for promoting access, participation, and equity in schooling for all children (Ainscow, 2020; Müllegger & Chapman, 2024). Over the past three decades, it has shaped national education policies and reform agendas in many countries (Mendoza & Heymann, 2024; Miralles-Cardona et al., 2025). Grounded in human rights and social justice, inclusive education seeks to eliminate exclusion and discrimination while ensuring that all children, including those with disabilities and diverse learning needs, are supported within mainstream education settings (Hosseini et al., 2024; Miškolci et al., 2021). Its legal and moral foundations are firmly embedded in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations, 2006), which affirms the right of all persons with disabilities to inclusive, quality, and free education at all levels. The CRPD also calls on education systems to accommodate diversity through equitable teacher preparation, support measures, and flexible pedagogical approaches (United Nations, 2006).

In response to these developments, many countries have integrated inclusive education policies into their teacher education systems. Schools are increasingly becoming collaborative communities where educators, parents, policymakers, and other stakeholders work together to implement inclusive practices (Ainscow, 2020; Nel et al., 2023; Selisko et al., 2024). Implementing inclusive education requires more than legislative change; it entails a fundamental transformation in how teachers are prepared to meet the diverse needs of learners. Teachers play a central role in this process, as they are expected to design flexible and accessible learning environments and apply strategies that accommodate all learners (Fränkel et al., 2023; Johnson & Erasmus, 2024). Teacher education programs are therefore expected to prepare educators as agents of inclusion by incorporating inclusive pedagogy, practical field experiences, and exposure to diverse learning contexts (Bradford et al., 2023; Kimhi & Bar Nir, 2025).

Professional preparation of teachers remains a central concern in achieving inclusive education. Effective preparation requires developing teachers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practical skills to work successfully with diverse learners in mainstream classrooms. However, what constitutes adequate professional preparation continues to be debated. Studies show that many teacher education programs do not sufficiently include inclusive content or practical experience, leaving educators underprepared (Adu-Gyamfi & Otami, 2020; Kebede & Phasha, 2024; Triviño-Amigo et al., 2022). Persistent challenges such as large class sizes, limited institutional support, and societal attitudes further hinder the implementation of inclusive practices (Mendoza & Heymann, 2024; Mergia, 2020).

Ethiopia ratified the CRPD in 2010, establishing its principles as both a legal and moral foundation for inclusive education reform. Building on this commitment and other international frameworks, inclusive education has gained increasing prominence within Ethiopia’s national education policy landscape (Ministry of Education [MoE], 2021). However, while teachers are expected to support a diverse range of learners, concerns remain about the adequacy and relevance of their professional preparation. Questions have also been raised regarding the coherence and practical orientation of existing teacher training programs designed to prepare teachers for inclusive education (Müllegger & Chapman, 2024; Pather et al., 2021).

Despite Ethiopia’s strong policy commitment to inclusive education, efforts to prepare teachers for inclusive practice have not been systematically or empirically evaluated. Most available information comes from policy documents, anecdotal reports, or small-scale descriptive studies focusing primarily on teacher attitudes rather than program effectiveness. Several factors contribute to this gap, including limited emphasis on evaluating program outcomes, scarce funding for systematic assessment, and restricted access to institutional data across universities (Gebretsadik et al., 2023; Kebede & Phasha, 2024; Kimhi & Bar Nir, 2025). Consequently, there is little empirical evidence on how teacher preparation initiatives are implemented or how effectively they prepare educators for inclusive practice in mainstream schools. Addressing this knowledge gap is essential to inform future curriculum reforms and ensure that Ethiopia’s investments in inclusive education translate into tangible outcomes.

This study is grounded in the concept of inclusive pedagogy, an approach to teaching and learning that values learner diversity and seeks to remove barriers to participation through responsive, collaborative, and flexible practices. Rooted in social justice and rights-based principles, inclusive pedagogy frames inclusion as both an educational and moral imperative. This framework guides the study’s design, analysis, and interpretation. Using this conceptual lens, the study examines Ethiopia’s Special Needs and Inclusive Education (SNIE) professional preparation program, which trains Special Needs Educators (SNEs). It highlights the program’s strengths and limitations in equipping pre-service SNEs for inclusive education in mainstream schools. Specifically, the study addresses the following questions:

1. How is the SNIE professional preparation program structured to prepare SNEs for inclusive education in mainstream schools?

2. How is the SNIE professional preparation program delivered to prepare SNEs for inclusive education in mainstream schools?

3. How effective is the SNIE professional preparation program in preparing SNEs for inclusive education in mainstream schools?

Teacher Preparation for Inclusive Education: Global Perspectives

The professional preparation of teachers for inclusive education is commonly discussed through three main approaches: the discrete, the integrated, and the merged models (Fränkel et al., 2023; Miškolci et al., 2021). The discrete model positions special needs education as a separate subject, often offered as an elective, allowing prospective teachers to specialize. Although it provides detailed focus on disability-related issues, recent studies suggest that it risks reinforcing divisions between mainstream and special education by framing inclusive education as optional rather than integral (Kimhi & Bar Nir, 2025; Mpolomoka et al., 2025; Selisko et al., 2024). The integrated model introduces inclusive education into general teacher education through compulsory modules or courses. This model has been commended for broadening exposure among all pre-service teachers but often results in shallow engagement due to limited curricular space and weak practical linkages (Fränkel et al., 2023; Miralles-Cardona et al., 2025). The merged model, meanwhile, embeds inclusive education as a core philosophy that shapes curriculum, pedagogy, and professional values across all teacher training activities. It has been highlighted as a pathway toward genuine transformation, equipping every teacher with the capacity to teach diverse learners rather than restricting expertise to specialists (Miškolci et al., 2021; Selisko et al., 2024).

