Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Recognising the importance of phonics in early English literacy development, the National English Curriculum of mainland China incorporated it in 2011. Prior literature indicates potential gaps in the phonics instructional knowledge of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers, potentially stemming from the absence of dedicated pre-service training resources. To effectively address this potential knowledge gap, a comprehensive needs assessment is crucial. This study aimed to investigate the subject matter content knowledge needs of mainland Chinese pre-service EFL teachers regarding phonics instruction. Data were collected from 172 pre-service EFL teachers at a teachers’ college in Sichuan Province, China, using a test and a survey. These instruments explored the participants’ objectives and desired changes in phonics learning and instruction across seven dimensions. The results indicated that phonics general knowledge, decoding rules, and instructional strategies were the most preferred areas of need among the pre-service teachers. These findings underscore the urgent need for a targeted instructional guide to enhance the phonics knowledge of pre-service EFL teachers, ultimately contributing to more effective early English literacy instruction.

Plain Language Summary

Assessing the Phonics Knowledge of Future English Teachers in China: A Study of Needs and Priorities

This study investigated the phonics knowledge of 172 pre-service English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in mainland China to identify their specific training needs. While the Chinese National English Curriculum has included phonics since 2011, there has been a notable lack of dedicated training materials for future educators. This research aimed to fill that gap by assessing what these teachers believe is most important to know about phonics instruction. Using a test and a survey, the study explored the teachers’ knowledge across seven dimensions. The findings revealed that the pre-service teachers felt the strongest need for training in three key areas: phonics general knowledge, phonics decoding rules, and instructional strategies. This indicates that they are keenly aware of the importance of both the foundational “what” and the practical “how” of teaching phonics. These results highlight a clear and urgent need for an instructional guide that is specifically designed to meet the unique requirements of pre-service EFL teachers in China, ultimately helping them to better prepare their future students for early English literacy.

Keywords

instructional design needs assessment phonics phonics instruction pre-service EFL teacher subject matter content knowledge

Introduction

The National English Curriculum for Compulsory Education has implied since 2011 that EFL beginners in China should be able to apply sound-letter correspondences when reading new words. This requirement underscores the importance of a key component in word-level vocabulary learning strategies for enhancing reading comprehension (Alakawi, 2017). Phonics encompasses the fundamental interactions between letters and sounds to facilitate automatic word-level recognition (Blevins, 2017). Despite the inclusion of phonics-related content in school textbooks, studies have highlighted poor implementation of phonics instruction in China, attributed to a lack of professional training and a dedicated phonics instructional guide for EFL teachers (Long, 2019; Yan, 2018; Zhao, 2019; Zhong, 2020).

Yan (2018) and Zhao (2019) noted that some EFL teachers lacked familiarity with the phonics concept and the methods for implementing phonics instruction or explaining challenging words to EFL beginners. Developing an effective instructional guide requires a through identification of teachers’ learning needs (Morrison et al., 2019). This is a critical aspect, as determining the stakeholders’ needs is paramount to ensuring the quality of instructional design and meeting the learning objectives of the target trainees. Macalister and Nation (2020) highlighted that the outcomes of a needs assessment would align the teaching goals and learning objectives of the proposed instructional guide. To this end, this study conducted a needs assessment to identify the pre-service EFL teachers’ needs, specifically their current knowledge and desired development in the subject matter content knowledge for phonics teaching.

Based on the above elaboration, the current study highlights some gaps. While the National English Curriculum in China has required EFL beginners to learn phonics since 2011, there is a lack of an effective, needs-based instructional guide for teachers. Previous studies have shown that EFL teachers in China have poor phonics implementation due to a lack of professional training and unfamiliarity with phonics concepts and teaching methods. Therefore, a critical step, a needs assessment, is necessary to identify what pre-service EFL teachers actually know and what they need to learn to create a useful instructional guide.

Research Questions

The present study posits that Chinese pre-service EFL teachers should receive training in phonics instruction through the development of a needs-based instructional guide based on their needs. Consequently, this study was guided by the following two primary research questions:

What is the current knowledge of phonics teaching among pre-service EFL teachers?

What are the desired areas of development in the knowledge required for teaching phonics among pre-service EFL teachers?

Literature Review

Theoretical Foundation

The present study draws upon two theoretical perspectives. Firstly, behaviourism, specifically Skinner’s instrumental conditioning, views learning as a process of behavioural change resulting from input that elicits output (Schunk, 2020). This perspective explains learning in terms of the relationship between an action and its consequence. This process also involves the objective observation and measurement of causes and effects (McConnell et al., 2020). A key concept within this framework is “positive reinforcement,” which is described as a source of beneficial information that leads to a positive change or an increase in a specific behaviour in the recipient (Robinson, 2018). Operant conditioning has educational implications for creating complex behaviours from smaller, chained sequences of actions.

This study utilises the behaviourist framework because it provides a clear, measurable approach to instructional design. This perspective is particularly useful for skills-based learning, such as phonics instruction, where the goal is to create observable and predictable changes in behaviour. Our aim is not just to see if pre-service teachers learn about phonics, but to see if their knowledge and skills in teaching phonics improve in a tangible way.

Within this study, the phonics instructional guide serves as the stimulus, and the resulting change in pre-service EFL teachers’ knowledge about teaching phonics represents the response. Behaviourists posit that knowledge or skills can be transferred from knowledgeable sources to less-informed recipients (Robinson, 2018). Consequently, an instructional guide systematically developed based on the identified needs of pre-service EFL teachers would be a valuable resource for enhancing their phonics teaching knowledge and instructional practices.

Secondly, this study draws upon the Andragogy Theory of Adult Learning (Knowles et al., 2015), which addresses adult learners’ training needs by acknowledging their desire to understand the relevance and application of what they learn, including potential problem-solving post-training. Given that problem-solvers learn most effectively when a subject has immediate practical application, adult learners benefit from education that involves actively working through real-world issues. Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning framework further posits that adult learners possess a wealth of tangible experiences upon which they reflect, enabling them to develop abstract concepts and useful generalisations. Applying knowledge in novel contexts serves to solidify their understanding.

Despite the popularity of andragogy, Brookfield (2003) critiqued it for being “culture blind,” arguing that its emphasis on self-directed learning and the development of a non-threatening learner-facilitator relationship with the teacher disregards racial and cultural contexts where the teacher is valued as the primary source of information and guidance. Mezirow’s (2018) transformative learning theory adequately addresses andragogy’s limitations in articulating the significance of reflective practice and extrinsic motivation in adult learning. A central tenet of transformative learning is the alteration of adult learners’ established frames of reference, which encompass their interpretations of experiences and the methods they employ for understanding.

