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Abstract

It is seen as a need to integrate trainings for the development of life skills of disadvantaged children into schools. It is recommended to plan such activities by drawing attention to the lack of intervention programs for the development of life skills. In this context, the objective of the present study is to examine the effects of out-of-school activities within the scope of the “Life Skills for Schools Project” on the problem-solving skills of disadvantaged students. The present project, which has been implemented in cooperation with UNICEF and the Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Türkiye, has been designed with the aim of enhancing students’ life skills and preparing them for life. The initiative was meticulously devised to cater to the specific requirements of disadvantaged students, with the implementation encompassing Syrian refugee students and those impacted by a recent seismic event. The study’s sample comprised 852 students enrolled in the ninth grade. The present study employed a one-group pre-test post-test experimental model. In the course of the study, a comparison was made of the pre-test and post-test scores of the students. This comparison revealed a significant difference in favor of the post-test. The findings of the study demonstrated that the Life Skills for Schools Project was effective in enhancing the problem-solving skills of disadvantaged students. Furthermore, the conclusion of the project revealed that female students demonstrated a greater improvement in problem-solving skills compared to their male counterparts.

Keywords

education life skills problem solving skills disadvantaged students

Introduction

Problem-solving skills are very important in the 21st century and encompass abilities beyond more knowledge acquisition. This skill involves cognitive and behavioral activities to understand the problem and find an effective solution (Ranjbar et al., 2013). The framework of the activity consists of two main components; observation skills, which include data collection and interpretation, and critical thinking skills, which include conceptualization, logical reasoning, and analytical thinking (Rahman, 2019). When faced with challenging situations, individuals use systematic observation and critical thinking skills to find appropriate solutions. Problem-solving skills are very important in daily life, work and educational settings as they enable individuals to identify not only problems but also the root causes of problems (Wismath et al., 2014).

Everyone faces more or less challenges in daily life that require problem-solving skills. Effective problem solvers can give themselves an advantage in their professional and educational lives by getting to the root cause of problems and thinking both analytically and creatively. This skill teaches students to analyze a large number of issues on their own in a holistic, meaningful, original and applicable way (Drigas & Karyotaki, 2016). The problem-solving process is defined by Polya (1990) as understanding the problem, strategy development (planning), strategy execution (implementation of the plan), and evaluation, and by Stevens (1998) as understanding the problem, collecting the necessary information, getting to the essence of the problem, revealing the solution ways, choosing the best solution way, and solving the problem. Bingham (1998) provides a broader definition of the problem-solving process as recognizing the problem, trying to explain the problem, collecting information about the problem, selecting the data that will be appropriate to the essence of the problem, determining possible solution ways, evaluating the solution ways, applying the decided solution way, and evaluating the problem-solving method used.

There are various methods and strategies that can effectively overcome the difficulties encountered in the problem-solving process (Fan & Zhu, 2007; Ulu, 2008). Successful problem-solving strategies include viewing the process as a cognitive practice, participating in problem finding, and understanding various perspectives (Middleton, 2020). Some of these strategies can be expressed as systematic list making, prediction and control, drawing diagrams, finding correlations, working backwards, and elimination (Ulu et al., 2016). There is a positive relationship between problem-solving strategies and problem-solving performance (Altun et al., 2007; Uesaka et al., 2007). Problem-solving education and teaching problem-solving strategies to students is an important way to overcome the problems encountered (Arsal, 2016; Impecoven-Lind & Foegen, 2010). There are many findings that educational programs implemented to develop problem-solving abilities affect students positively (Cheruvalath & Chandrakant, 2024; DenişÇeliker et al., 2015; İyi, 2024; Kardaş, 2019; Kutsal, 2018; Lee & Lee, 2020; Oğuz, 2023; Şahin, 2019; Ütkür Güllühan, 2021; Uzunkol, 2014; Yalçın & Erden, 2021). Uzunkol (2014) applied a values education-based intervention program to primary school students and at the end of the intervention program, improvements were observed in the students’ social problem-solving skills. Deniş Çeliker et al. (2015) applied the education program prepared with the problem-based learning method supported by concept cartoons to secondary school students and the students’ problem-solving skills improved. Lee and Lee (2020) designed an out-of-school education activity to develop the problem-solving skills of young people, and at the end of the application, improvements were observed in the problem-solving skills of young people. Oğuz (2023) stated that lessons structured with the creative drama method improved the problem-solving skills of gifted students.