Recent scholarship increasingly identifies the merged model as the most responsive to global calls for inclusive education, particularly in systems undergoing reform (Fränkel et al., 2023; Miralles-Cardona et al., 2025). However, effective adoption depends on structural factors such as teacher educators’ preparedness, institutional priorities, and the resources available for practice-based learning (Miralles-Cardona et al., 2025; Mpolomoka et al., 2025). Studies conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa and other low- and middle-income regions reveal persistent barriers, including overcrowded classrooms, limited access to differentiated learning materials, and insufficient training in inclusive pedagogy. These factors continue to constrain the transformative potential of merged models (Johnson & Erasmus, 2024; Kebede & Phasha, 2024; Mendoza & Heymann, 2024; Müllegger & Chapman, 2024; Nel et al., 2023). In practice, many teacher education programs adopt hybrid approaches that combine elements of the discrete and integrated models rather than implementing a fully merged design (Fränkel et al., 2023; Miškolci et al., 2021).

These debates highlight the ongoing challenge of aligning teacher education programs with the principles of equity and inclusion. Current literature emphasizes that preparing teachers requires more than developing technical pedagogical skills; it also involves cultivating inclusive values, resilience, and professional identity to support long-term change within schools and communities (Kimhi & Bar Nir, 2025; Mendoza & Heymann, 2024). This broader orientation reflects the growing consensus that inclusive education is not merely an instructional adjustment but a systemic commitment that must permeate every aspect of teacher preparation (Ainscow, 2020; Fränkel et al., 2023).

Special Needs Educators’ Professional Preparation for Inclusive Education in Ethiopia

The development of professional preparation for SNEs in Ethiopia has advanced substantially since the 1990s, reflecting both global trends and the country’s specific educational context. Before this period, Ethiopia relied heavily on international donations, short-term workshops, and external expertise to address the educational needs of learners with disabilities (Gebretsadik et al., 2023; Müllegger & Chapman, 2024). One of the earliest formal initiatives began at Adama Teachers Institute in 1933, which offered a six-month training program partly supported by Finnish educators. This program introduced foundational knowledge about children and youth with disabilities and aimed to build capacity for supporting special schools, developing special classes within mainstream schools, and initiating nationwide special needs education programs (Müllegger & Chapman, 2024).

Subsequent Finnish collaboration supported the establishment of special needs education courses at both the university and teacher training college levels. These initiatives enhanced national and regional recognition of special needs education, fostering a broader movement toward including children with disabilities and other diverse educational needs in mainstream school settings (Mergia, 2020; Müllegger & Chapman, 2024). The national Special Needs and Inclusive Education strategies of 2006 and 2012 emphasized professional preparation as essential for delivering quality inclusive education. These policies highlighted the importance of equipping SNEs with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to support all learners effectively (Kebede & Phasha, 2024; Mergia, 2020). As a result, Ethiopia now offers professional preparation programs for SNEs at the diploma, degree, master’s, and doctoral levels across several institutions. Moreover, SNIE has been integrated as a compulsory course in regular teacher education programs nationwide.

In 2013, the MoE revised the Bachelor of Arts (BA) curriculum in SNIE, transitioning from a traditional course-based structure to a modular system. The curriculum was further refined in 2021 to include additional supportive and common courses that strengthen interdisciplinary integration. This revision emphasized updated pedagogical approaches, expanded opportunities for practical training, and alignment with international standards. The revised curriculum aims to prepare graduates with competencies in advocating for inclusive education, designing and managing inclusive programs, conducting assessments and interventions, and creating accessible learning environments. It also promotes skills in assistive technology, rehabilitation, applied research, and community engagement (MoE, 2021). Through these components, the program seeks to develop professionals capable of advancing inclusive education practices in Ethiopia’s mainstream primary schools (Kebede & Phasha, 2024; Pather et al., 2021).

Recent studies, however, indicate that challenges remain in preparing both regular and specialized teachers for inclusive education in Ethiopia. Research by Tesfaye and Hailu (2024) shows that although teachers possess some knowledge of inclusive instructional strategies, their moderate self-efficacy limits their ability to implement inclusive practices effectively. In addition, reforms in regular teacher education are sometimes inadequately supported by empirical evidence and expert guidance for sustainable implementation (Müllegger & Chapman, 2024). Management and coordination challenges within teacher preparation and professional development programs have also been identified (Gizachew & Areaya, 2024). Ensuring quality inclusive education across Ethiopia requires well-coordinated pre-service and in-service preparation programs, together with ongoing professional development that enhances content knowledge, pedagogical skills, and language proficiency. Despite these efforts, limited research has examined the effectiveness of the pre-service BA degree program in SNIE, which is the focus of this study.

Method

A qualitative research approach grounded in descriptive phenomenology was employed, recognizing reality as a dynamic and multilayered social experience (Alhazmi & Kaufmann, 2022). This section presents the study design, study sites, participants, data collection procedures, and data analysis methods.