The abovementioned assumption highlights that importance of assessing adult learners’ learning prior to instruction. Following this assessment, the instructional learning objectives, methods, materials, and resources can be tailored to the learners’ current knowledge and desired areas of development. Consequently, a thorough identification of Chinese pre-service EFL teachers’ needs in teaching phonics is a crucial prerequisite before developing an effective instructional guide.

In addition to the behavioural and adult learning principles already discussed, this research is anchored in Shulman’s (1986) Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) framework. This lens is crucial because it goes beyond just the content knowledge of phonics, which refers to knowing the rules and sounds, and addresses the specific pedagogical knowledge required to effectively teach the subject to others. By employing this framework, the study is not merely measuring what pre-service teachers know, but also identifying the critical gap in their ability to apply that knowledge in a teaching context. This integration provides a clear rationale for the needs assessment, which uses a test to measure content knowledge and a survey to identify desired areas of development in pedagogical application, thereby guiding the creation of a practical, needs-based instructional guide.

Teachers’ Knowledge based on Phonics Instruction

The requisite knowledge for teaching any subject typically encompasses at least two interrelated aspects: subject matter knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge (Oattes et al., 2022). Han (2011) asserted that subject matter content knowledge forms the foundation for pedagogical content knowledge, with the latter being dynamic and subject to further developed through professional development experiences throughout a teaching career. Specifically, Blevins (2017) highlighted that teachers’ subject matter content knowledge of phonics can significantly influence their pedagogical decisions in selecting appropriate examples or determining the most effective methods for illustrating rule decoding or explaining complex words. Consequently, the term “knowledge” in this study refers to subject matter content knowledge, which was the focus of the proposed instructional guide.

Attitudes and instructional practices regarding phonics vary, and research in this area remains limited. Nevertheless, several studies highlight teachers’ awareness of the advantages of phonics instruction for learning to read. For instance, Shaffer et al. (2000) noted that elementary teachers placed a greater emphasis on teaching phonics in the classroom, considering it an essential component of literacy development. Similarly, Baumann et al.’s (2000) study involving 1,207 pre-kindergarten to Grade 5 teachers revealed that 99% of the K-3 participants identified phonics instruction as vital, with two-thirds of the K-2 teachers employed a synthetic phonics approach in their instruction. Campbell (2020) surveyed primary teachers to comprehend their favourite methods for teaching phonics and discovered that most respondents favoured an explicit and systematic method. Explicit phonics training was favoured by participants in a survey of over 500 pre-service and in-service teachers (Bos et al., 2001) despite their general phonological ignorance.

Several findings indicate a deficiency in the fundamental phonics knowledge necessary for effective phonics instruction among teachers. For instance, despite demonstrating strong phonological knowledge and moderate phonemic awareness, Arrow et al. (2019) found that 27 New Zealand teachers exhibited low levels of phonics knowledge and even more limited morphological knowledge. Similarly, Bos et al. (2001) reported poor phonics competence among both pre-service and in-service teachers. Earlier studies suggested a tendency among teachers to overestimate their understanding of reading and phonics. Bell et al. (2004) corroborated the findings of Cunningham et al. (2004), which indicated that K–3 instructors lacked adequate knowledge of phonemic awareness and phonics while concurrently rating their expertise as strong.

Tortorelli et al. (2021) conducted a review of 27 studies assessing elementary pre-service teachers’ knowledge of code-based literacy skills. The trends identified suggest that pre-service teachers experience difficulty in identifying and constructing phonemes, that there is a lack of emphasis on pedagogical knowledge, and that the absence of a common framework hinder the basis for conclusions across studies. These findings raise concerns regarding the training of pre-service teachers. Furthermore, Tortorelli and colleagues highlighted existing research gaps, indicating the need for future examination of teachers’ code-based knowledge.

The pre-service EFL teachers’ present knowledge, in this context, refers to their subject matter content knowledge of phonics instruction. To date, the majority of studies on teacher knowledge and phonics instruction frameworks have been conducted in English-speaking countries, focusing primarily on L1 pre-service and in-service teachers (Oattes et al., 2022). However, research on the knowledge base of Chinese pre-service EFL teachers who teach phonics remains a developing area of investigation (Han, 2011). This gap has presented a significant challenge for many pre-service EFL teachers in mainland China, which this study aimed to address.

Needs Assessment Framework

A needs assessment constitutes the foundation of an instructional design process (Morrison et al., 2019). Following the identification of pre-service EFL teachers’ current knowledge and desired areas of development, teaching goals, learning objectives, and instructional content could be formulated based on this input to effectively address the learners’ needs. Given the acknowledged essentiality of a needs assessment (Branch, 2018), this study employed Macalister and Nation’s (2020) framework for this evaluation. This framework conceptualises learners’ needs as a consolidated body of information comprising “necessities,”“lacks,” and “wants.”“Necessities” refer to the subject matter content knowledge deemed essential for effective functioning, as generalised from previous research and the specific target situation.

In this study, the pre-service EFL teachers’ requisite knowledge base is considered a necessity, as highlighted in past research and the findings of the target situation analysis. The latter findings were synthesised from questionnaires and focus group discussions involving educators and EFL teachers-cum-practicum-supervisors from five primary and lower secondary schools. Based on these insights, the present study proposed that Chinese pre-service EFL teachers require a phonics instructional guide encompassing seven key components: (a) phonics general knowledge, (b) basic knowledge of the phonetic system, (c) phonemic awareness knowledge and skills, (d) phonics decoding rules, (e) phonics instruction approaches, (f) decoding rules reinforcement approaches, and (g) sight word instruction approaches.

Furthermore, the “lacks” in this needs assessment framework refers to the learners’ current knowledge. The term “wants” denotes the learners’ desired areas of development (Wulandari & Hustarna, 2020). Branch (2018) proposed that the target learners’ desired changes should be identified in relation to their present knowledge. Therefore, the needs of Chinese pre-service EFL teachers for a phonics instructional guide can be addressed by considering both their current knowledge and their desired areas of development. The convergence of these two aspects can inform the formulation of the guide.

Methodology

Research Context and Participants’ Background

This study was conducted at a teachers’ college in Sichuan, China. The target population comprised pre-service teachers majoring in EFL education. Admission to the bachelor’s degree programme required successful completion of the National College Entrance Examination. Furthermore, college regulations mandated a satisfactory score in the English language as prerequisite for enrolling in the EFL education programme. Preliminary demographic data from the teachers’ college indicated that pre-service EFL teachers admitted to the programme over the preceding 4 years had achieved a mean score of 126.8 out of a possible 150 on the English language component of the entrance examination.

