Is Work Opposed to Leisure? The Effect of Work-Related Stress on Leisure Involvement in the Night-Time Economy Context

Abstract

Given the boom in the night-time economy, tremendous changes have taken place in the leisure activities of urban residents. It becomes particularly important to re-examine the work-leisure relationship. Based on the conservation of resources theory, this paper constructs a conceptual framework from work-related stress to leisure involvement. The results, according to questionnaire data from 533 urban residents, indicate that work-related stress drives the leisure involvement of urban residents in the era of the night-time economy. Furthermore, residents’ mental stress, perceived exhaustion, and entertainment-seeking motive constitute a multi-stage conduction path of “consumption-motive-leisure” in the work-leisure conversion. Finally, nightlife contributes to a positive moderating effect on the relationship between the entertainment-seeking motive and leisure involvement. Based on the background of the booming night-time economy, this study challenges and expands the previous research framework and theoretical system on the work-leisure conflict and provides practical significance for improving the welfare of urban residents.

Keywords

work-leisure conflict work-related stress leisure involvement night-time economy nightlife

Introduction

The balancing strategy between work and leisure has always been a hot issue for scholars, and a related discussion is crucial for alleviating residential work and psychological pressure, alleviating the role conflicts between family and work, improving life satisfaction, and promoting social development (Chen et al., 2018; Gao et al., 2019; Lin et al., 2014; Son & Chen, 2018). The demands of roles and working hours may occupy limited time and energy, resulting in the reduction of leisure time and opportunities and work-leisure conflict (Knecht et al., 2016; Tsaur & Yen, 2018). Scholars believe that compared with family and work, leisure activities may be regarded as the areas of life most vulnerable to being eliminated (Knecht et al., 2016). Since work-leisure conflict can reduce people’s quality of life, subjective well-being, and work efficiency, and cause stress-related mental problems and physical diseases, the balance between work and leisure has become a hot research topic (Elbaz et al., 2020; Gao et al., 2019; Mansour & Tremblay, 2016). Previous studies have mainly discussed the balancing strategy between work and leisure from the perspective of conflict and opposition (Gao et al., 2019; Shi et al., 2021). However, as today’s social economy continues to develop, will work and leisure still conflict in the new era? Is there any transitional path between them? Further exploring the transitional path between work and leisure is a significant direction to expand the relevant theoretical system and discover practical strategies.

Previous studies have shown that the excessive consumption of time and energy by work will reduce personal leisure opportunities (Lin et al., 2014; Wong & Lin, 2007). However, as the night-time economy continues to develop, it provides a new opportunity to improve the relationship between work and leisure. As a modern urban business form, the night-time economy includes evening shopping, catering, tourism, entertainment, film, etc., which creates leisure space outside the workplace and dwelling (Jiang & Hong, 2023; Mao et al., 2020). According to a report by iiMedia Research, China’s night-time economy has grown rapidly since 2016 and reached a scale of 37,805.23 billion yuan in 2022. In recent years, China’s night-time economy has developed into a popular business in which entertainment, food, performances, sports, and tourism are integrated. The rise of the night-time economy provides leisure places with convenience, sociability, and an affective atmosphere for urban residents (Mao et al., 2020; Rowe & Lynch, 2012; Shaw, 2014; Tadié & Permanadeli, 2015), which is helpful to manage fragmented leisure time to detach from work in a free and relaxed atmosphere and satisfy their demands, such as stress relief and social interaction, in diverse leisure ways. Therefore, this study proposes that the night-time economy, with the comprehensive advantages of time savings, space convenience, affective atmosphere, and sociability, provides the possibility of work-leisure role conversion.

Although no direct evidence proves the transitional path between work and leisure under the rise of the night-time economy, the relevant research provides auxiliary support. Ruan et al. (2020) assert that work-family conflict will enhance rather than weaken family travel intention through the mediators of guilt, pressure, and family investment. Similarly, with the increase in work pressure, urban residents are expected to release psychological and physiological stress and alleviate work-leisure conflict through leisure activities (Elbaz et al., 2020; Gao et al., 2019). In the research on the night-time economy, leisure activities can be considered the voluntary use of free time after 8 pm for various specific activities outside the daily routine of work and family duties (Brands et al., 2014; Mao et al., 2020; van Liempt et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2012). After spending significant time and energy dealing with work in the daytime, urban residents need to relax during the off-duty period to relieve negative feelings (Ruan et al., 2020; F. Wang & Shi, 2022). The rise of the night-time economy extends the leisure time of workers at night (Jiang & Hong, 2023; Rowe & Lynch, 2012), and promotes the widespread distribution of leisure places (e.g., street corner retail, all-night convenience stores, and night markets) in most areas of the city (Cheng, 2020; Tadié & Permanadeli, 2015). As leisure time and space constraints have been broken (Rowe & Lynch, 2012), the role conversion from work to leisure becomes easily achievable. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the conversion path between the work and leisure roles of urban residents against the backdrop of the night-time economy.