Study Design

This study employed a descriptive phenomenological design to explore the lived experiences of SNEs regarding their professional preparation. Guided by Husserl’s transcendental philosophy and informed by recent methodological refinements (Cudjoe & Kyei, 2023), the study sought to uncover the essence of participants’ experiences by focusing on their subjective perspectives. To promote objectivity, reflexive bracketing strategies were applied to identify and set aside potential researcher biases, allowing the phenomenon to be examined with openness and curiosity (Alhazmi & Kaufmann, 2022). The design focused on how SNEs perceived and interpreted their professional preparation for inclusive education, highlighting both shared and individual meanings (Bouncken et al., 2025; Chand, 2025). This approach enabled a comprehensive and authentic description of the professional realities and experiences of SNEs within mainstream school settings.

Study Sites

Ethiopia operates under a constitutional federal system comprising 2 chartered city administrations and 12 regional states, which collectively grant autonomy to more than 80 ethnic groups. This study was conducted in 1 chartered city administration and 1 regional state. Twelve districts were purposefully selected, with six from the city administration and six from the regional state, to represent Ethiopia’s socio-cultural and geographical diversity. Purposeful site selection enabled the inclusion of contexts where inclusive education initiatives were already being implemented, thereby enhancing the credibility and relevance of the findings (Bouncken et al., 2025).

Participants

In Ethiopia, SNEs working in mainstream primary schools have distinct responsibilities, including supporting inclusive practices, managing resource rooms, and facilitating the use of teaching materials and assistive devices (Pather et al., 2021). This study focused on SNEs serving in mainstream primary schools. From this population, 12 SNEs were purposefully selected, 1 from each of the 12 schools, based on clearly defined criteria. Eligible participants held a BA degree in SNIE, had completed their degree through a pre-service regular program, and had at least 3 years of professional experience in the school where they were employed.

The decision to include 12 participants was guided by methodological principles of descriptive phenomenology, which emphasize depth of insight over sample size. This number allowed for rich, detailed accounts while maintaining manageability for intensive analysis. The sample included SNEs from both a regional state and a city administration to ensure contextual diversity and enhance transferability. Data saturation was reached after the 10th interview, when no new meanings or perspectives emerged, and two additional interviews were conducted to confirm redundancy and ensure completeness of themes. This approach aligns with established phenomenological sampling guidelines that recommend samples between 6 and 15 participants to achieve data sufficiency and conceptual depth (Bouncken et al., 2025; Cudjoe & Kyei, 2023).

The selected schools, six in one chartered city administration and six in one regional state, were chosen because they had established inclusive education services, designated SNEs, and relatively high enrollments of learners with diverse educational needs. The study employed critical case sampling, a purposive sampling method designed to select information-rich participants who could provide detailed insights and enhance the transferability of results (Bouncken et al., 2025; Cudjoe & Kyei, 2023).

Data Collection Procedures

Methodological decisions ensured that data collection aligned with the research purpose and objectives. Data were gathered through face-to-face semi-structured individual interviews and document analysis, two complementary methods commonly employed in descriptive phenomenological research to capture the richness and depth of participants’ lived experiences (Chand, 2025). Prior to data collection, ethical approval was secured, and formal permissions were obtained from the MoE and school directors to facilitate site access and participant recruitment.

Semi-structured interviews provided an in-depth exploration of SNEs’ experiences regarding their professional preparation and its relevance to their practice in regular schools (Appendix 1). This format allowed flexibility, enabling the interviewer to probe for clarification and capture nuanced meanings (Alhazmi & Kaufmann, 2022). Interviews were conducted outside working hours in resource rooms, each lasting approximately 85 to 90 min, and continued until data saturation was achieved (Chand, 2025). Participants were informed about the study’s purpose, procedures, and rights, and written consent was obtained before each interview. To ensure confidentiality, pseudonymous identifiers (Participant A to L) were used, and any identifying information about individuals, schools, or locations was removed. All digital files were securely stored in password-protected folders accessible only to the researcher. Although resource intensive, this approach yielded rich and detailed qualitative data.

Document analysis complemented interviews by drawing on curriculum materials, modules, and course-related documents from the SNIE preparation program, including the official prospectus of University A1 (pseudonym). Triangulating interview data with documentary evidence enhanced trustworthiness and provided contextual depth (Bouncken et al., 2025; Chand, 2025). Relevant documents were available through the MoE and the university’s official website.

Data Analysis

The data were analyzed using a structured descriptive phenomenological process adapted from contemporary refinements of Moustakas’s framework. Analysis began with reflexive bracketing, whereby the researcher intentionally set aside personal assumptions to prioritize participants’ perspectives (Alhazmi & Kaufmann, 2022; Cudjoe & Kyei, 2023). To operationalize bracketing, the researcher maintained a reflexive journal throughout data collection and analysis to document assumptions, decisions, and reflections. Reflective memos were written after each interview and during coding to examine how prior experiences might influence interpretation. Regular consultation with a methodological advisor enhanced analytic rigor and ensured alignment with phenomenological principles. In addition, documentary sources, including the SNIE preparation curriculum, course modules, related materials, and the university prospectus, were analyzed alongside interview transcripts to contextualize participant accounts. Insights from these documents were compared with coded data to verify interpretations and to ensure that findings were grounded in both practitioner perspectives and institutional frameworks.