The target population for this study comprised 1,243 pre-service teachers specialising in EFL education. From this population, a total of 172 participants were selected using stratified random sampling across four existing strata. The distribution of the sample across these strata was proportional to their academic years: freshman (N₁ = 39), sophomore (N₂ = 41), junior (N₃ = 48), and senior (N₄ = 44). These participants were drawn from their respective intact groups based on their academic year. Within each academic year, there were eight intact groups, and one intact group was randomly selected from each year. This sample size is considered adequate, aligning with the guideline that the optimal sample size should be approximately 10% of the population size (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

Research Design and Instruments

A quantitative approach was employed in this study, involving data collection from participants through a needs assessment test and a survey. Specifically, Binks-Cantrell et al.’s (2012) test was administered to examine the pre-service teachers’ current knowledge of phonics and phonics instruction. This validated instrument assessed the participant’s understanding of the fundamental linguistic constructs of literacy, encompassing phonics knowledge and related linguistic skills. The results obtained from this test reflected the participants’ baseline knowledge regarding phonics instruction.

Binks-Cantrell et al.’s (2012) test comprised 30 items covering seven areas: phonics general knowledge (5 items), the English sound system (3 items), phonics decoding rules (12 items), phonics instruction knowledge (3 items), knowledge and skills of phonemic awareness (5 items), sight words knowledge (1 item), and the decoding rules reinforcement approach (1 item). The test employed a single-select multiple-choice format, with each question stem presenting five alternatives. To mitigate guessing, the neutral option “I do not know” was included among the choices.

The reliability and validity of the test (Creswell & Creswell, 2018) were examined. The test items were also analysed to determine their difficulty level and discrimination index (McNamara, 2014). To establish face validity (Kumar, 2019) and assess the test difficulty level, four EFL educators with at least 20 years of experience teaching English phonology and pedagogy-related courses were invited to rate the suitability and adequacy of the test items. Cronbach’s alpha, used to assess internal consistency reliability, yielded a coefficient value of .743, indicating an acceptable reliability level for the instrument. Additionally, item analysis was conducted by calculating the facility and discrimination indices. The facility index values for most items were close to .3, and the discrimination index values for all the items exceeded .2, which are considered acceptable for this norm-referenced instrument (Fraenkel et al., 2011).

The survey aimed to ascertain the pre-service EFL teachers’ desired areas of improvement in learning about phonics instruction. A questionnaire employing a five-point Likert scale format comprised eight sections. The first section outlined the respondents’ demographic information, while the subsequent seven sections addressed the seven dimensions of desired changes. Furthermore, the questionnaire demonstrated a high level of reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient value of .944.

Adaptation and Validation for the Chinese Context

The Binks-Cantrell et al. (2012) phonics knowledge test was carefully adapted to ensure its relevance and validity for Chinese pre-service EFL teachers. This process involved several key steps:

Linguistic and Cultural Adjustments: The original test’s terminology and examples were reviewed and, where necessary, adjusted to be more accessible to non-native English speakers. For instance, any cultural-specific references in the original test that might not be familiar to a Chinese audience were replaced with neutral or contextually relevant alternatives.

Translation and Back-Translation: While the test was administered in English, a professional translation team was employed to create a Chinese version for review purposes. This was then back-translated into English by a separate team to ensure the original meaning of each item was preserved and no ambiguity was introduced.

Pilot Testing: A small pilot study was conducted with a group of pre-service EFL teachers who did not participate in the main study. Their feedback on the clarity and relevance of the items was used to make final revisions before full-scale administration.

Ethical Considerations

The study relied on anonymous, self-reported data collected via an online survey and test, which ensured no physical or psychological risk to participants. The primary ethical consideration was the risk to confidentiality. This risk was limited by the following design elements:

Anonymity: No personal identifiers (names, specific school affiliations, or unique demographic combinations that could lead to identification) were collected alongside the data.

Voluntary Participation: All participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any time without penalty, safeguarding against coercion.

The potential benefits to educational practice and teacher professionalisation significantly outweighed the minimal risks associated with participation. The findings provide a critical needs assessment that is essential for developing evidence-based and effective pre-service training resources for phonics instruction in EFL contexts. This, in turn, is expected to enhance the instructional capacity of future teachers and lead to improved English literacy outcomes for students in mainland China. Given the negligible risk of harm (solely the minimal risk of confidentiality breach in an anonymised survey), the potential for widespread positive educational impact justified the study.

Formal informed consent was obtained digitally from all participants. Before accessing the survey/test instrument, participants were presented with an initial screen detailing the purpose of the study and what participation entailed, an explicit statement of the voluntary and anonymous nature of the study, and the right to decline participation or to exit the survey at any time. Participants were required to click or select an option explicitly stating “I consent to participate in this study” to proceed to the main questionnaire. This documented digital act served as the formal record of informed consent for all individuals included in the research.

Findings

Pre-service EFL Teachers’ Present Knowledge

To depict the respondents’ existing knowledge, this sub-section summarises their overall performance on the needs assessment test. Table 1 provides the descriptive statistics for this overall test.

Table 1.

Pre-Service EFL Teachers’ Overall Scores in the Needs Assessment Test (N = 172).

Score	Mean	SD	Minimum	Maximum	Full score
Test score	12.163 (40.5%)	4.5 (15.0%)	2 (6. 7%)	22 (73.3%)	30 (100%)

The average score for the overall test was 12.163 out of 30, which is equivalent to only 40.5% of the maximum possible score. The mean was lower than the cut-off score of 18 (30% × 60%), which indicates that the Chinese pre-service EFL teachers’ subject matter content knowledge regarding implementing systematic and explicit phonics instruction was significantly below the expected level. Table 2 presents the respondents’ performance results in various needs assessments.

Table 2.