Generally, the relationship between work and leisure was previously discussed from the perspective of conflict rather than the transitional path. To fill this research gap, we try to address the following research problems: (1) Will work-related stress promote urban residents’ leisure behavior against the background of the rise of the night-time economy? (2) What is the conversion path and logic between work and leisure? (3) Can nightlife accelerate the process of urban residents’ role conversion between work and leisure? Based on conservation of resources (COR) theory, a conceptual framework containing mediators of mental stress, perceived exhaustion and the entertainment-seeking motive (ESM) and a moderator of nightlife was constructed to examine the relationship between work-related stress and leisure involvement. Theoretically, by systematically revealing the mechanism of work pressure on leisure involvement, this study confirms the transitional path between the work and leisure roles of urban residents in the context of the rise of the night-time economy, challenging and expanding the previous research framework and theoretical system on the conflict between work and leisure (Gao et al., 2019; Knecht et al., 2016; Son & Chen, 2018). In practice, this study highlights the significance of nightlife for urban residents to balance work and life and provides countermeasures and suggestions for the improvement of well-being and the construction of a better city.

Literature Review

Work-Leisure Conflict

Work-leisure conflict is defined as a conflict between roles in which resources (time, energy, etc.) are overallocated to one role and fail to achieve expectations of the other role (Knecht et al., 2016; Mansour & Tremblay, 2016; Wong & Lin, 2007). Tsaur et al. (2012) identified three types of work-leisure conflict, namely, time-, stress- and behavior-based conflicts. In fact, this conflict is not only the occupation of the leisure field by work but also the infiltration of leisure elements into the work field (Shi et al., 2021; Tsaur et al., 2012). However, conflict relations are often asymmetric (Shi et al., 2021). In contrast, scholars are more inclined to study the one-way influence of work on life domains (such as family and leisure). At the organizational level, the work-leisure conflict can not only reduce employees’ job performance and service quality and affect customer satisfaction, but it can also precipitate employees’ job burnout and turnover intention (Mansour & Tremblay, 2016; F. Wang & Shi, 2022). Even after hours, work connectivity behavior may make it difficult for employees to achieve psychological detachment from their work roles, which in turn further deepens work-induced conflicts (Olafsen & Bentzen, 2020). At the individual level, such a conflict will cause the self-consumption of individuals in terms of psychological resources and damage relationship quality (Olafsen & Bentzen, 2020). At the individual level, such a conflict will cause the self-consumption of individuals in terms of psychological resources and damage the relationship quality (McDaniel et al., 2021; Shi et al., 2021), and then reduce their life satisfaction and well-being (Gao et al., 2019; Lin et al., 2014). Although research has shown that people with positive psychological qualities (such as high core self-evaluations) are able to cope with such conflicts well (Shi et al., 2021), external forces (i.e., home office, work control, social support and company leisure welfare system) seem to present a more significant mitigating effect (Lin et al., 2014; Metselaar et al., 2023; Sonnenschein et al., 2022; Sonnentag et al., 2022; Wong & Lin, 2007). In addition, scholars have explored the interactive relationship between work and leisure. Knecht et al. (2016) pointed out that leisure activities involve the consumption of energy and time, which may aggravate people’s conflict in the field of work and life. However, some views hold a positive attitude, believing that leisure is an effective way to recover from work by reducing people’s job burnout and work-related pressure (Elbaz et al., 2020; Kujanpää et al., 2021).

Generally, the relevant explorations have mainly focused on the negative consequences and coping strategies of the work-leisure conflict and have seldom involved the transitional path between work and leisure. Nevertheless, some scholars have realized that leisure activities may play a critical role in alleviating work-related stress (Kujanpää et al., 2021; Newman et al., 2014). Under the new background of night-time economic prosperity, the leisure mode of urban residents has undergone a great change. Whether an absolute work-leisure conflict remains requires further exploration.

Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory

Work-related stress is manifested as negative emotions, cognition and physiological reactions (Van Laethem et al., 2015), which reflects one’s state in the context of an overloaded workload and long working hours (Mansour & Tremblay, 2016). Work-related stress is persistent and can spread negative work-related emotions and states into the field of life (Perko et al., 2017). In this situation, people’s free time is compressed, and their mental and physical energy is further consumed (Salama et al., 2022). From the perspective of resources, this phenomenon can be considered as resource depletion. Previous studies have shown that leisure activities can effectively against negative states such as stress, anxiety, and fatigue, and promote the recovery of emotional and physiological resources (Nazari Orakani et al., 2021; Ruan et al., 2020; Zhang & Zheng, 2017). Therefore, to explain the effect of work-related stress on leisure involvement, this article introduces COR theory as the theoretical basis.