Horizonalization followed, during which all interview and documentary data were treated with equal value before identifying 194 significant statements (Appendix 2). These statements were subsequently clustered into eight thematic categories. Textural descriptions were developed to represent what participants experienced regarding their professional preparation, while structural descriptions captured how these experiences were influenced by institutional and contextual factors. Imaginative variation was then applied to explore the deeper meanings underlying participants’ accounts (Chand, 2025; Cudjoe & Kyei, 2023). The integration of textural and structural descriptions produced comprehensive textural-structural syntheses that conveyed both the what and the how of SNEs’ professional experiences. Throughout the process, coherence and transparency were maintained by including direct participant quotations and systematically linking them to the emerging thematic insights. This approach ensured a rigorous and nuanced interpretation of the lived experiences of Ethiopian SNEs.

Results

Admission Requirements

All participants (n = 12) consistently identified the standard admission requirements for entry into the pre-service regular BA program in SNIE. As Participant E described, eligibility required completion of the preparatory high school curriculum (Grades 11 and 12) and achieving a minimum score on the national entrance examination. Participant B explained that university placement was overseen by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (MoSHE), although the specific criteria were not transparent: “I was placed by the MoSHE, but I did not get into the university I originally preferred.”

Regarding personal motivation, five participants indicated that enrollment in the SNIE preparation program aligned with their academic interests. Participant H reflected, “I was interested in studying SNIE when I applied to university, and I successfully completed the program,” while Participant A affirmed, “SNIE was my chosen field of interest among the available study options.” In contrast, most participants (n = 7) reported that SNIE was not their initial choice, though they continued and completed the program. Participant K acknowledged, “Although SNIE was not my preferred option, I managed to complete the program.”

An examination of University A1’s prospectus revealed multiple admission criteria. Students who completed preparatory school and achieved the minimum score set by the MoSHE for university entrance were eligible for admission to the program. In addition, individuals who already held a diploma or degree in another field, preferably in education, could be admitted in accordance with MoSHE regulations and institutional legislation. These provisions applied to both regular and continuing education programs.

The admission process for the SNIE preparation program reflects a deliberate effort to maintain academic rigor while promoting broader access through multiple entry pathways, including diploma-based admission. However, these criteria primarily emphasize academic performance rather than motivation or dispositions toward inclusive teaching. Similar patterns have been observed in teacher education systems across sub-Saharan Africa, where centralized placement often overlooks candidates’ personal commitment to inclusion (Johnson & Erasmus, 2024; Scheef et al., 2025). Balancing academic qualifications with motivation-based selection could strengthen both the quality and commitment of future SNIE professionals.

Program Composition

Although participants attended four different universities that followed the same program, they shared similar perspectives on its structure and content. Participant B described the overall requirement as “33 SNIE courses, 14 common courses, and 5 supportive courses.” Participant L explained that “All of the courses were divided into chapters, and the chapters were also divided into specific topics and sub-topics,” but expressed concern that “Some of the courses contained too much content to be covered,” suggesting issues of content overload. Participant K observed that SNIE courses frequently revisited key themes such as the identification, assessment, and support of learners with disabilities, as well as instructional strategies. Participant A noted the inclusion of medical content, stating, “Some of the SNIE courses include medical concepts, like symptoms and causes of disability category, that I think are not very important for us.”

The prospectus of University A1 indicates that graduation requires the completion of a total of 244 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits. Trainees must achieve a minimum Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) of 2.00 and have no grades of “F” (Fail), “NG” (No Grade), or “I” (Incomplete) in any prescribed course. Furthermore, the curriculum is organized into 3 core modular components: (a) SNIE-specific modules totaling 162 ECTS, which include a range of specialization-related courses; (b) a common courses module totaling 61 ECTS, which provides foundational knowledge for all first-year students regardless of specialization; and (c) a supportive courses module totaling 21 ECTS, designed to strengthen trainees’ interdisciplinary competencies (see Appendix 3 for detailed modules and courses).

Although the modular structure demonstrates overall strength in design, the SNIE-specific modules emphasize disability-related content, which may unintentionally reinforce a categorical or medicalized view of learner difference. This observation aligns with findings by Miškolci et al. (2021) and Selisko et al. (2024), who note that when teacher education curricula focus primarily on impairment-specific knowledge without adequately integrating inclusive pedagogy, they tend to produce technical rather than transformative practice.

Focus of the Program

All participants agreed that the program’s overarching aim is to prepare professionals with the knowledge and competencies required in SNIE. However, views differed regarding the program’s specific emphasis. Four participants perceived the program as being designed to support all children, regardless of ability or disability. Participant A explained that the program develops trainees’ capacity to identify and remove learning barriers, promoting the inclusion of all children in mainstream schools. Participant G echoed this, emphasizing the principle that every child has the right to education.

Most participants (n = 8), however, viewed the program as more specifically focused on children with special educational needs. Participant C stated, “The objective is to train SNIE professionals to identify, assess, and provide educational support to learners requiring special attention.” Participant K added that the program aims to prepare trainees to collaborate with teachers, school leaders, parents, and other stakeholders, noting that working with disadvantaged children requires strong collaborative skills.

The SNIE preparation curriculum emphasizes supporting children with special educational needs while also acknowledging the importance of addressing the diverse learning needs of all children. The document states that the goal is “To produce professionals who create awareness about special needs and individual differences and develop skills for identifying these needs to provide support and prevent possible exclusion of learners at risk.” Additionally, it highlights the objective “To produce professionals who work with the school and the local community, empower and encourage mainstream school teachers to use alternative and supportive teaching approaches, and improve the quality of learning” (MoE, 2021).