Problem-solving training is increasingly recognized as an important skill in the 21st century (İnce, 2018) and should be embedded in the curriculum with minor domain-specific adjustments in various subjects (Bolat & Korkmaz, 2021; Ravindranath et al., 2024). The educational process involves clarifying and defining issues and identifying the importance of difference by objectively defining current and desired levels of development (Deno, 2005). Effective training aims to develop thinking tools that create a framework of action procedures applicable to the developing knowledge base (Rubinstein & Firstenberg, 1987). To develop this skill, educators should incorporate authentic activities into educational processes, encourage diverse problem representations, and integrate interdisciplinary approaches (Middleton, 2020). Effective methods that can be used in educational processes include special workshops, projects, content-independent activities and applications in specific areas (Woods et al., 1997). For example; Kardaş (2019) applied a 12-week rhythm education program to secondary school students. As a result of the quasi-experimental study, positive improvements in students’ problem solving skills were observed. Topçu Bilir (2019) applied a 12-week life skills program to 5-year-old children. At the end of the study, it was determined that children’s life skills improved. Karakaş (2021) organized trainings supported by the storyline method to improve the problem solving skills of primary school students. At the end of the trainings, it was determined that there was an increase in students’ ability to feel, limit, define and collect information about the problem. Ütkür Güllühan (2021) gave social problem solving training to primary school students for 16 lesson hours. At the end of the training, it was determined that students’ skills of creating alternative solutions, choosing an appropriate solution and predicting the results of the selected solution improved. İyi (2024) applied a 5-week life skills intervention program to preschool children. The program was found to be effective in supporting children’s social problem solving skills.

Problem Solving Training in Türkiye

In 1997, 10 life skills were identified by the World Health Organization (World Health Organization, 1997). In Türkiye, life skills were included in all courses in the curricula implemented in 2004 (OECD, 2009). One of these skills is problem-solving skill and efforts have increased in schools in recent years. Problem-solving skills have an important place in the curricula of all grade levels (MNE, 2018a, 2024a; Yıldız, 2018). In the 2023 Education Vision Document of the Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Türkiye, there is a vision of implementing practices in all schools to strengthen students’ life skills (MNE, 2019). In the 2024 new education model, the principle of “…raising generations who solve problems, make decisions, have responsibility and ideals, and who are not only adaptable to civilization but are active civilization builders and developers” is listed among the basic principles of the education system (MNE, 2024a).

The actions implemented in the education system for problem-solving skills have started to show their results. According to the results of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), the mathematics and science literacy levels of students in Türkiye have increased significantly (MNE, 2024b, 2024c; OECD, 2023; Reynolds et al., 2024). Problem-solving skills have an important place in both TIMMS and PISA exams (OECD, 2023; Reynolds et al., 2024). These results are an indication that the efforts put in place are beneficial.

Education of Disadvantaged Students in Türkiye

According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, disadvantage is defined as “…having less chance of social and economic integration because of economic status, gender, ethnic or linguistic origin, religion or political status (refugees)” (UNESCO, 1998). People can sometimes be disadvantaged for more than one reason. This situation refers to multiple disadvantage. Multiple disadvantage refers to being deprivation or inaccessible at least three of the following at any given time: education, health, employment, income, social support, housing (Bramley et al., 2015). UNESCO (1998) considers people with disabilities, the elderly, children and youth, the homeless and migrants as disadvantaged groups. From a broader perspective, illiterate, economically disadvantaged, disabled, elderly, single-parent families, poor, homeless, unemployed, ex-convicts, rural dwellers, pensioners, victims of natural disasters, people living in remote areas with limited access to services, people with language barriers, people with different cultural backgrounds and religions can be included in the disadvantaged group (Unegbu, 2012).

The number of earthquake victims and refugees, a disadvantaged group defined by UNESCO (1998), has increased dramatically in the Türkiye in recent years. The 7.8 and 7.5 Mw earthquakes in the south of the country on February 6, 2023 affected approximately 4 million students and 220,000 teachers in 11 provinces. In the face of this situation, education processes were disrupted. The Ministry of National Education has taken many measures to overcome the disadvantages of students. Around 21,000 teachers were assigned to the earthquake-affected region. 45,000 classrooms were repaired and made available to students. 416 psychological support, play and activity tents were set up for children. Approximately 5,000 guidance counselors/psychological counselors worked in these tents. Individual and group psychological support activities were carried out by interviewing students, parents and teachers. Tablets were distributed to approximately 83,000 students so that students could follow educational materials in digital environments (MNE, 2024d).

Türkiye hosts the largest number of refugees worldwide according to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR, 2019a), with approximately 800,000 Syrian refugee students in formal education (Refugee Association, 2024). The Ministry of National Education is taking many measures to integrate these students into the education system (UNHCR, 2019a; MNE, 2020). In collaboration with UNICEF, an inclusive education teacher training program focused on refugee education (MNE, 2018b) and a support program for school enrollment (MNE, 2020) are being implemented. The Promoting Inclusive Education for Children Project contributed to refugee children’s access to education and social cohesion (PIKTES, 2024). One of these projects is the “Life Skills for Schools Project,” implemented jointly by UNICEF and the Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Türkiye. It is aimed at refugee students and earthquake victims.