Proposed by Hobfoll (1989), COR theory reveals individuals’ effective coping behaviors in stressful situations. This theory emphasizes that individuals tend to maintain, protect and acquire resources that are valuable to them to avoid damaging resources (Gui et al., 2022; Perko et al., 2017). These resources include not only external resources such as material and social support but also internal resources such as the body, emotions and cognition (Hobfoll, 1989; Querstret et al., 2016). In the work environment, work-related stress also leads to the loss of physical and psychological resources. First, as an objective and ubiquitous external factor, work-related stress sources are difficult to alleviate in a short time. Under long-term work pressure, mental problems such as tension, anxiety, and depression are likely to arise, which leads to the depletion of individual emotional resources (Gui et al., 2022; Perko et al., 2017; Viseu et al., 2018). Second, work is regarded as a process of physical and mental engagement, so chronic work-related stress can gradually lead to physical and emotional exhaustion over time (Guthier et al., 2020; Sonnentag et al., 2014; F. Wang & Shi, 2022), which is also a manifestation of the consumption of individual energy resources. Therefore, both mental stress and exhaustion can be regarded as resource depletion caused by work pressure. According to COR theory, individuals need to seek measures to supplement and invest corresponding resources to maintain their own balance (Perko et al., 2017), which is essential for building a harmonious relationship between work and leisure. Consequently, when a work-leisure conflict occurs, people’s desire and motivation to ease the conflict and restore balance will increase (Knecht et al., 2016). As it effectively relieves the negative effects of work-related stress, such as exhaustion, anxiety, and depression, leisure activity can be quite a useful way to provide physical and psychological resources (Chiu et al., 2020; Nazari Orakani et al., 2021; Wong & Lin, 2007). Accordingly, based on COR theory, we propose that mental stress and perceived exhaustion stimulated by work-related stress will further improve people’s leisure involvement through the entertainment-seeking motive. Figure 1 details the mediating pathways of the effects of work-related stress on leisure involvement.

Figure 1.

Research framework.

However, due to the constraints of time, space and energy, it is difficult to convert entertainment intention into behavior. The rise of the night-time economy provides more opportunities for realizing the transformation from entertainment motivation to leisure behavior (Rowe & Lynch, 2012). First, leisure places in areas with a developed night-time economy are more widely distributed, not just in the city center (Cheng, 2020; Tadié & Permanadeli, 2015). It provides urban residents with highly convenient leisure places and greatly saves time and energy for participating in leisure activities. Second, in the context of the night-time economy, leisure places with extended business hours help to satisfy the demand for relaxation and socialization after work in the evening or even late at night (Mao et al., 2020). Therefore, this study proposes that against the background of a prosperous night-time economy, a developed nightlife can further promote the influence of the entertainment-seeking motive on leisure involvement. In conclusion, based on COR theory, this study establishes a model framework of “consumption-motive-leisure,” in which mental stress, perceived exhaustion, and the entertainment-seeking motive are taken as mediators and nightlife is used as the moderator, to analyze the transitional path and logic of work-related stress and leisure involvement under the rise of the night-time economy.

Mental Stress

Mental stress is a psychological disorder caused by external factors that encourage individuals to present a tense state (Levi, 2005). In fact, mental stress is closely linked to work-related stress. Work-related stress is a direct manifestation of work-life conflict, and the stressors include excessive workloads and long working hours (Mansour & Tremblay, 2016). When employees are burdened with excessive work-related stress, further psychological problems are likely to occur (Guthier et al., 2020; Jin et al., 2014). References have shown that excessive work-related stress is one of the main causes of physical and mental health problems leading to negative emotions and various diseases (Han et al., 2017; Salama et al., 2022). Mental stress is regarded as a mental health problem accompanied by anxiety and depression, which have a devastating influence on daily life and work productivity (Han et al., 2017; Viseu et al., 2018). Therefore, mental stress often develops from work-related stress. According to COR theory, mental stress can be regarded as a deprivation of emotional resources (Chen et al., 2018). It triggers the motivation of individuals for self-regulation to maintain their own resource balance (Tseng et al., 2017; Yang & Liu, 2017). To address the resource imbalance caused by mental stress, people will develop the motivation to restore mental resources through recreational and relaxing activities (Denovan & Macaskill, 2017; Leung, 2007). Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 1: Mental stress has a mediating effect on the relationship between work-related stress and the entertainment-seeking motive.