Taken together, participants’ views reveal an underlying tension between a disability-specific remit and a broader inclusion mandate. While the SNIE preparation curriculum aspires to address diverse learner needs, its emphasis on impairment categories appears to anchor trainees’ identities primarily as specialists for children with special educational needs rather than as school-wide inclusion change agents. This pattern aligns with findings from other contexts, where programs that emphasize categorical expertise without a unifying equity or rights-based framework often leave graduates less prepared to lead universal design and inclusive school reform (Hosseini et al., 2024; Miralles-Cardona et al., 2025; Miškolci et al., 2021). Strengthening an explicit social justice and equity orientation could help reconcile these aims and promote a more holistic conception of inclusion within the SNIE preparation curriculum.

Program Duration

All participants indicated that the program is structured to span 1 year of common courses followed by 3 years of SNIE and supportive courses, totaling 4 years, which they generally regarded as sufficient to develop professional competencies. Participant L explained that the program follows a biannual semester system with course registration at the beginning of each term. Participant D noted, “The 1-year common courses and 3-year SNIE and supportive courses duration allowed adequate time to build foundational knowledge and skills.” However, some participants raised concerns about potential delays. Participant G stated, “The timeline could be extended if trainees failed to meet credit requirements. For instance, failing a course requires re-enrollment, and credit hour limits per term might force deferral of other courses, prolonging studies.”

According to the SNIE preparation curriculum, the program is designed to be completed within 4 years for regular students. Those unable to finish within this timeframe may, with the approval of the academic commission, continue for an additional semester or year. Depending on the nature of the modules, either semester-based or block-based delivery is used. The total study load across the four consecutive years (Year I to Year IV) is 146 credit hours, equivalent to 244 ECTS credits (MoE, 2021).

Although this 4-year, 244 ECTS structure provides a coherent academic pathway, participants’ concerns about time pressure in SNIE-related courses and the potential for course deferrals suggest limited opportunities for practice-rich learning. Comparative research indicates that extended or distributed practicum models and iterative assessment cycles foster stronger inclusive teaching competencies (Bradford et al., 2023; Kyttälä et al., 2024). Thus, while the current duration may be adequate for foundational content coverage, it appears insufficient for the sustained and reflective practice required to consolidate inclusive pedagogical skills, particularly in resource-constrained contexts with large trainee cohorts.

Teaching and Learning Methods

All participants reported similar teaching and learning methods in the SNIE preparation program. Participant L noted that instructors predominantly used lectures, sharing information orally and writing key points on the blackboard. Participant H added, “Most instructors provided handouts, but it was usually up to the trainees to make copies themselves, followed by typical lectures.” Participant G observed, “Trainee-centered approaches were used occasionally, but practical courses such as orientation and mobility skills, Braille reading and writing, and sign language incorporated more hands-on, learner-centered activities.”

Although the SNIE preparation curriculum promotes diverse, learner-centered methods such as interactive lectures, field trips, simulations, role plays, and expert consultations, implementation remains largely lecture based. Participants also described inconsistencies in the practicum component: some experienced limited supervision, while others reported more structured follow-up. Analysis of the SNIE preparation curriculum supports these findings, showing that practicum design, supervision, and assessment are left to universities’ discretion, resulting in varied implementation across institutions (MoE, 2021).

Overall, these findings highlight a misalignment between the participatory approaches outlined in policy and the predominantly didactic practices observed in classrooms. This inconsistency reflects broader challenges in teacher education within low-resource contexts, where limited materials, large class sizes, and institutional variability hinder the implementation of inclusive pedagogy (Fränkel et al., 2023; Kebede & Phasha, 2024; Nel et al., 2023).

Assessment Techniques

Participants described a range of assessment techniques used in the SNIE preparation program. Participant C noted the use of formal examinations at the end of terms or courses. Participant E identified tests, individual and group assignments, midterm exams, and final exams as common methods. Participant J mentioned occasional unannounced quizzes to assess understanding. Participant F explained, “Course outlines specify assessment techniques, usually summative, but such methods alone are insufficient to prepare trainees adequately.” Participant G commented, “Assessment was mainly to determine grades, not to evaluate actual mastery.”

The SNIE preparation curriculum outlines multiple forms of assessment, including quizzes, exams, written assignments, reflections, portfolios, presentations, and individual or group work. It also mandates quality assurance procedures at both the course and program levels, requiring students to complete evaluation questionnaires on instructors, courses, and the overall program. Results are analyzed to identify areas for improvement, followed by feedback discussions with graduating students to enhance teaching and learning practices (MoE, 2021).

Participants’ emphasis on summative rather than formative assessment reflects findings from international research, which warn that heavy reliance on end-of-term examinations can undermine reflective learning and adaptive teaching (Johnson & Erasmus, 2024; Kyttälä et al., 2024). Greater integration of formative assessments would enhance feedback and better align assessment practices with the principles of inclusive pedagogy.

Teaching and Learning Media

All participants reported limited use of teaching and learning media. Participant A mentioned the occasional use of basic materials such as displayed resources, learning kits, and assistive technologies. Participant D observed inadequate availability of instructional materials. Participant J recalled, “The lack of teaching materials, including reference books and digital documents, affected the effectiveness of our preparation. The head of the Special Needs Education department said the department was new and lacked sufficient materials.”