Life Skills for Schools Project

Life Skills for Schools Project is based on the “Global Framework on Transferable Skills” report prepared by UNICEF. The Project jointly implemented by UNICEF and the Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Türkiye aims to support the life skills of disadvantaged students through extra-curricular activities and events. The Global Framework on Transferable Skills is report that provides a roadmap on the transferable skills children and young people need for learning, living, working and social participation. It addresses the skills individuals need to succeed in lifelong learning and to be ready for the challenges they may face in a rapidly changing world. The report focuses on skills that can positively shape individuals’ lives and can be used in different contexts. Transferable skills support not only the academic success of individuals, but also their personal, social and emotional development. These skills (Figure 1) include “problem-solving, resilience, creativity, critical thinking, participation, empathy, respect for diversity, communication, self-management, decision-making, negotiation, collaboration” (UNICEF, 2019). In the first phase of the project, practices were carried out for “problem-solving and resilience” skills. In the later stages of the project, practices for other skills will also be realized (MNE, 2024e).

Figure 1.

UNICEF’s global framework on transferable skills.

The target group of the project is disadvantaged students who migrated from Syria due to the war and were affected by the earthquake on 6 February 2023. The provinces where the project was implemented were selected considering the provinces where disadvantaged groups are concentrated. These provinces are big cities that receive intensive migration from Syria and cities located in the south of Türkiye. In addition, 11 earthquake-affected cities were included in the project. Two earthquakes with a magnitude of 7.8 Mw and 7.5 Mw on February 6, 2023 killed approximately 50,000 people, 100,000 people were injured, 53,000 buildings (Anadolu Agency, 2023), and 12,000 classrooms (MNE, 2024f) demolished, affected 14 million people (Kizilay, 2024). These major effects have led to an increase in disadvantaged groups. While students experience disadvantages in various contexts, they face unique needs and challenges due to different living conditions and psychological factors. Some of these include social and emotional difficulties, social and economic isolation, psychological trauma, language and cultural barriers, housing, and family support (UNESCO, 2023; UNHCR, 2019b). Disadvantaged students may suffer from deprivation in accessing education and educational resources compared to their non-disadvantaged peers. Their motivation for education may be low due to family and social reasons. They may also need emotional and life skills support. One of the most needed skills is problem-solving skills (WHO, 1997).

Theoretical Framework

Türkiye experiences significant influxes of refugees and asylum seekers due to ongoing conflicts in neighboring regions. There are around 4 million migrants in the country, of which around 3 million are Syrian refugees (Presidency of Migration Management, 2024). At the same time, the February 6, 2023 earthquake affected around 14 million people (Kizilay, 2024). These two situations create multiple disadvantaged groups. Disadvantaged groups may face many different problems. These problems range from education to housing, health care to unemployment, communication to social cohesion (Presidency of Migration Management, 2024). Disadvantaged students in the country face similar problems. In order to overcome these problems, it is important to support students’ problem-solving skills (Mağden & Yaban, 2016; Punia et al., 2005; Ütkür Güllühan, 2021).

There is considerable evidence of significant gaps in students’ knowledge and skills performance (Valencia & Suzuki, 2000). In particular, students from ethnic minorities, refugees and disadvantaged students fall behind educationally (Gay, 2015). These students are often labeled as underachievers and marginalized instead of making improvements in education systems (Holtmann, 2016). For these reasons, many disadvantaged children around the world face difficulties in accessing equal and quality education (Karataştan & Akcan, 2023; Shields & Mohan, 2008).