Pre-Service EFL Teachers’ Scores in Various Sections of the Needs Assessment Test (N = 172)

Sections	Mean (%)	SD (%)	Minimum (%)	Maximum (%)	Full score
1. Phonics-related general knowledge	1.837 (36.7)	1.27 (25.4)	0 (0)	5 (100)	5
2. Sound system	1.873 (62.4)	0.698 (23.3)	1 (33.3)	3 (100)	3
3. Decoding rules	4.0814 (34.0)	2.511 (20.9)	0 (0)	11 (91.7)	12
4. Phonics instruction	0.98 (32.7)	1.1 (36. 7)	0 (0)	3 (100)	3
5. Phonemic awareness	2.7791 (55.6)	1.5 (3)	0 (0)	4 (80)	5
6. Sight words	0.38 (38.0)	0.48 (48)	0 (0)	1 (100)	1
7. Reinforcement approach	0.27 (27.0)	0.44 (44)	0 (0)	1 (100)	1

Table 2 highlights the pre-service EFL teachers’ scores in the seven knowledge dimensions of the needs assessment test. Overall, the teachers obtained higher scores in Sections 2 (sound system knowledge) and 5 (phonemic awareness knowledge). The correct rates for these two sections were 62.4% and 55.6%, respectively. Although the correct rate for the latter was lower than the cut-off rate of 60%, it still exceeded other sections. Their performance in the other sections indicated that the correct rates were all under 40% of the total possible score. For instance, the correct rates for Section 1: Phonics-related general knowledge, Section 3: Phonics decoding rules, Section 4: Phonics instruction approaches, Section 6: Sight words knowledge approaches, and Section 7: Phonics reinforcement approaches were 36.7%, 34%, 32.7%, 38%, and 27%, respectively. These values indicate that the present knowledge should be addressed when supplementing the teachers’ subject matter content knowledge in these sections.

These findings apply to Sections 3 and 4 phonics decoding rules and instruction approaches as knowledge in these two areas is considered critical to subject matter content knowledge (Han, 2011; Shulman, 1986). The inclusion of phonics decoding rules and phonics instruction approaches in the instructional guide should be prioritised given that teaching activities cannot be realised without the core subject matter content knowledge. Table 3 demonstrates the results of the pre-service EFL teachers’ performance in the individual test items in each section.

Table 3.

Pre-Service EFL Teachers’ Scores for all the Items in the Test (N = 172).

Sections	Item no.	Target knowledge	Mean	Correct rate %	Section correct rate %
1. General knowledge	S1-1	Phonics definition	0.33	33	36.7
	S1-2	Consonant blend	0.34	34
	S1-3	Consonant digraph	0.33	33
	S1-4	Diphthong	0.34	34
	S1-5	Phoneme	0.50	50
2. Sound system	S2-1	Open syllable	0.50	50	62.4
	S2-2	Final stable syllable	0.67	67
	S2-3	Closed syllable	0.67	67
3. Decoding rules	S3-1	Silent consonant	0.34	34	34.0
	S3-2	r-controlled vowel	0.33	33
	S3-3	Hard C	0.30	30
	S3-4	Soft C	0.35	35
	S3-5	Hard G	0.34	34
	S3-6	CVCe pattern	0.35	35
	S3-7	Silent E	0.26	26
	S3-8	Soft G	0.33	33
	S3-9	Short vowel sounds (E)	0.50	50
	S3-10	Long vowel sounds (A)	0.33	33
	S3-11	Silent letter	0.33	33
	S3-12	Variation of hard C	0.33	33
4. Phonics instruction	S4-1	Analytic phonics instruction	0.33	33	32.7
	S4-2	Synthetic phonics instruction	0.33	33
	S4-3	Analogy phonics instruction	0.33	33
5. Phonemic awareness	S5-1	Deletion	0.67	67	55.6
	S5-2	Blending	0.67	67
	S5-3	Speech sound counting	0.33	33
	S5-4	Alliteration	0.78	78
	S5-5	Phoneme awareness	0.33	33
6. Sight words	S6-1	Sight words instruction	0.38	38	38.0
7. Rule maintenance	S7-1	Decoding rule reinforcement	0.27	27	27.0

Table 3 presents the pre-service EFL teachers’ performance on each needs assessment item. In Section 1, Item S1-5 (definition of the phoneme), a less common concept, showed a considerably higher correct rate (50%) than the other items (below 40%), which covered the definitions of consonant blend, digraph, and diphthong. This contrast indicates that almost half of the participants had prior knowledge of the phoneme concept, unlike their understanding of the other phonological terms.

In Section 3, Item S3-9 (distinguishing short vowel sounds) was a notable outlier, was achieving an approximate 50% correct rate. This significantly exceeded the roughly 30% correct rates observed for the other items in this section, which tested knowledge of Soft G, Hard G, Silent consonant, Hard C, Soft C, and the general rules for short and long vowel sounds. The relatively high success on Item S3-9 suggests that approximately half of the participants could accurately identify the short E sound /e/ in the word “bed.”

Section 5 contained two notable test items: S5-5 (definition of phonemic awareness) and S5-3 (counting speech sounds). The correct rate for these two items was 33%, which was less than the correct rate (about 70%) for other items, such as identifying phonemic awareness and the skills of blending, deletion, and alliteration. The correct rate for these two items was far lower than the average correct rate for the section of 55%. Thus, the participants were neither proficient at counting speech sounds nor clear about phonemic awareness. Contrarily, the relatively high correct rate for S5-1 (phonemic awareness skill of deletion), S5-2 (phonemic awareness skill of blending), and S5-4 (phonemic awareness skill of identifying alliteration) indicated that the pre-service EFL teachers possessed a better knowledge of phonemic awareness skills in sound deletion, sound blending, and alliteration identification.

Table 3 and the analysis of the individual test item scores revealed that under 40% of the pre-service EFL teachers managed to answer most questions. Additionally, only five out of the 30 questions were answered accurately by the majority: the target knowledge of the final stable syllable (67%), closed syllable (67%), deletion (67%), blending (67%), and alliteration (78%). Meanwhile, only three of the remaining 25 questions were answered accurately by at least half respondents: the target knowledge about the phoneme (50%), short vowel sounds (50%), and open syllables (50%).

Most questions had a correct rate of over 50% belonged to Section 2: Sound system section and Section 5: Phonemic awareness section. Only one item belonged to Section 3: Phonics decoding rules. These findings imply that knowledge of the sound system and phonemic awareness might not be among the pre-service EFL teachers’ urgent present knowledge. Nevertheless, their performance in the other sections reflected their deficiency in the subject matter content knowledge for implementing phonics instruction, thus answering primary research question one.

Pre-Service EFL Teachers’ Prioritised Desired Changes

The pre-service EFL teachers’ desired changes for an instructional guide to teaching phonics were obtained via the survey. Most agreed on their need to learn the knowledge and skills of phonics and phonics instruction as previously presented in the seven dimensions. The respondents’ degree of agreement (in percentages) with each item in the survey is presented in descending order to comprehend their specific desired changes.