Perceived Exhaustion

Exhaustion is a basic component of burnout, which reflects the over-consumption of emotional and physical resources at work (Maslach et al., 2001; Sonnentag et al., 2014). Excessive workload and continuous working hours are key causes of exhaustion (Salama et al., 2022). However, the individual’s response to work-related stress is a kind of continuous cognition, and as a result, the psychological and physical exhaustion brought about by work will not disappear with the end of work (Perko et al., 2017; Sonnentag et al., 2014). Crucially, exhaustion will trigger depletion again, with further loss of emotional and physical resources over time (Guthier et al., 2020; Sonnentag et al., 2014). COR theory indicates that individuals are willing and motivated to acquire new resources when their resources are threatened and lost (Gui et al., 2022; Perko et al., 2017). In the non-working period, people tend to seek appropriate measures to maintain the balance of resources. Sonnentag et al. (2014) claimed that leisure activities are helpful in relieving exhaustion caused by work-related stress. The free relaxation and social interaction involved in leisure activities could contribute to relieving emotional exhaustion (Klusmann et al., 2021). In addition, as one of the major types of leisure activities, low-effort activities (e.g., watching a film at a cinema, or having a meal at a restaurant) require little energy (Waterman, 2005). These low-effort leisure activities with little exertion can reduce people’s physical exhaustion (Korpela & Kinnunen, 2010). Accordingly, when people feel exhausted under the influence of work-related stress, they will tend to seek entertainment to restore resources (Korpela & Kinnunen, 2010; Yeh et al., 2021). Hence, this study makes the following assumptions:

Hypothesis 2: Perceived exhaustion has a mediating effect on the relationship between work-related stress and the entertainment-seeking motive.

Entertainment-Seeking Motive

Motives are driven by self-interest (Tseng et al., 2017). When individuals are faced with a situation of excessive stress and a lack of energy, they have the subjective willingness to alleviate and escape this negative state. For example, to escape real life and have fun, people may have an entertainment-seeking motive (J.-L. Wang et al., 2015; Yang & Liu, 2017). Although the behaviors inspired by entertainment-seeking motives are different in different situations, the fundamental purpose of all motives is to achieve individual self-regulation (Yang & Liu, 2017). Employees with excessive work-related stress are motivated to serve their physical and emotional needs. Studies have shown that leisure activities are effective in mitigating the negative effects of work-related stress (Chen et al., 2018; Mansour & Tremblay, 2016). In this way, people can relieve exhaustion through leisure activities that require little effort (e.g., watching a film, or having a meal; Korpela & Kinnunen, 2010; Waterman, 2005). Furthermore, leisure activities contribute to social interaction by providing people with emotional support, information support, and social companionship (Leung, 2007). In the process of leisure involvement, individuals can realize the purpose of entertainment and enjoyment, and obtain emotional support and resonance such as love and respect through conversation and interaction (Chang & Chung, 2018; Wong & Lin, 2007). Therefore, to relieve mental stress and exhaustion, individuals will have a strong desire for leisure and entertainment (Elbaz et al., 2020; Mansour & Tremblay, 2016). The rise of the night-time economy has promoted the extension of leisure places in terms of business space, hours, and types (Mao et al., 2020; Rowe & Lynch, 2012) so that people are more likely to participate in leisure activities during non-working time. Consequently, even if urban residents are faced with great work-related stress, they can still turn their desire to seek entertainment into actual leisure involvement. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:

Hypothesis 3a: The entertainment-seeking motive has a mediating effect on the relationship between mental stress and leisure involvement.

Hypothesis 3b: The entertainment-seeking motive has a mediating effect on the relationship between exhaustion and leisure involvement.

Nightlife

The night-time economy was first put forward in the United Kingdom for urban renewal and has gradually become a trend in many urban developments (Jiang & Hong, 2023; Mao et al., 2020). However, due to the effects of economic development and cultural background, different countries and regions have great differences in nightlife. Rowe and Lynch (2012) believe that nightlife includes a series of leisure activities, such as dining, shopping, performances, and exhibitions. In China, nightlife is seen as an extension of daytime economic activities, with more complex meanings. Mao et al. (2020) pointed out that nightlife includes culture, science, and technology, and art and is characterized by inclusiveness, relaxation and freedom. Therefore, nightlife provides residents with diverse and selective places and activities for leisure. In addition, leisure places in areas with prosperous nightlife are more widely distributed (Cheng, 2020; Tadié & Permanadeli, 2015), which can make a saving of time and energy wasted on the road for participating in leisure activities. In summary, we believe that nightlife with special leisure fields is conductive to the transformation of urban residents’ entertainment-seeking motives into actual leisure activities. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 4: Nightlife has a moderating effect on the relationship between the entertainment-seeking motive and leisure involvement.

Method

Measures

A questionnaire survey was adopted to collect the data. Well-established scales were used to measure the relevant variables and the “back-translation” method was adopted to convert the original scale from English to Chinese. Before the survey, the researchers adjusted the scales to adapt to different research scenarios and research objects and invited two leisure experts and three doctoral students to discuss the adjusted items. Finally, 29 items concerning 6 variables were formed. Specifically, work-related stress (WRS) comes from the three measurement items of Van Laethem et al. (2015), and a typical item is as follows: “During my free time, I often worry about my work.” The six items related to mental stress (MS) were measured based on the measurement of Viseu et al. (2018). A typical item is, “I found myself getting agitated.” Perceived exhaustion (PE) refers to the three measurement items of Murnieks et al. (2020) on the perceived exhaustion of entrepreneurs, and an example is, “I feel used up at the end of the work day.” The entertainment-seeking motive (ESM) refers to the four measurement items of consumers’ entertainment-seeking motives by Tseng et al. (2017). A typical item is, “I want to have some entertainment time.” The 10 items used to measure leisure involvement (LI) are from Chang and Gibson’s (2015) scale, including three dimensions of lifestyle, hedonism, and socializing. An example is, “Leisure activity is an important part of my life.” The three measurement items of nightlife (NIG) are formed according to the scale proposed by Jeong et al. (2012), and a typical item is, “The city offers a variety of good leisure activities.” Specific items of the measures are contained in Table 1.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics, Correlations, and Discriminant Validity.