There is a need to draw attention to the problems of disadvantaged students from different backgrounds and cultures and to ensure a quality education for them (European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, 2016). Disadvantaged students face more challenges and problems. When they enter different environments, they acquire conscious or unconscious skills to cope with challenges (Luo & Seeberg, 2022). Supporting individuals’ problem-solving skills actually enables them to hold on to life. We see that some studies have been carried out to support the skills of disadvantaged individuals. There are studies on improving the problem-solving skills of children experiencing environmental deprivation (Mağden & Yaban, 2016), girls in the village (Punia et al., 2005), preschool children (Walker et al., 2002), disadvantaged youth (Helms et al., 2021), young people transitioning to higher education (Pedditzi et al., 2023), socially disadvantaged students (Ravindranath et al., 2024). Punia et al. (2005) implemented a 2-month intervention program to improve the social competencies of disadvantaged girls in the village. At the end of the program, it was observed that there was a significant improvement in girls’ interpersonal problem-solving skills. Mağden and Yaban (2016) implemented a 6-week curriculum to improve the social problem-solving skills of children with psychosocial disadvantages. It was determined that the applications contributed to children to produce more solutions and more alternatives to the hypothetical problems presented to them. In order to improve the life skills of socially disadvantaged students, an after-school life skills program was implemented for 4 years and it was determined that the life skills of the students improved significantly (Ravindranath et al., 2024). Although there are some studies with disadvantaged individuals in the literature, there is no study on the development of problem-solving skills of immigrant and earthquake survivor students. Today, wars such as Syria and the Ukraine-Russia war create large waves of migration. In addition, large-scale natural disasters reveal many disadvantages. There are many disadvantaged students in many countries due to such reasons (UNHCR, 2019b). Studies to improve the life skills of these disadvantaged students are important. The current situation and deficiency emphasize the importance of our study. In this sense, the aim of the study is to examine the effects of out-of-school activities implemented within the scope of the Life Skills for Schools Project on students’ problem-solving skills. In line with this purpose, answers to the following questions were sought:

Are out-of-school activities implemented within the scope of the Life Skills for Schools Project effective in improving students’ problem-solving skills?

Are out-of-school activities implemented within the scope of the Life Skills for Schools Project effective in developing problem-solving skills of male and female students?

Method

Study Design

In this study, a one-group pre-test post-test quasi-experimental design was employed to investigate the effect of the “Life Skills for Schools Project” on students’ problem-solving skills. When randomization is not feasible quasi-experimental designs provide a viable alternative (Karasar, 2012). Although quasi-experimental designs, like true experiments, involve an intervention and often use pre- and post-test measures, they lack the element of random assignment, which can limit the strength of causal inferences (Cohen et al., 2007). Since the study group is taken into consideration, it can be said that it is convenient to apply a pre-test post-test model to a single group in this study.

Sample

The research population consisted of 2,202 ninth grade students studying in 51 schools in 32 provinces of Türkiye, where the “Life Skills for Schools Project” was implemented. All of these students participated in the problem-solving skills trainings within the scope of the project. While determining the sample of the study, 1 school from each province (32 schools in total) was included in the study. An average of 38 students from each school were included in the experimental group and the sample group consisted of 1,225 (32 schools × 38) students. Students who did not want to answer the questions, absent students and students who were not at the schools on the implementation dates were not included in the study. The remaining 852 students were included in the study. Data collection tool was applied to these students as pre-test and post-test.

Implementation of the Experimental Study

The experimental process took place in the spring semester of the 2023 to 2024 academic year (March–June 2024). The process was conducted with 2,202 students studying in the ninth grade of 51 high schools selected from 32 provinces of Türkiye. Students were trained on problem solving skills for 6 weeks (3 hr each) for a total of 18 hr. The trainings were held in life skills workshops established in schools after the end of the classes. The equipment of the workshops and the materials and activity materials needed were provided within the scope of the project. Problem-solving skills training were conducted by teachers trained as trainers. The trainings were implemented by selecting activities from the activity guide prepared within the scope of the project. A sample activity is presented in Appendinx-1 (MNE, 2024e). There were an average of 40 students in the experimental groups.

Problem-solving inventory (Şahin et al., 1993) was used to obtain the data. The problem-solving inventory was administered to the students as a pre-test before the 6-week training. After the 6-week training, the problem-solving inventory was administered to the students as a post-test. The students physically answered the questionnaire forms under the guidance of the teachers. Teachers forwarded the answered questionnaire forms to the researcher. The answered questionnaire forms were input to the SPSS 22.0 program by the researcher and analyzed (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Life skills workshop student activities.

Data Collection Tool

The Problem-Solving Inventory was developed by Heppner and Petersen (1982) and adapted by Şahin et al. (1993). The scale consists of 35 items with positive and negative questions and has a 6-point Likert-type rating. The lowest score to be obtained from the scale is 32, and the highest score is 192. Low total scores indicate that the individual is effective in solving problems, while high total scores indicate that the individual perceives themselves as inadequate in problem-solving skills. There are six sub-dimensions in the scale: Hasty Approach (items 13, 14, 15, 17, 21, 25, 26, 30, and 32, α = .78), Thinking Approach (items 18, 20, 31, 33, and 35, α = .76), Avoidant Approach (items 1, 2, 3, and 4, α = .74), Evaluative Approach (items 6, 7, and 8, α = .69), Confident Approach (items 5, 23, 24, 27, 28 and 34, α = .64) and Planned Approach (items 10, 12, 16 and 19, α = .59). The Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient of the Problem-Solving Inventory was found to be .88 (Şahin et al., 1993).