Table 4 reveals how the respondents prioritised desired changes in learning phonics and phonics instruction, particularly Section 2: Phonics-related general knowledge, Section 5: Decoding rules, Section 6: Phonics instruction approaches, and Section 8: Sight words instruction approaches. The prioritised desired changes were decided based on the percentage of those who stated “Strongly Agree” and the total percentage who stated “Agree” or “Strongly Agree.” The prioritised desired changes were the elements that attained 90% for “Agree” and “Strongly Agree” (which accounted for at least 40%).

Table 4.

Respondents’ Preferences in Descending Order (N = 172).

Rank no.	Item/topic: The need to learn	SD	D	U	A	SA
Rank no.	Item/topic: The need to learn	Respondents %
1	S5-4: Phonograms	0	0.6	0.6	36.0	62.8
2	S5-2: Short & long vowels	0	0.6	1.7	36.0	61.6
3	S5-1: Consonant sounds	0.6	0	0.6	39.5	59.3
4	S5-3: Other vowel sounds	0	0	1.7	39.0	59.3
5	S6-2: Analytic phonics instruction	0.6	0	2.3	37.8	59.3
6	S6-3: Analogy phonics instruction	1.2	0	1.7	39.0	58.1
7	S6-1: Synthetic phonics instruction	0.6	0.6	2.3	39.5	57.0
8	S2-2: Prerequisites of phonics	1.2	1.2	1.2	45.3	51.2
9	S2-3: Phonics terminology	0.6	0	1.7	47. 7	50.0
10	S2-1: Phonics definition	1.7	0	0.6	52.3	45.3
11	S8-4: Approaches to tackling irregulars	0.6	0.6	3.5	51.7	43.6
12	S8-3: The difference between sight words, irregulars and high-frequency words	1.2	0	1.2	55.2	42.4
13	S6-4: Alphabet recognition instruction	0	1.7	1.2	55.2	41.9
14	S3-4: 44 speech sounds	0.6	7.0	16.9	57.0	18.6
15	S7-3: Approaches to apply decodable readers to reinforce the decoding rules	1.2	9.9	21.5	50.0	17.4
16	S3-2: Consonant articulation	2.3	11.0	22. 7	46.5	17.4
17	S4-2: the importance of phonemic awareness	1.2	8.1	20.3	53.5	16.9
18	S4-1: Connotation of phonemic awareness	0.6	8.1	25.0	50.6	15.7
19	S7-2: Benefits of decodable readers	0.6	12.8	22.7	48.3	15.7
20	S3-1: Categories of syllables	0.6	14.5	17.4	52.3	15.1
21	S4-3: How to instruct phonemic awareness	0	16.3	18.6	51.2	14.0
22	S2-4: The purpose of phonics instruction	1.2	11.6	22.1	51.2	14.0
23	S8-1: Definition of sight words	1.7	9.3	22.1	53.5	13.4
24	S8-2: Definition of irregulars	0	9.3	22.1	55.8	12.8
25	S3-3: Phoneme counting	0	9.3	26.7	51.2	12.8
26	S4-4: Phonemic awareness assessment	1.7	13.4	23.3	50.0	11.6
27	S7-4: Activities to maintain decoding rules	1.2	9.9	21.5	56.4	11.0
Environmental constraints
27	S9-1: Need for an instructional guide	0.6	0	3.5	37.8	58.1
28	S9-2: Attend a course on a new campus	1.2	0	0.6	38.4	59.9
29	S9-3: Within 6 weeks of intensive class	0.6	0.6	1.7	39.5	57.6

Of the four target knowledge elements in Section 2: Phonics-related general knowledge, three were highly ranked: the need for a definition of phonics (97.6%), prerequisites for phonics (96.5%), and the terminology related to phonics (97.9%). Each of these recorded at least 90% of “agreement” with approximately 50% recording “strong agreement.” These results indicated the priorities of pre-service EFL teachers regarding their desired changes for phonics-related general knowledge.

All four target knowledge elements were highly ranked in Section 5 with over 90% recording “Agree” or “Strongly Agree” with the latter recording over 50%. For instance, 98.8% of the respondents agreed that they needed to learn about consonant sounds, 97.6% of them expressed the need to learn about short and long vowel sounds, 98.3% wanted to learn about other vowel sounds, and 98.8% needed to know about phonograms. The findings indicated their prioritised needs in terms of learning phonics decoding rules, which included learning about consonant sounds, short and long vowel sounds, other vowel sounds, and phonograms.

In Section 6, all four target knowledge elements, namely the synthetic phonics instruction approach (96.5%), analytic phonics instruction approach (97.1%), analogy phonics instruction approach (97.1%), and alphabet recognition instruction (97.1%) received a high rating with over 90% stating “Agree” or “Strongly Agree” where the latter exceeded 40%. Therefore, the pre-service EFL teachers strongly desired knowledge in this section.

For Section 8, two of the four items –“distinguishing the concepts of sight words, high-frequency words and irregulars” (96.6%), and “tackling irregular words” (95.3%) – also recorded a high level of “Agree” or “Strongly Agree” responses of over 90% with “Strongly Agree” exceeding 40%. This finding indicates their prioritised need to learn about approaches to manage irregular words in English.

In terms of environmental constraints, most respondents suggested that training should be conducted on a new campus within 6 weeks. Most pre-service EFL teachers urgently needed an instructional guide covering all seven knowledge areas regarding implementing phonics instruction. This proposed guide should include all their desired changes, specifically the prioritised desired changes. Table 4 highlighted the changes regarding phonics-related general knowledge, decoding rules, phonics instruction approaches, and sight words instruction approaches. Hence, primary research question two has been answered.

The Intersection Between Present Knowledge and Prioritised Desired Changes

The needs assessment test and survey enabled research questions one and two to be respectively addressed. Nonetheless, the intersection of the two types of needs was examined to better understand the pre-service EFL teachers’ needs for the subject matter content knowledge to be included in the proposed instructional guide. Table 5 illustrates the intersection of the pre-service EFL teachers’ present knowledge and prioritised desired changes.

Table 5.

The Intersection of Present Knowledge and Prioritised Desired Changes

Sections	Present knowledge	Prioritised desired changes
Phonics-related general knowledge	√	√
Sound system knowledge	–	–
Phonics decoding rules	√	√
Phonics instruction approaches	√	√
Phonemic awareness knowledge	–	–
Sight words instruction approach	√	√
Rules maintenance approach	√	–

The parallels identified in this comparison table regarding the two types of needs indicate key content areas for instructional guide: (a) phonics-related general knowledge; (b) phonics decoding rules; (c) phonics instruction approaches, and (d) sight words instruction approaches. This finding offer a partial answer to research question two: “What specific content should be included in the instructional guide?” While these represent the minimum, a coherence and comprehensive guide should also integrate relevant knowledge from other sections, informed by the designer’s perspective (Branch, 2018). Notably, despite their lower priority, these other sections still garnered over 60% agreement on the respondents’ desired changes, a discrepancy with their poor test performance.