However, the SNIE preparation curriculum lists several teaching and learning facilities intended to support the program, including general classroom equipment (projectors, computers, and printers), specialized tools for visual and hearing impairments (Braille devices, white canes, hearing aids, and audiometers), mobility aids (crutches and prostheses), and a range of assessment tools and reference materials (MoE, 2021).

This scarcity of instructional materials mirrors findings from other sub-Saharan African teacher education programs, where resource shortages frequently hinder practical training and innovation (Mendoza & Heymann, 2024; Mpolomoka et al., 2025). Such constraints limit opportunities to model inclusive teaching practices that depend on differentiated resources and multimodal engagement.

Teaching Environment

All participants noted that course delivery was primarily classroom based, with an emphasis on instructor-led lectures. Participant I stated that instruction took place mainly in lecture rooms and was teacher centered. Participant B confirmed that courses such as orientation and mobility skills, Braille reading and writing, and sign language were also conducted in lecture rooms. Participant K offered a nuanced view, stating, “Although lecture rooms were our everyday learning places, practicum-related courses were managed at primary school settings.”

These accounts align with curriculum documents that identify lecture classrooms and resource rooms as the main instructional settings (MoE, 2021). The Practicum Module emphasizes engagement in primary school classrooms, allowing trainees to apply theory and build the competencies needed to support learners with special needs in inclusive settings.

The predominance of classroom-based delivery highlights the limited exposure to real-world inclusive environments during preparation. Studies such as Hosseini et al. (2024) and Bradford et al. (2023) stress that practical immersion in diverse school contexts is vital for developing inclusive teaching competencies, an area that requires strengthening within the Ethiopian SNIE preparation program.

Taken together, these findings reveal a persistent tension between the inclusive intent of the SNIE preparation curriculum and the conventional pedagogical practices that dominate its implementation. While the program aspires to equip educators with inclusive competencies, structural and resource-related limitations restrict experiential learning and pedagogical diversity. This pattern aligns with regional studies that document implementation gaps between inclusive education policy and classroom realities (Adu-Gyamfi & Otami, 2020; Kebede & Phasha, 2024; Nel et al., 2023). These findings extend previous research by providing empirical evidence of how such systemic barriers manifest within Ethiopia’s professional preparation of SNEs.

Discussion

In Ethiopia, trainees must meet specific academic admission standards to enroll in the pre-service BA degree program in SNIE. These standards ensure that candidates possess foundational competencies necessary to engage effectively with SNIE content, pedagogical approaches, and inclusive practices within mainstream schools. This finding aligns with recent scholarship emphasizing that clear admission requirements are vital for sustaining program quality and ensuring successful teacher preparation in inclusive education (Ainscow, 2020; Gebretsadik et al., 2023). The Ethiopian SNIE preparation curriculum requires applicants to complete preparatory high school education, sit for the national university entrance examination, and meet a minimum score set by the MoSHE. This approach mirrors global best practices observed in countries such as Ghana and South Africa, where structured academic entry points are viewed as essential for cultivating capable special and inclusive educators (Adu-Gyamfi & Otami, 2020; Nel et al., 2023). Collectively, these measures demonstrate Ethiopia’s commitment to establishing strong foundations for SNIE professional preparation.

Although Ethiopian teacher education policy formally recognizes the importance of student interest, such interest is often overlooked during recruitment into the SNIE preparation program. This reflects earlier models in which trainee preferences were not given sufficient consideration, contrasting with contemporary arguments that intrinsic motivation is central to developing effective inclusive teachers (Johnson & Erasmus, 2024; Scheef et al., 2025). Overlooking student motivation at the point of entry risks admitting trainees whose commitment to inclusive education may be limited. However, evidence from this study indicates that many trainees who initially lacked strong interest successfully completed the program and went on to serve in mainstream schools. This outcome suggests that the program’s structure, professional ethos, and curricular emphasis on inclusive values may cultivate competence and commitment over time. The finding reinforces arguments in the broader literature that teacher education environments play a critical role in nurturing professional motivation and identity (Bradford et al., 2023; Müllegger & Chapman, 2024), even when initial levels of interest are modest. Thus, while improving recruitment processes to capture motivation remains desirable, Ethiopia’s SNIE preparation program demonstrates some success in fostering commitment through training itself.

The delivery format of the SNIE preparation program in Ethiopia reflects an effort to enhance accessibility and inclusivity. The program is offered in both full-time and block-release formats, accommodating individuals with diverse professional and personal commitments. Such flexibility not only broadens access to professional preparation but also aligns with perspectives emphasizing that teacher education systems should embody inclusivity in their structure and delivery (Kimhi & Bar Nir, 2025; Miškolci et al., 2021). While the program adopts a discrete model of preparation, sometimes critiqued internationally for perpetuating deficit-oriented approaches, evidence from this study suggests that graduates nevertheless demonstrate competence in collaboration and inclusive teaching. This underscores that curriculum content, pedagogical approaches, and national educational priorities often exert greater influence on professional outcomes than structural models alone (Mendoza & Heymann, 2024; Mpolomoka et al., 2025). In other words, although discrete models may carry risks of reinforcing separations, their impact is mediated by the substance and values embedded within the curriculum.