Data Analysis

A score was calculated for each student from the problem-solving inventory answered in the study. A low total score indicates that the individual is effective in solving problems, while a high total score indicates that the individual perceives himself/herself as inadequate in problem solving skills. The data were analyzed with SPSS 22.0 program. The internal consistency reliability coefficient of the problem-solving inventory was found to be 0.800 for the pre-test and 0.857 for the post-test. Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient for the sub-dimensions varies between .640 and .780. It is seen that the internal consistency coefficients are within the acceptable range (DeVellis, 2003; George & Mallery, 2010; Özdamar, 2002).

Ethical Considerations

This study was carried out in accordance with ethical standards for research involving human participants. Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Zonguldak Bulent Ecevit University (Approval No: 427292). Additionally, official permission to conduct the study in schools was granted by the Ministry of National Education. Assent was obtained from each participant.

To minimize any potential risk to participants, all data were collected anonymously, and no personally identifying information was recorded. Participation in the study was entirely voluntary. Students were informed about the purpose and scope of the research and were assured that their responses would remain confidential. They were also informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without any consequences. Informed consent was obtained for both participation in the study and the use of student photographs. The study design and data collection procedures were aligned with national and international ethical standards.

Although the study involved minimal risk, the potential benefits -including improved understanding of problem-solving skills- were considered to outweigh any potential harm. The results are intended to support more effective educational strategies and student-centered policies.

Findings

Descriptive statistics of the total mean scores of the pre-test and post-test of the problem-solving inventory and the results of the examination of normal distribution are given in Table 1.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics of the Scores of the Study Groups Before and After the Intervention.

Scale	Groups	Tests	N	X̄	S	SC	KC
Problem solving inventory	PSI total	Pre-test	852	96.627	0.666	0.153	0.641
	PSI total	Post-test	852	93.261	0.751	0.130	0.131
	Hasty approach	Pre-test	852	31.429	0.250	−0.159	−0.364
	Hasty approach	Post-test	852	30.022	0.255	−0.199	−0.596
	Thinking approach	Pre-test	852	12.872	0.162	0.751	0.363
	Thinking approach	Post-test	852	12.393	0.169	0.924	0.832
	Avoidant approach	Pre-test	852	12.510	0.157	0.154	−0.763
	Avoidant approach	Post-test	852	12.075	0.175	0.269	−0.910
	Evaluative approach	Pre-test	852	7.976	0.116	0.736	0.119
	Evaluative approach	Post-test	852	7.413	0.113	0.754	0.148
	Confident approach	Pre-test	852	17.503	0.204	0.423	−0.059
	Confident approach	Post-test	852	16.629	0.204	0.621	0.331
	Planned approach	Pre-test	852	10.677	0.134	0.649	0.465
	Planned approach	Post-test	852	10.106	0.134	0.714	0.085

Note. N = sample size; X̄ = mean; S = std. error; SC = skewness coefficient; KC = Kurtosis coefficient.

When Table 1 is examined, it is seen that the pre-test and post-test scores of the students from the problem solving inventory show a normal distribution. As can be seen, the skewness and kurtosis values are between ±1.0 (George & Mallery, 2010). In the normality examination, it is recommended to first apply the skewness and kurtosis coefficient (Uysal & Kılıç, 2022). For skewness and kurtosis; Hair et al. (2013) and George and Mallery (2010) accept the range of ±1.0 as perfect for psychometric purposes. The ranges of ±1.5 by Tabachnick and Fidell (2013) and ±2.0 by George and Mallery (2010) are also accepted for normal distribution in many cases. As a result of dividing the kurtosis (−0.131/0.167 = −0.784) and skewness (−0.130/0.084 = −1.54) values by the standard error, a value between ±1.96 is stated as another proof that the data are normally distributed (Akgül, 2003; Büyüköztürk, 2017). In this case, it was thought that the necessary prerequisites for the realization of parametric tests were met, and it was decided to perform “paired samples t-test.” In the study, firstly, it was examined whether the students’ pre-test and post-test total mean scores from the Problem-Solving Inventory showed a statistically significant difference. For this purpose, the pre-test and post-test total mean scores of the students were compared with the paired samples t-test and the results are shown in Table 2.

Table 2.

Paired Samples t-test Results of Problem-Solving Inventory Pre-Test and Post-Test Total Mean Scores.

Scale	Groups	N	X̄	SS	SH _x	t Test
Scale	Groups	N	X̄	SS	SH _x	t	SD	p
Problem-solving inventory	Pre-test	852	96.627	19.440	0.666	3.516	851	.000
Problem-solving inventory	Post-test	852	93.261	21.937	0.751	3.516	851	.000

Note. p < .05, the improvement from pre-test to post-test is statistically significant.