Discussion

The present study addressed the current knowledge and desired learning modifications of Chinese EFL pre-service teachers in English phonics and its instruction. These findings are critical for informing the development of targeted phonics training instruction, particularly given the identified lack of instructional resources for both in-service and pre-service Chinese EFL teachers in this domain (Long, 2019; Yan, 2018; Zhao, 2019; Zhong, 2020). Moreover, research specifically examining the existing knowledge and desired changes of Chinese pre-service EFL instructors teaching phonics remain scarce. Consequently, this section will analyse the pre-service teachers’ current understanding and their proposed modifications for learning.

In terms of current knowledge, the present study aligns with a consistent trend observed in EFL contexts. Zhao et al. (2015) revealed a lack of necessary understanding for explicit phonics instruction among in-service EFL teachers, a conclusion echoed by Long (2019), Yan (2018), Zhao (2019) and Zhong (2020) who linked the poor implementation of phonics in Chinese schools’ limited phonics knowledge. Further underscoring this issue, Long (2019) identified the absence of phonics instruction courses in pre-service teachers during, explaining why the new teachers often lack the skills to teach phonics. This highlights the crucial link between pre-service teacher training content and their future classroom knowledge and practices (Long, 2019; Yan, 2018; Zhao, 2019; Zhong, 2020; Zhong & Kang, 2021).

According to Blevins (2017), a teacher’s subject matter content knowledge is a critical factor in their teaching efficacy, affecting their abilities, pedagogical choices, and confidence, particularly in phonics instruction. The present study’s findings revealed that Chinese pre-service EFL teachers exhibit limited subject matter content knowledge concerning how to implement phonics instruction. This deficiency likely contribute to the lack of confidence in teaching phonics observed among novice EFL teachers by Zhao (2019), area “cautionary phenomenon” directly linked to their insufficient knowledge base.

Among the findings from the various knowledge sections, the pre-service EFL teachers’ performance in sound system knowledge stands out. Specifically, they scored significantly higher in Section 2, which tested their understanding of syllables, suggesting knowledge acquired in their phonology class. This proficiency in syllable knowledge mirrors the findings of Zhao et al. (2015), who also noted this strength in EFL teachers, likely due to its historical prioritisation in traditional English teacher education.

Turning to the pre-service EFL teachers’ performance in phonics decoding rules, the findings indicated a significant weakness in their comprehension. This aligns with similar conclusions drawn by Long (2019), Yan (2018), Zhao (2019), and Zhong (2020). Zhao (2019) linked the difficulties in implementing phonics education in primary schools directly to the teachers’ inadequate knowledge of decoding rules. This widespread unfamiliarity among Chinese instructors can be traced back to the absence of systematic instruction on phonics decoding principles in their teacher preparation programmes, with the importance of teaching and mastering phonics only being emphasised in the National Curriculum from 2011 onwards.

The prevalent use of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) in Chinese EFL teachers’ own English education, where it was the primary tool for spelling and writing (Zhao, 2019), stands in contrast to phonics-based approaches. Their teacher training further solidified this IPA focus through phonology classes aimed at improving their spelling, pronunciation, and language proficiency (Zhao, 2019; Zhao et al., 2015). As a result, these teachers have generally not been exposed to explicit and systematic phonics education methods, which likely explains their struggle with fundamental phonics concepts. Consequently, this section’s findings highlight the crucial need to incorporate phonics decoding principles into the suggested phonics instructional guide.

The discussion also concentrates on how the pre-service EFL teachers performed regarding phonics instruction approaches. Considering that the primary purpose of the proposed instructional guide is to provide pre-service EFL teachers in China with the necessary knowledge to teach phonics, including phonics instruction approaches as part of the guide content is critical. Phonics instruction approaches cover three elements: S4-1: Analytic phonics instruction approach, S4-2: Synthetic phonics instruction approach, and S4-3: Analogy phonics instruction approach. The findings indicate a low average correct rate for this section, thus indicating that most Chinese pre-service EFL teachers could not differentiate between the three distinct styles of phonics instruction approaches.

Compounding their lack of phonics knowledge, these teachers also unfamiliar with the phonics teaching methods present in elementary school textbooks. Since 2012, all mandated primary English textbooks have integrated phonics instructions. Notably, some widely used textbooks presented a comparison between word family-based phonics instruction and other approaches. The synthetic phonics education strategy, emphasising individual consonant or vowel sounds, was also featured in several textbooks. Moreover, the analytic phonics education method, requiring EFL novices to recognise similar sounds in word list, was another approach found in these materials.

As for the content in an instructional guide for teaching phonics, Blevins (2017) and Papp (2020) proposed that the synthetic phonics instruction approach (explicit and systematic phonics instruction) was the most appropriate for EFL beginners. Nevertheless, Reynolds (1992) mentioned that a teacher should possess the ability to adjust and tailor materials to the beginners’ circumstances, including their language competence, personalities, and aptitude to satisfy their learning needs. Hence, pre-service EFL teachers should possess subject matter content knowledge beyond a single phonics instruction approach (Brady et al., 2009). Summarily, Chinese pre-service EFL teachers should know how to implement systematic and explicit synthetic phonics instructions. These teachers should be able to comprehend the analytic and analogy phonics instruction approaches and identify them in school textbooks. Thus, they would know how to adapt the materials to meet EFL students’ learning needs. Consequently, teachers’ subject matter knowledge of phonics significantly impacts their ability to implement phonics instructions and make pedagogical decisions (Blevins, 2017; McCoy, 2017). Nonetheless, the current findings revealed that the Chinese pre-service EFL teachers had weak foundations in phonics decoding rules and lacked subject matter content knowledge of phonics instructions, which implied the inclusion of phonics instructions and phonics decoding rules in any instructional guide.

The pre-service EFL teachers’ understanding of the phonics reinforcement approach is another key aspect of this section. The ability to effectively maintain decoding rules is vital for guiding EFL beginners as they use decodable texts to practise reading and spelling, ultimately boosting their word-reading fluency and confidence. Rooted in behaviourism, the retention of these rules relies on consistent practice and drills. Decodable texts are instrumental in fostering learners’ confidence in blending and reading while reinforcing desired reading behaviours through success (Blevins, 2017). Providing beginners with sufficient phonics practice using decodable words allows them to apply learned skills and achieve automaticity in word recognition (Nasir et al., 2019). Consequently, and the integration of comprehensible, interesting, and enjoyable decodable readers into phonics instruction is paramount, and aspiring EFL teachers should master the skills to utilise them. Strikingly, the needs related to this crucial element of phonics instruction have not been evaluated in previous research.