Items	Standardized factorloading	t-value	Cronbach’s α	CR	AVE
Work-related stress			.811	0.812	0.590
When I leave my work, I continue to worry about work problems	0.708
I can easily detach myself from my work	0.791	15.402***
During my free time, I often worry about my work	0.802	15.500***
Mental stress			.904	0.905	0.614
I find it hard to wind down	0.733
I tend to over-react to situations	0.763	17.378***
I feel that I was using a lot of nervous energy	0.833	19.042***
I find myself getting agitated	0.815	18.605***
I find it difficult to relax	0.772	17.593***
I feel that I was rather touchy	0.783	17.857***
Perceived exhaustion			.815	0.818	0.601
I feel emotionally drained from my work	0.799
I feel used up at the end of the work day	0.814	18.152***
I feel tired when I get up in the morning and have to face another day at work	0.709	16.029***
Entertainment-seeking motive			.848	0.858	0.604
I want to be entertained	0.821
I want to have some entertainment time	0.826	21.190***
I want to relax	0.826	21.181***
I want to pass the time away when bored	0.615	14.669***
Leisure involvement
Lifestyle			.886	0.888	0.613
Leisure activities are an important part of my life	0.809
Leisure activities reflect my habits	0.779	19.679***
Leisure activities have a central role in my life	0.827	21.244***
Leisure activities reflect my lifestyle	0.801	20.415***
I will show a better side of me whenI participate leisure activities	0.693	16.959***
Hedonicity			.840	0.841	0.638
Leisure activities give me pleasure	0.789
I really enjoy the leisure activities	0.812	19.785***
Leisure activities interest me a lot	0.795	19.305***
Socializing			.750	0.762	0.619
Leisure activities provide the chance to socialize	0.874
I will participate in leisure activities with my family or friends	0.688	16.290***
Nightlife			.864	0.865	0.680
The city offers good nightlife possibilities	0.845
The city offers a lot of things to do in the evening	0.821	20.644***
The city offers a variety of good leisure activities	0.808	20.308***

***

p < .001.

The above items were all measured on a 7-point Likert-type scale. A higher score indicated a greater degree of agreement among the respondents (1 = “strongly disagreed” and 7 = “strongly agreed”).

Data Collection and Sample Profile

The questionnaires were distributed offline and online. Convenience sampling was adopted for offline data collection. This is a common method in quantitative research that helps researchers overcome objective limitations in terms of resources, time, and labor (Etikan et al., 2016). To reduce the deviation of the sampling method and improve the reliability of offline data, Quanzhou and Xiamen, two representative cities with developed night-time economies, were chosen as sampling sites. According to China Tourism News, Quanzhou and Xiamen both rank in the top 10 cities for night-time leisure in China. In addition, the China Urban Night-time Economy Influence Report issued in 2021 states that Xiamen is one of China’s top 10 nighttime economy cities. Therefore, night-time leisure projects in Quanzhou and Xiamen are abundant and popular.

Moreover, considering that this study required respondents to be office workers with night-time leisure experience, the snowball sampling method was used to obtain more accurate and relevant samples. For online data collection, the researchers distributed questionnaires using the Wenjuanxing survey platform via email. For offline data collection, paper-based questionnaires were handed out in person by the research team.

This study involved minimal risk to participants, as the data were collected through anonymous self-report questionnaires that did not involve any sensitive or personal health information. Participation was entirely voluntary, and respondents could withdraw at any time without any consequences. Prior to data collection, all participants were informed of the purpose and content of the study, and informed consent was obtained from each participant either verbally (offline) or through an electronic consent form (online) before they began the questionnaire. No identifying information was collected, and the data were used solely for academic research. Given the low-risk and the anonymous nature of the data, we believe the potential benefits of this research—informing urban night-time leisure planning and improving service provision for working populations—outweigh the minimal burden of participation.

Finally, 590 questionnaires were collected, of which 533 were valid, with an effective rate of 90.3%. Since the research content of this paper involves work and night leisure, the respondents are all adults with working experience. Specific sample statistics are shown in Table 2. According to the report of iiMedia Research in 2022 and the Latest Development Report of China’s Night Economy (2021), Chinese youth (14–35 years old) are the most active group in night-time economic consumption, and the proportion of female night-time consumption is higher than that of male consumption. This indicates that the sample characteristics of this study are consistent with the actual situation.