When Table 2 is examined, the mean total scores of the Problem-Solving Inventory show a statistically significant difference between the pre- and post-test measurements for the overall scale (t(851) = 3.516; p < .05). There is a change in favor of the students’ post-test scores.

In the study, it was examined whether the students’ pre-test and post-test mean scores of the sub-dimensions of the Problem-Solving Inventory showed a statistically significant difference. For this purpose, the pre-test and post-test total mean scores of the students were compared with the paired samples t-test and the results are shown in Table 3.

Table 3.

Paired Samples t-Test Results of Pre-Test and Post-Test Mean Scores of Problem Solving Inventory Sub-Dimensions.

Sub-dimensions	Groups	N	X̄	SS	SH _x	t test
Sub-dimensions	Groups	N	X̄	SS	SH _x	t	SD	p
Hasty approach	Pre-test	852	31.429	7.314	0.250	1.104	851	.270
Hasty approach	Post-test	852	31.022	7.466	.255	1.104	851	.270
Thinking approach	Pre-test	852	12.872	4.738	0.162	2.187	851	.029
Thinking approach	Post-test	852	12.393	4.945	.169	2.187	851	.029
Avoidant approach	Pre-test	852	12.510	4.599	0.157	1.863	851	.063
Avoidant approach	Post-test	852	12.075	5.131	.175	1.863	851	.063
Evaluative approach	Pre-test	852	7.976	3.388	0.116	3.434	851	.001
Evaluative approach	Post-test	852	7.413	3.300	.113	3.434	851	.001
Confident approach	Pre-test	852	17.503	5.961	0.204	3.124	851	.002
Confident approach	Post-test	852	16.629	5.965	.204	3.124	851	.002
Planned approach	Pre-test	852	10.677	3.915	0.134	3.055	851	.002
Planned approach	Post-test	852	10.106	3.925	.134	3.055	851	.002

Note. p < .05, the improvement from pre-test to post-test is statistically significant.

When Table 3 is examined, it is seen that there is a significant difference between the measurements in the sub-dimensions of Thinking Approach (t(851) = 2.187, p < .05), Evaluative Approach (t(851) = 3.434, p < .05), Confident Approach (t(851) = 3.124, p < .05), Planned Approach (t(851) = 3.055, p < .05) sub-dimensions, while there was no significant difference between the sub-dimensions of Hasty Approach (t(851) = 1.104, p > .05) and Avoidant Approach (t(851) = 1.863, p > .05).

When Table 4 is examined, the pre-test scores of the students were compared according to gender, a significant difference was found between female and male students (t = 4.255; p < .05). According to the pre-test mean scores, male students had higher problem-solving skills than female students. When the post-test scores of the students were compared according to gender, no significant difference was found between female and male students (t = 1.156; p > .05).

Table 4.

Independent Samples t-Test Results of Problem Solving Inventory Scores According to Gender.

Gender	N	Pre-test		Post-test		Pre-test − post-test difference
Female	545	98.733	19.067	93.913	21.916	−4.820	28.133
Male	307	92.889	19.563	92.104	21.964	−0.785	27.460
		t = 4.255; p = .000		t = 1.156; p = .248		t = −2.027; p = .043

Note. p < .05, the improvement from pre-test to post-test is statistically significant.

When the pre-test-post-test score differences of the students were compared according to gender, a significant difference was found between female and male students (t = −2.027; p < .05). The total score averages of female students (X̄ = −4.820) showed a significant improvement in favor of males after the application.

Conclusion and Discussion

This study revealed that out-of-school activities carried out within the scope of the life skills for schools project had positive effects on disadvantaged students’ problem-solving skills. Disadvantaged students are a phenomenon encountered all over the world (UNHCR, 2019a). However, we can say that migration, immigration and natural disasters are affecting the world more and more. Various measures need to be taken to prepare such disadvantaged individuals for life. In this sense, the result of our study is remarkable.