The Ethiopian SNIE preparation curriculum consists of SNIE-specific modules, common courses module, and supportive courses module. While trainees are required to complete all components, some modules lack sufficient depth and practical orientation. Scholars have observed that when inclusive education content is treated superficially, teachers are ill-prepared for the complex realities of diverse classrooms (Johnson & Erasmus, 2024; Miralles-Cardona et al., 2025). Across African contexts, the predominance of theoretical teaching at the expense of practical engagement remains a recurring concern (Adu-Gyamfi & Otami, 2020; Kebede & Phasha, 2024; Nel et al., 2023; Tesfaye & Hailu, 2024). The Ethiopian case reflects these challenges, highlighting the need for stronger integration of practice-based learning within coursework. Without a deliberate effort to embed practical application into the curriculum, there is a risk of producing graduates who are knowledgeable in theory but underprepared to apply inclusive strategies in real classroom contexts.

Currently, trainees complete 33 SNIE courses, often taught separately from general pedagogy and subject-specific training, resulting in fragmented learning experiences. This structure contrasts with the principles of inclusive pedagogy, which emphasize coherence and integration across all aspects of teacher education. Recent studies highlight the importance of embedding inclusive values and practices throughout teacher preparation to ensure alignment between policy, coursework, and professional practice (Kimhi & Bar Nir, 2025; Miralles-Cardona et al., 2025; Mlolele et al., 2023). A more holistic and integrated curriculum design would enhance teacher competence and responsiveness to learner diversity.

Although the Ethiopian SNIE preparation curriculum incorporates medical, social, and rights-based models of disability, it does not sufficiently equip teachers to advance the social justice and equity principles central to inclusive education. Scholars warn that without a deliberate emphasis on rights-based and equity-oriented frameworks, teacher preparation may unintentionally reinforce exclusionary practices under the guise of inclusion (Hosseini et al., 2024; Triviño-Amigo et al., 2022). Preparing educators to challenge systemic barriers requires more than exposure to disability models; it demands a comprehensive integration of human rights discourse and social justice frameworks. This gap is significant because inclusive education, in its fullest sense, requires teachers who not only adapt instruction but also advocate for structural change and equity within schools.

The SNIE preparation program spans 4 years and comprises 244 ECTS credits, aligning closely with international teacher education standards. This extended duration represents progress toward broader content coverage and improved skill development. However, participants noted time pressure in SNIE-related courses and limited opportunities for practical engagement, suggesting that theoretical instruction continues to outweigh experiential learning. Comparative evidence from Canada and Finland shows that extended practicum models and iterative assessment cycles foster stronger inclusive teaching competencies (Bradford et al., 2023; Kyttälä et al., 2024). Enhancing practice-based components within the existing 4-year framework could therefore strengthen professional readiness and deepen inclusive pedagogical capacity (Mlolele et al., 2023).

One of the program’s notable strengths lies in its practicum component. Trainees undertake baseline and intervention practicum courses, each requiring five ECTS of school-based practice. This emphasis on practice reflects international consensus that practicum is central to bridging theory and practice, developing pedagogical skill, and reinforcing professional identity (Hosseini et al., 2024; Johnson & Erasmus, 2024). Ethiopia’s integration of sustained practicum represents an important achievement in aligning with global best practices. However, the overall scope of practicum opportunities remains limited compared with systems that incorporate extensive field experience across multiple semesters. Expanding practicum opportunities could further strengthen the professional competence of SNIE graduates. Participants’ accounts also revealed that, although the SNIE preparation curriculum promotes inclusive principles and practicum components, institutional discretion in implementation has led to uneven delivery and inconsistent quality across universities. These findings also reflect Ethiopia’s continuing effort to operationalize its commitments under the CRPD. While the SNIE preparation curriculum embodies some rights-based principles, implementation remains uneven, indicating the need to strengthen policy and practice alignment in teacher education to meet CRPD Article 24 obligations.

The program continues to be heavily oriented toward disability-focused discourse, reflecting its historical development. While attention to disability is essential, an exclusive focus risks neglecting broader dimensions of learner diversity, including language, socioeconomic status, and cultural background. Contemporary inclusive pedagogy emphasizes an expansive view of diversity, underscoring that effective inclusion addresses multiple, intersecting dimensions of difference (Mendoza & Heymann, 2024; Mpolomoka et al., 2025). To prepare SNEs to foster equity in diverse classrooms, the Ethiopian SNIE preparation program must reorient its curriculum toward a more holistic understanding of inclusion.

The dominance of lecture-based teaching within the SNIE preparation program further limits inclusive preparation. Resource constraints have entrenched lectures as the default instructional method. While lectures allow efficient content delivery, they do not reflect inclusive pedagogy’s emphasis on participatory, learner-centered approaches. International research strongly supports the adoption of diverse teaching strategies that actively model inclusion, such as collaborative learning, case-based instruction, and technology-enhanced pedagogy (Johnson & Erasmus, 2024; Müllegger & Chapman, 2024; Nel et al., 2023). Addressing resource shortages and investing in pedagogical innovation would enable Ethiopian instructors to move beyond lecture-dominated approaches.

Assessment practices within the SNIE preparation program also show limitations. Summative evaluation remains dominant, while formative assessment is underused despite its importance in monitoring professional growth. Research emphasizes the need for varied assessment strategies that capture not only knowledge acquisition but also the development of professional dispositions and inclusive teaching competencies (Gebretsadik et al., 2023; Kyttälä et al., 2024; Müllegger & Chapman, 2024). Embedding robust formative assessments within the SNIE preparation program would generate deeper insights into trainee progress and ensure that graduates are both competent and reflective practitioners.