Table 2.

Sample Characteristics.

Items	Frequency	Percent
Gender
Male	162	30.4
Female	371	69.6
Age
18–27	272	51.0
28–37	184	34.5
38–47	59	11.1
48–57	10	1.9
58 and above	8	1.5
Daily working hours
7 hr and below	196	36.8
8–11 hr	304	57.0
12 hr and above	33	6.2
Occupation
Government official/teacher	16	3.0
Company employee	119	22.3
Manufacturer/technician	55	10.3
Professional	194	36.4
Independent businessman	30	5.6
Service employee	89	16.7
Industrial/manual laborer	22	4.1
Others	8	1.5
Night-time leisure per week
1–2 times	268	50.3
3–4 times	173	32.5
5–7 times	92	17.3

Data Analysis

Correlation

Table 3 shows the specific results of the correlation test. Obviously, the latent variables exhibited a significant correlation (Hair et al., 2014). In addition, the variance inflation factors (VIFs) are all in the range of 1.66–2.63 (<5), indicating that multi-collinearity is not a serious issue among the variables (Hair et al., 2020).

Table 3.

A Matrix of Means, Standard Deviations, Correlations, and Variance Inflation Factors.

Variable	Mean	S.D.	1.	2.	3.	4.	5.	6.	VIF
1. Work-related stress	4.154	1.189	0.768
2. Mental stress	4.624	1.084	0.540***	0.801					1.71
3. Perceived exhaustion	4.667	1.110	0.348***	0.596***	0.775				1.66
4. Entertainment-seeking motive	5.513	0.991	0.241***	0.462***	0.452***	0.778			1.91
5. Leisure involvement	5.334	0.866	0.230***	0.358***	0.274***	0.594***	0.789		2.10
6. Nightlife	5.108	0.994	0.273***	0.293***	0.221***	0.424***	0.546***	0.825	2.08

Note. All the correlations are at ***p < .001. Square roots of average variance extractions are shown on the diagonal in bold.

Reliability and Validity

In sociological studies, a variable whose Cronbach’s α value is above .7 is considered to be reliable (Hair et al., 2020). Table 1 shows that the minimum Cronbach’s α value is .811, indicating that all variables have good internal consistency and reliability.

The results of confirmatory factor analysis show that all the fit indices of the model reached the optimal level (χ² = 1,014.070, p < .001, χ²/df = 2.825, CFI = 0.929, IFI = 0.930, TLI = 0.920, GFI = 0.885, AGFI = 0.861, RMSEA = 0.059). It satisfies the threshold for CFI, IFI, and TLI above 0.9 and RMSEA below 0.08 (Byrne, 1998). Furthermore, the standardized factor loadings of all the items are more than 0.6 (Table 1), indicating that construct validity is achieved (Hair et al., 1998). Additionally, in Table 1, all the values of composite reliability (CR) exceed the threshold of 0.7, and the average variance extracted (AVE) values are all within the ideal value range (above 0.5), which ensures the convergent validity of constructs (Hair et al., 2020).

The discriminant validity test is based on a Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) analysis, an emerging and efficient method for evaluating discriminant validity (Henseler et al., 2015). Table 4 shows that the HTMT values of all variables are lower than the threshold of 0.85 suggested by Henseler et al. (2015), which provides sufficient evidence for the constructs’ discrimination validity. Moreover, Table 3 shows that the square root of the AVE of each construct is higher than the correlations with other constructs, which further supports the discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2020).

Table 4.

Results of HTMT Analysis.

Variables	1.	2.	3.	4.	5.
1. Work-related stress
2. Mental stress	0.630
3. Perceived exhaustion	0.431	0.697
4. Entertainment-seeking motive	0.291	0.528	0.547
5. Leisure involvement	0.328	0.332	0.268	0.494
6. Nightlife	0.290	0.406	0.318	0.667	0.634

Common Method Bias

In the test of Harman’s single-factor, an unrotated exploratory factor analysis of the items showed that the total explanatory variance of the first factor was 35.091%, which indicates the data exhibited no serious common method bias (Adam, 2021; Podsakoff et al., 2003).

Structural Model and Hypothesis Testing

Figure 2 reflects that the fitting index of the overall model remained within a reasonable range (χ² = 929.086, p < .001, χ²/df = 3.193, CFI = 0.922, IFI = 0.922, TLI = 0.913, GFI = 0.883, AGFI = 0.859, RMSEA = 0.064).

Figure 2.

Results of research framework.

The bootstrapping sampling method was used to test the mediating effect. As shown in Table 5, 0 is not covered in the confidence intervals between the minimum and maximum values of the four hypothesis paths, and all the mediating effects were significant. Therefore, H1 (β = .135, p < .001) and H2 (β = .173, p < .001), which proposed that mental stress and perceived exhaustion played mediating roles, respectively, in the effect of work-related stress on the entertainment-seeking motive, were supported. H3a (β = .175, p < .001) and H3b (β = .154, p < .001), which predicted that entertainment-seeking motives played a mediating role in the effect of mental stress and perceived exhaustion on leisure involvement, were supported.