Since the healthy shaping of social life depends on the use of effective strategies in solving the problems encountered, it is extremely important to address the factors that will enable children to solve interpersonal problems successfully and effectively (Mağden & Yaban, 2016). In addition, disadvantaged students need a better quality education (European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, 2016). This study examined the effects of out-of-school activities carried out within the scope of the life skills for schools project on disadvantaged students’ problem-solving skills. The results of the study revealed the positive effects of such activities on students’ problem-solving processes. Studies in the literature show that alternative activities increase the problem-solving skills of disadvantaged groups (Helms et al., 2021; Pedditzi et al., 2023; Punia et al., 2005; Ravindranath et al., 2024). The impact of education and supportive activities on disadvantaged groups was also reported in the study by Mağden and Yaban (2016). In this study, it was stated that children with environmental deprivation improved their problem-solving skills through educational activities. In Lillard’s (2012) study, it was revealed that the training program had a positive effect on the social problem-solving skills of preschool children. In Altuntaş and Altınova’s (2015) study, it was concluded that the training program prepared had a significant effect on the social problem-solving skills of university students. In the study conducted by Ravindranath et al. (2024), it was stated that the skills of disadvantaged children improved with the life skills intervention program. In addition, the importance of integrating life skills education into school curricula was emphasized. There are other studies in line with the results of our research (Ang, 2003; Webster-Stratton et al., 2001; Yıldızlar, 2001). These studies support the positive effect of educational activities on groups.

Our research was specifically conducted with refugee students and students who were affected by a traumatic event such as the February 6, 2023 earthquake. Traumatic processes can significantly affect children’s cognitive, emotional and social skills (Helms et al., 2021). Large-scale events such as war, migration, and earthquakes can trigger feelings of insecurity, stress, and helplessness in children, which can be directly reflected in their problem-solving processes (Rubinstein & Firstenberg, 1987). Research findings suggest that extracurricular activities in such disadvantaged situations have the potential to increase not only students’ problem-solving skills but also their psychosocial resilience indirectly. It is also emphasized by other studies that extracurricular programs play an important role in developing transferable skills (Collins-Nelsen et al., 2022).

Another result obtained in the study is that programs and practices aimed at improving problem-solving skills may have different effects according to gender. The significant improvement observed in female students indicates that this group may be more sensitive to the problem-solving process or develop more effective strategies in the implementation process. This is consistent with some studies in literature (Gallagher & De Lisi, 1994; Kimball, 1989; Punia et al., 2005; Timmermans et al., 2007; Zohar & Gershikov, 2008). Punia et al. (2005) reported a significant increase in the problem-solving scores of girls who received education. Similarly, it was observed that the out-of-school activities implemented in our study had a more positive effect on female students than male students. Gallagher and De Lisi (1994) female students were more likely to use traditional strategies than male students. This was attributed to positive attitudes toward the problem (self-confidence and persistence). Kimball (1989) emphasized that female students performed better in dealing with mathematics problems in the classroom. It has been stated that girls perform better when dealing with familiar situations. On the other hand, there are also studies showing that the applied trainings do not create a significant difference in problem solving skills according to the gender of the participants. Erwin et al. (2004), Akbaş (2005), Denham et al. (2006), Tavlı (2007), Dündar (2009), Huda et al. (2020), Erden and Yalçın (2021) stated that problem solving skills do not change according to gender. Factors such as the family environment in which children grow up, culture, socio-economic and socio-cultural level of the family, peer groups and social environments, personal characteristics of teachers and school climate can directly or indirectly affect problem solving skills. When examined according to gender, different results may be due to the above-mentioned differences.

In the study, it was determined that there was a significant improvement especially in the thinking approach, evaluative approach, self-confident approach and planned approach sub-dimensions. However, no significant change was found in the dimensions of hasty approach and avoidant approach. This result shows that the cognitive and emotional aspects of these approaches are more complex than other approaches and may require deeper interventions. Middleton (2020) stated that impetuous behaviors are usually triggered in situations where the individual feels the need to respond quickly, and emphasized the importance of addressing the stress factors underlying this situation. Avoidant behaviors are usually caused by low self-esteem, fear of failure or inability to cope with stress (Zeeshan et al., 2021). Supporting life skills is considered important for self-confidence (Pedditzi et al., 2023). Prakitipong and Nakamura (2006) reported that good problem solvers have high levels of comprehension. In this sense, individuals who think, evaluate and plan in order to understand the problem may be more successful in problem-solving. The trainings implemented within the scope of our research support students’ skills in this context.

Recommendations of the Study

The research shows that life skills workshops positively affect students’ problem-solving skills. Therefore, continuous and widespread implementation of programs such as “Life Skills for Schools Project” is important for the long-term development of students. The continuity of such programs should be ensured especially in regions where disadvantaged groups are concentrated. Evaluations on problem-solving skills of disadvantaged students reveal the importance of supporting these groups. By developing special education programs and psychosocial support for such groups, students can adapt faster. It should not be forgotten that not only in-school programs but also the support of families and society are important in the development of disadvantaged students. By organizing information and training programs for families, it can be ensured that students develop problem-solving skills at home. The study shows that significant improvement was achieved after a 6-week training period. However, the continuity of such trainings should be ensured and long-term strategies should be developed for continuous development rather than one-time applications. Lifelong learning opportunities can be offered to students through long-term and sustainable projects.