In terms of desired changes, the discussion outlines their prioritised desired changes in phonics decoding rules and phonics instruction approaches as these aspects are inextricably linked. Pre-service EFL teachers require knowledge of these two components for teaching early reading through phonics. The findings from the two survey sections revealed that the Chinese pre-service EFL teachers intended to supplement their subject matter content knowledge when implementing phonics instruction. Blevins (2017), Department of Education, Science and Training (2005), Moats (1994), and the International Literacy Association (2019) stated that a teacher’s subject matter content knowledge of phonics critically affects how phonics instructions are implemented. Thus, the pre-service EFL teachers’ desired changes reflect their need to understand the subject matter. Their desired changes imply that the proposed instructional guide should incorporate phonics decoding rules and instruction approaches. This finding aligns with Yan (2018), Zhao (2019), and Zhong (2020) who mentioned that beginning and in-service EFL teachers alike desire to master phonics decoding rules and the approaches to teaching the topic. Therefore, incorporating the knowledge from these sections into the phonics instructional guide is essential.

A key finding of this research is the participants awareness of their deficiencies and their desire for a phonics instructional guide to address them. Significantly, this study provides the first report on the specific needs of pre-service EFL teachers for such a resource. The findings also offer valuable insights into their learning requirements. The development of an empirically grounded instructional guide holds considerable potential to empower pre-service EFL instructors with essential subject matter content knowledge for teaching phonics, a benefit that extends beyond their immediate needs and fosters their ongoing professional development. Consequently, the current study represents a novel and important addition to the existing knowledge base.

The emphasis on the four aspects of need revealed Chinese pre-service EFL teachers’ self-awareness of their deficiencies and their motivation for change. This aligns directly with the Andragogy Adult Learning Theory, which emphasises the importance of learners recognising their need to know as a catalyst for identifying learning objectives (Knowles et al., 2015), thereby validating the use of needs assessment. The insights gained from assessing their present knowledge and prioritised desired changes through the test and questionnaire contribute to a deeper understanding of the Andragogy Adult Learning Theory in this specific context.

Conclusion

Based on this study’s findings, identifying the overlap between pre-service English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers’ current knowledge and their desired areas of growth is crucial for developing an effective, empirically-derived guide for implementing phonics. This guide can inform the reform of the current EFL teacher training programme, aligning it with the National English Curriculum for Compulsory Education’s requirements and vision. At the individual level, these findings can enhance pre-service teachers’ professional English language teaching competencies throughout their development.

Limitations and Educational Implications

This study, however, is not without its limitations. First, the data was collected from a specific group of pre-service teachers in a particular geographical and educational context, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other regions or training programmes. Second, the study primarily relied on self-reported data, which may be subject to bias, as participants might have over- or underestimated their knowledge and needs. Future research could utilise a mixed-methods approach, including observations of teaching practice, to provide a more comprehensive picture.

The educational implications of this research are significant. By identifying the specific gaps in pre-service teachers’ knowledge, teacher training institutions can tailor their curricula to address these areas directly. For instance, incorporating more practical, hands-on phonics workshops and micro-teaching sessions can help future teachers build confidence and competence. This approach moves beyond theoretical knowledge to practical application, better preparing them for the realities of the classroom.

Directions for Future Research

Future research could build upon these findings in several ways. A longitudinal study could track the development of a cohort of pre-service teachers, observing how their phonics knowledge and teaching skills evolve throughout their training and early career. This could help to determine the long-term impact of a revised curriculum. Furthermore, comparative studies could be conducted to examine the differences in phonics knowledge and teaching practices between pre-service teachers in different countries or educational systems. This could provide valuable insights for developing a more universally applicable framework for phonics instruction in EFL settings.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Chen Min Jie

Wong Wei Lun

Ethical Considerations

Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Ethics Committee. All procedures involving human participants were performed in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committee and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Consent to Participate

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Participants were provided with full details regarding the study’s purpose, the voluntary nature of their participation, and confidentiality assurances before agreeing to complete the survey/test.

Author Contributions

Chen Min Jie (CMI): Writing First Draft, Data Collection, Methodology, Discussion, Funding. Wong Wei Lun (WWL): Supervision, Resources, Reviewing. Warid Mihat (WM): Supervision, Resources, Reviewing.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This article is a preliminary result of the research project supported by the Chinese Society for Tao Xingzhi Studies (2022SC006) – Empirical Study on the Improvement Path of In-Service EFL Teachers’ Content Knowledge to Instruct English Early Reading in Light of National Curriculum.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

Available upon request.

References

Alakawi

(2017). Vocabulary strategies to bridge the gap from learning to read to reading to learn. Journal of Language and Education, 3(4), 60–72. http://doi.org/10.17323/2411-7390-2017-3-4-60-72

Arrow

A. W.

Braid

Chapman

J. W.

(2019). Explicit linguistic knowledge is necessary, but not sufficient, for the provision of explicit early literacy instruction. Annals of Dyslexia, 69, 99–113. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11881-018-00168-0

Baumann

J. F.

Hoffman

J. V.

Duffy-Hester

A. M.

J. M.

(2000). “The first R” yesterday and today: U.S. elementary reading instruction practices reported by teachers and administrators. Reading Research Quarterly, 35, 338–377. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.35.3.2

Bell

S. M.

Ziegler

McCallum

R. S.

(2004). What adult educators know compared with what they say they know about providing research-based reading instruction. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 47, 542–563. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40017189

Binks-Cantrell

Washburn

Josh

M. M. R.

(2012). Validation of an instrument for assessing teacher knowledge of basic language construct of literacy. Annals of Dyslexia, 62(3), 153–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-012-0070-8

Blevins

(2017). Phonics from A to Z: A practical guide (3rd ed.). Scholastic Inc.

Branch

R. M.

(2018). Characteristics of foundational instructional design models. In Robert

A. R.

John

V. D.

(Eds.), Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (4th ed., pp. 23–30). Pearson.

Brady

Gillis

Smith

Lavalette

Liss-Bronstein

Lowe

North

Russo

Wilder

T. D.

(2009). First-grade teachers’ knowledge of phonological awareness and code concepts: Examining gains from an intensive form of professional development and corresponding teacher attitudes. Reading and Writing, 22(4), 425–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9166-x

Brookfield

S. D.

(2003). Pedagogy and andragogy. In DiStefano

Rudestam

Silverman

Taira

(Eds.), Encyclopedia of distributed learning. Sage.