Table 5.

Mediation Effect.

Hypothesis path	Estimates	Standarderror	Bias-corrected 95% CI		Results
Hypothesis path	Estimates	Standarderror	Lower	Upper	Results
H1: Work-related stress → Mental stress → Entertainment-seeking motive	0.135^***	0.036	0.077	0.223	Support
H2: Work-related stress → Perceived exhaustion → Entertainment-seeking motive	0.173^***	0.039	0.104	0.259	Support
H3a: Mental stress → Entertainment-seeking motive → Leisureinvolvement	0.175^***	0.039	0.106	0.260	Support
H3b: Perceived exhaustion → Entertainment- seeking motive → Leisure involvement	0.154^***	0.039	0.084	0.232	Support

***

p < .001.

Before testing the moderating effect, the interaction terms of the moderating variable and independent variable were calculated. As shown in Table 6, the interaction of the entertainment-seeking motive and nightlife affected leisure involvement at the 0.001 level (β = .642, p < .001). Therefore, hypothesis 4 concerning nightlife was supported.

Table 6.

Moderation Effect.

Hypothesis path		Estimates	Standard error	Results
H4	Entertainment-seeking motive → Leisure involvement	0.185	0.088	Support
	Nightlife → Leisure involvement	−0.090	0.103
	Entertainment-seeking motive × Nightlife → Leisure involvement	0.642^***	0.155

***

p < .001.

By drawing the moderating effect figure, the moderating effect of nightlife is further analyzed. The slope in Figure 3 shows that the positive effect of the entertainment-seeking motive (ESM) on leisure involvement is enhanced by high-quality nightlife. Hypothesis 4 held.

Figure 3.

Interaction of ESM and nightlife on leisure participation.

Discussion and Conclusions

Conclusions

First, under the influence of the night-time economy, work-related stress promotes urban residents’ leisure involvement. In other words, there is no absolute conflict between work and leisure. In response to the resource depletion caused by work-related stress and improved life satisfaction, people will have a positive tendency to participate in leisure activities to recover resources (Gao et al., 2019; Weifei et al., 2022). However, because of time and energy limitations, conflicts of the work-leisure balance are difficult to resolve (Knecht et al., 2016; Wong & Lin, 2007). The development of the night-time economy has promoted the time and space extension of leisure places, creating a space that integrates convenience and an emotional atmosphere for night-time leisure (Hobbs et al., 2000; Jiang & Hong, 2023; Mao et al., 2020). It enables people to achieve leisure purposes without spending too much time and energy. Therefore, the rise of the night-time economy creates opportunities for urban residents to transform their roles between work and leisure.

Second, the conversion path from work-related stress to leisure involvement includes three stages of “consumption-motive-leisure,” in which mental stress, perceived exhaustion, and entertainment-seeking motives play mediating roles. Work-related stress will lead to serious mental stress, such as sensitivity, tension, and anxiety, as well as physical and psychological exhaustion (Han et al., 2017; Salama et al., 2022). It involves multiple resource losses from the perspective of COR theory. To supplement the resource loss caused by work-related stress and achieve self-resource balance, individuals will have a strong willingness and motivation to acquire new resources (Querstret et al., 2016; F. Wang & Shi, 2022). Night leisure is an effective way of replenishing energy and relieving stress. Therefore, when the work-related stress is greater, the mental stress and exhaustion of individuals will be more serious and their entertainment-seeking motives will be more intense.

Third, nightlife positively moderates the relationship between entertainment-seeking motives and leisure involvement. As an agglomeration area formed around the workplace and living space, the nightlife is extremely convenient in both space and time (Hobbs et al., 2000), which is conducive to leisure involvement for overworked city residents. More importantly, unlike the traditional night market, modern nightlife includes a variety of entertainment and leisure modes—such as catering, video, audio, entertainment, and exhibition (Jiang & Hong, 2023; Mao et al., 2020)—that can fulfill the leisure needs of people of different ages and working types. Therefore, when the nightlife is more varied of a higher quality, urban residents are more likely to be involved in leisure activities.

Theoretical Implications

First, the study proves that work and leisure for urban residents have a transitional path, which challenges the relevant arguments of the antagonistic work-leisure relationship in previous studies. Traditional studies hold that personal leisure life is negatively affected by work-related stress (Gao et al., 2019; Knecht et al., 2016; Lin et al., 2014; Son & Chen, 2018). Although some scholars have suggested that leisure and entertainment can help people eliminate work-related stress to promote physical recovery (Mansour & Tremblay, 2016), most of the relevant studies still focus on the work-leisure conflict (Gao et al., 2019; Shi et al., 2021). under the background of a night-time economy, this study finds that work-related stress is the inducing factor for leisure involvement, which provides a new perspective for re-examining the work-leisure relationship. Therefore, this paper breaks the stereotype of the antagonistic and conflicting work-leisure relationship in previous studies (Gao et al., 2019; Knecht et al., 2016), providing a theoretical supplement for the bidirectional promotional relationship between work and leisure.