Finally, the context in which the Ethiopian SNIE preparation program operates remains constrained by its heavy reliance on lecture halls, which limits exposure to diverse and dynamic learning environments. Although the practicum component is a notable strength, its scope is restricted. Evidence from international contexts highlights that experiential learning, delivered through varied strategies, is essential for preparing educators to work effectively in inclusive settings (Bradford et al., 2023; Hosseini et al., 2024). Expanding opportunities for fieldwork, community engagement, and placements in varied classroom contexts would significantly enhance the practical relevance of Ethiopia’s SNIE preparation program. Without such experiences, trainees may be insufficiently prepared to navigate the complexity and unpredictability of real-world classrooms.

In acknowledging these findings, it is also important to recognize the methodological limitations that shape their interpretation. This study’s methodological scope was limited to 12 participants from 1 chartered city administration and 1 regional state, which constrains the generalizability of the findings. The qualitative design prioritized depth over breadth; however, the small sample size may not capture the full diversity of experiences within Ethiopia’s SNIE preparation program. Additionally, contextual variations in institutional resources, regional implementation practices, and program delivery likely influenced the results. Future studies incorporating additional regions and employing mixed-method designs could enhance representativeness, improve generalizability, and provide stronger evidence to inform policy and practice in inclusive education.

Conclusion and Recommendations

This study is grounded in the concept of inclusive pedagogy, which values learner diversity and seeks to remove barriers to participation through responsive and collaborative practices. Rooted in social justice and rights-based principles, it frames inclusion as both an educational and moral imperative. Guided by this framework, the study examined the structure and delivery of Ethiopia’s SNIE professional preparation program, highlighting its strengths and limitations in equipping pre-service SNEs for inclusive education in mainstream schools. The findings indicate that while the inclusion of practicum components represents a notable strength, critical gaps persist in pedagogical diversity, assessment balance, and the integration of inclusive principles across the curriculum. Although the program’s 4-year duration provides a comprehensive structure, limited opportunities for practice-based learning, reliance on lecture-centered instruction, summative assessments, and insufficient emphasis on social justice and equity continue to constrain its transformative potential. Recruitment processes that overlook trainees’ motivation further reduce engagement and long-term commitment. Collectively, these challenges limit the program’s capacity to produce confident and competent educators prepared for inclusive practice.

Addressing these challenges requires a phased and context-sensitive approach. In the immediate term, actions that can be implemented within Ethiopia’s current policy and resource environment should be prioritized. Embedding inclusive education principles across all courses is essential to ensure coherence between philosophy and practice. Pedagogical reform should also begin with promoting participatory and student-centered instructional approaches such as peer learning, collaborative projects, and microteaching that model inclusion even within existing infrastructural limitations. Equally important is integrating formative assessment tools, such as reflective journals and portfolios, alongside traditional examinations to better capture trainees’ growth in inclusive teaching competencies.

Over the medium term, as institutional capacity and collaboration improve, universities should broaden practicum and fieldwork opportunities by establishing stronger partnerships with mainstream schools and local communities. Creating professional learning communities that connect SNIE faculty with school-based mentors can facilitate continuous exchange between theory and practice. Admissions policies may also be refined to consider trainees’ motivation and commitment to inclusive education through interviews or reflective statements, in addition to academic performance criteria.

In the longer term, more resource-intensive reforms will be necessary to achieve systemic improvement. Optimizing the existing 4-year structure by embedding additional practice-based courses and strengthening field supervision would allow for deeper consolidation of inclusive pedagogical skills. Sustained professional development frameworks, supported by incentives and coherent policy guidance, could reinforce graduates’ commitment to inclusive education throughout their careers. Aligning the curriculum more closely with social justice and equity principles would further ensure that inclusion functions not as a discrete specialization but as a foundational ethos guiding all aspects of teacher preparation.

Given Ethiopia’s existing resource constraints, the most feasible starting points involve low-cost pedagogical and assessment reforms that can have a high impact on teaching quality. Embedding inclusion across courses, diversifying instructional strategies, and balancing formative and summative assessments can be achieved within current institutional structures. As universities and the MoE continue to expand their capacity, the medium- and long-term reforms proposed here will become progressively more attainable through collaborative planning and incremental investment.

Finally, this study highlights important directions for future research. Comparative analyses across regions and institutions could illuminate variations in SNIE implementation and identify localized strengths and challenges. Longitudinal studies that follow SNIE graduates into their professional practice would provide crucial evidence of how pre-service preparation translates into classroom performance and learner outcomes. Future inquiry may also examine how inclusive values, social justice orientations, and teacher identities evolve over time, contributing to the design of more contextually responsive and equity-driven teacher education programs.

Policy Pathways and Global Lessons

Ethiopia’s ongoing efforts to strengthen teacher education for inclusion would benefit from a multilevel policy approach that links curriculum reform, professional development, and institutional support. In the short term, national teacher education standards could explicitly integrate inclusive competencies, ensuring that all pre-service programs align with equity and rights-based principles. At the institutional level, developing national practicum frameworks and university–school partnerships, similar to South Africa’s collaborative school-based learning models, could improve coherence between theory and practice. In the medium to long term, adopting elements of Finland’s reflective practice model or Canada’s transformative learning approach could help embed continuous reflection, mentorship, and inclusive pedagogy across training cycles. Building a national repository of inclusive education resources and communities of practice would further promote shared learning and innovation across regions. Through these pathways, Ethiopia can progressively adapt global best practices within its own cultural and policy context to achieve an inclusive, equitable, and sustainable teacher preparation system.