10.

Bos

Mather

Dickson

Podhajski

Chard

(2001). Perceptions and knowledge of preservice and in-service educators about early reading instruction. Annals of Dyslexia, 51, 97–120. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11881-001-0007-0

11.

Campbell

(2020). Teaching phonics without teaching phonics: Early childhood teachers' reported beliefs and practices. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 20(4), 783–814.

12.

Creswell

W. J.

Creswell

D. J.

(2018). Research design (5th ed.). Sage Publications.

13.

Cunningham

A. E.

Perry

K. E.

Stanovich

K. E.

Stanovich

P. J.

(2004). Disciplinary knowledge of K–3 teachers and their knowledge calibration in the domain of early literacy. Annals of Dyslexia, 54, 139–172. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11881-004-0007-y

14.

Department of Education, Science and Training. (2005). Teaching reading: Report and recommendations. https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=tll_misc

15.

Fraenkel

J. R.

Wallen

N. E.

Hyun

H. H.

(2011). How to design and evaluate research in education (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.

16.

Han

(2011). Constructing pedagogical content knowledge in EFL teachers. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

17.

International Literacy Association. (2019). Meeting the challenges of early literacy phonics1Instruction. https://www.literacyworldwide.org/docs/default-source/where-we-stand/ila-meeting-challenges-early-literacy-phonics-instruction.pdf

18.

Knowles

M. S.

Holton III

E. F.

Swanson

R. A.

(2015). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (8th ed.). Routledge.

19.

Kolb

D. A.

(1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice-Hall.

20.

Kumar

(2019). Research methodology a step-by-step guide for beginners (5th ed.). Sage Publication Ltd.

21.

Long

Y. H.

(2019). On the current situation and countermeasures of applying phonics to English teaching of rural middle schools-Take Jiujiang Middle School of Shuangliu District in Chengdu for example (Master’s thesis, Sichuan Normal University).

22.

Macalister

Nation

I. S. P.

(2020). Language curriculum design (2nd ed.). Routledge.

23.

McConnell

Conrad

Uhrmacher

P. B.

(2020). Lesson planning with purpose: Five approaches to curriculum design. Teachers College Press.

24.

McCoy

(2017). Phonics preparation in teacher education programs. The Kabod, 3(3), Article 7. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/kabod/vol3/iss3/7

25.

McNamara

(2014). Language testing. Oxford University Press.

26.

Mezirow

(2018). Transformative learning theory. In Contemporary theories of learning (pp. 114–128). Routledge.

27.

Moats

L. C.

(1994). The missing foundation in teacher education: Knowledge of the structure of spoken and written Language. Annals of Dyslexia, 44, 81–102. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02648156

28.

Morrison

G. R.

Ross

M. S.

Morrison

R. J.

Kalman

H. K.

(2019). Designing effective instruction (8th ed.). Wiley.

29.

Nasir

Gani

S. A.

Haqqini

(2019). Group investigation technique for better reading comprehension skills. Studies in English Language and Education, 6(2), 251–261. http://www.jurnal.unsyiah.ac.id/SiELE/article/download/13619/11114

30.

Oattes

Wilschut

Oostdam

Fukkink

Graaff

(2022). Practical solution or missed opportunity? The impact of language of instruction on Dutch history teachers’ application of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). Teaching and Teacher Education, 115(2022), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103721

31.

Papp

(2020). Phonics and literacy instruction for young learners in EFL. Part of the Cambridge papers in the ELT series. Cambridge University Press. https://www.cambridge.org/hu/files/8915/8687/2095/CambridgePapers_In_ELT-Phonics__Literacy_minipaper_ONLINE.pdf

32.

Reynolds

(1992). What is competent beginning teaching? A review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 62(1), 1–35.

33.

Robinson

J. M.

(2018). Evaluation of teaching methods to improve reading performance of English language learners. Advancement of Educational Research International, 12(1), 25–33. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1209451

34.

Schunk

D. H.

(2020). Learning theories: An educational perspective (8th ed.). Pearson.

35.

Shaffer

G. L.

Campbell

Rakes

(2000). Investigating the status and perceived importance of explicit phonics instruction in elementary classrooms. Reading Improvement, 37, 110–118. https://www.proquest.com/openview/e20ad43a3726f12749debdd6a50b5e39/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2030479

36.

Shulman

L. S.

(1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X015002004

37.

Tortorelli

L. S.

Lupo

S. M.

Wheatley

B. C.

(2021). Examining teacher preparation for code-related reading instruction: An integrated literature review. Reading Research Quarterly, 56, S317–S337. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.396

38.

Wulandari

B. A.

Hustarna . (2020). Need analysis stage in reconstructing syllabus and developing teaching materials for ORACY in academic context subject. International Journal of Language Education, 4(1), 141–149. https://doi.org/10.26858/ijole.v4i2.11518

39.

Yan

Y. W.

(2018). A research on the problems and countermeasures of phonics in. primary school English teaching (Master thesis, Liaocheng University).

40.

Zhao

Joshi

M. R.

Dixon

Q. L.

Huang

(2015). Chinese EFL teachers’ knowledge of basic language constructs and their self-perceived teaching abilities. Annal Dyslexia, 66(1), 127–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-015-0110-2

41.

Zhao

Z. Y.

(2019). A case study on primary school novice English teachers’ beliefs and practice about phonics instruction (Master’s thesis, Sichuan Normal University).

42.

Zhong

W. X.

(2020). A study on the application of phonics in primary school English vocabulary teaching (Master’s thesis, Hunan Normal University).

Towards Effective Phonics Instruction: A Needs Assessment of Pre-Service EFL Teacher Knowledge in Mainland China

Abstract

Plain Language Summary

Keywords

Introduction

Research Questions

Literature Review

Theoretical Foundation

Teachers’ Knowledge based on Phonics Instruction

Needs Assessment Framework

Methodology

Research Context and Participants’ Background

Research Design and Instruments

Adaptation and Validation for the Chinese Context

Ethical Considerations

Findings

Pre-service EFL Teachers’ Present Knowledge

Pre-Service EFL Teachers’ Prioritised Desired Changes

The Intersection Between Present Knowledge and Prioritised Desired Changes

Discussion

Conclusion

Limitations and Educational Implications

Directions for Future Research

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Ethical Considerations

Consent to Participate

Author Contributions

Funding

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Data Availability Statement

References