Second, COR theory is usually used to analyze the negative impact of work-life conflict and the physiological and psychological effects of leisure activities on workers (Metselaar et al., 2023; Tsaur & Yen, 2018; Weifei et al., 2022). This study proves the positive role of mental stress and perceived exhaustion in the conversion relationship between work and leisure and clarifies the influence logic of work-related stress on leisure involvement. It is a breakthrough application of COR theory in the study of work-leisure role conversion. Additionally, Ruan et al. (2020) argue that owing to guilt toward the family, work-family conflict can instead promote travel intentions, which highlights a positive way for the relationship between work and leisure. Based on this conclusion, we provide a new explanatory logic for the positive conversion relationship between work and leisure in the rise of the night-time economy, further strengthening the academic understanding of the internal driving force of the work-leisure transition.

Third, current studies mainly focus on the social attributes and economic benefits of nightlife consumption and seldom explore the positive effects of nightlife on individual entertainment intention and behavioral choice (Brands et al., 2014; Shaw, 2014; Tadié & Permanadeli, 2015). This paper fully considers the change of urban residents’ leisure styles under the background of the night-time economy and clarifies the positive moderating effect of nightlife on the relationship between the entertainment-seeking motive and leisure involvement. It further solidifies the situational conditions for the role conversion between the work and leisure of urban residents, providing a new research direction and vision for work-leisure research in the new era.

Practical Implications

Local governments should pay attention to the leisure needs of urban working groups to build a reasonable night-time leisure industry cluster and consumption environment. First, leisure areas can be developed around the central business district and community clusters in the planning of night-time economic areas to create inclusive spaces that can merge work and leisure activities. In addition, the supply of the night leisure industry should be enriched to provide a variety of high-quality night leisure activities (Mao et al., 2020). As Brands et al. (2014) pointed out, nightlife should not only be dominated by alcohol but should also involve elements of culture, drama, music, etc. Second, it is necessary to create a favorable leisure environment and enhance the practicability of citizens’ night travel. For example, it is difficult for residents to engage in recreational activities after work because many daytime scenic spots and recreational venues are closed after dark (Nghiêm-Phú, 2020). Therefore, such areas can appropriately extend night business hours or carry out 24-hr business operations in the form of retail for some leisure industries. For instance, the 24-hr night-time economy in cities such as Jakarta and Sydney not only meets the leisure demands of local residents but also greatly promotes economic development (Rowe & Lynch, 2012; Tadié & Permanadeli, 2015). In addition, excellent infrastructures are also important environmental conditions for promoting residents’ participation in leisure activities and include actions such as extending the operation time of public transportation and improving night-lighting facilities to create a convenient and reliable leisure environment for residents (Mao et al., 2020; Song et al., 2016).

For leisure industry operators, night-time leisure products should be provided with targeted functions to satisfy the entertainment and leisure demands of various groups. Different from tourists and other urban residents, people with high work-related stress prefer leisure activities that can relieve mental stress and replenish energy (Elbaz et al., 2020; Mansour & Tremblay, 2016). Therefore, operators should provide places and activities conducive to social communication and stress relief, and develop leisure products with strong entertainment and social characteristics. For people with low energy demands, operators should focus on “light leisure” products, such as reading rooms, coffee houses, exhibition views and steam rooms. In addition, to attract target consumers, industries need to design advertisements and business topics according to product characteristics and target group demands (reading rooms, e.g., can design slogans that feature a unique atmosphere of emotional sharing and calm healing).

Limitations and Future Research

First, the sample data of this study mainly came from two coastal cities in Southeastern China. Due to the influence of culture and economy, the nightlife patterns in different cities and regions are also quite different (Nghiêm-Phú, 2020; Tadié & Permanadeli, 2015). Therefore, the path and result of the work-leisure transition may be different. Future research can be considered to collect relevant data from other countries or regions to analyze the theoretical logic of the work-leisure transition. Second, affected by internal and external factors—such as job type, working environment, and individual characteristics—different urban residents have different preferences and choices for leisure activities (Ruan et al., 2020). However, this study only focuses on the single factor of work-related stress. More multilevel factors of the individual and external environment should be considered in the future to provide more comprehensive and accurate practical enlightenment. Finally, in this study, only cross-sectional data were collected, and urban residents’ resource recovery and stress status after leisure activities were ignored, which partly limits the systematic understanding of night-time leisure. In the future, a longitudinal study is expected to explore the changes in psychological consequences and leisure behaviors caused by work in detail.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Wen-Qi Ruan

Shu-Ning Zhang

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

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