Limitations of the Study

The research was conducted with a single group pre-test post-test quasi-experimental model. The sample is limited to 852 students selected from 32 provinces participating in the project. The implementation period covers only a 6-week period. The sustainability of the improvements in students’ skills was not analyzed. The study includes disadvantaged groups with special situations such as war victims and earthquake victims. The study is limited to a specific age group (ninth grade students); its applicability to different age groups has not been assessed. The results of the study are specific to the Türkiye context only and other countries or different socio-economic conditions were not evaluated.

Footnotes

Appendix

Appendix 1.

Event name	ATHLETE EGE
Grade	9th grade
Life skill	Problem solving
Duration	60 + 60 min
Sub-skills	Defining/analyzing the problem Collecting information
Learning outcomes	Defines the problem with its causes, consequences and different aspects/dimensions (those affected, size of the impact, etc.). Gathers information to solve the problem.
Teaching materials	Sports equipment (dumbbells, etc. with different weights) Interactive board/Computer/Tablet
Participants	Students - physical education teacher
Learning environment	School
IMPLEMENTATİON PROCESS Step 1/Warm-up Activity 1.a. Students are asked to work with sports equipment (barbells, dumbbells, etc.) with different characteristics and weights in order to do sports. Each student works with the equipment of his/her choice in the way he/she wants. The teacher asks the students to observe each other at the same time. Until this stage, students who are not at risk of injury or injury are not intervened. Students work with the tools until they get tired (10 min on average). After the exercise process is over, the resting phase begins. 1.b. Students are asked to talk about whether the movements they made and the weights they chose were correct or not in line with their observations and experiences. They are asked to talk about why the activities performed at this stage are correct or incorrect and what the consequences of these movements may be. Step 2/Basic Work Case Study (Athlete Ege) Project the Athlete Ege case study on the interactive whiteboard/projection device and have students read it. (The case study can also be distributed to students as a printout. The teacher can also present it by reading the text). Ask them to answer the questions based on the case study. ATHLETE EGE Education Session I: Ege is a male, 11th grade high school student. His height is 172 cm and his weight is 60 kg. Ege’s school achievement is good. He does not like to be in the foreground in class and in his social environment. His friends do not include Ege because of this characteristic. For this reason, Ege does not have many friends. Ege loves doing sports in gyms and bodybuilding. He goes to the gym in his spare time from school and does not prefer to socialize with his friends. In fact, he tries to overcome his loneliness and lack of friends through sports. Ege is one of the most hardworking and regular members of the gym. For this reason, his body has started to resemble the body of bodybuilders. Since this situation is very noticeable, Ege wants to do sports more and pushes his body even harder. However, his body reacts to this and some negative symptoms appear. Training session questions: 1. Do you think there is any problem in this case study? 2. If there is a problem situation, what do you think the problem is? 3. Discuss by hypothesizing/suggesting what the problem is. 4. What new information do you think is needed to solve the problem? Note: Ask the students to note down the hypotheses they formulated / suggestions they developed and the results they reached during the Education sessions. Education Session II: Ege takes protein powders and other unhealthy supplements to get her body in shape faster and better and to increase her muscle mass. Ege is in the 12th grade and continues to do sports. He is also preparing for the university exams. He and his teachers believe that he will get a good university and department. As the exam time approaches, Ege starts to experience some discomfort. His breathing becomes short, he feels pain in his chest, he gets tired early, and he feels pain in his kidneys. One-day Ege fainted and was rushed to the hospital. After an examination, abnormalities were detected in his blood, liver and urine tests. Ege was treated for about a month, first in intensive care and then in the normal ward, during which time he missed the university exam. This made him very sad and he questioned himself. 1. Do you think there is any problem in this case study? 2. If there is a problem, what do you think the problem is? 3. Review your hypotheses/suggestions in the light of new information. 4. How do you think this problem can be solved? EGQ-1: What do you think are the rules of doing sports? EGQ-2: What is the purpose of doing sports? EGQ-3: How do athletes provide the necessary energy? EGQ-4: Create the flow chart and present it as a report (Explanation: “Write the hypotheses you formed in Sessions 1 and 2 and the answers you gave to the questions respectively. In the last section, write what you have learned about the subject). Step 3/Closing Activity (Catering - I have a wish, etc.) Students are shown a video on how to do healthy sports. Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rwZWWv_zZ18 The importance of healthy nutrition is emphasized. They are offered dried nuts (hazelnuts, walnuts, almonds, dried figs, raisins, etc.) to get the necessary energy for their bodies.<
Warnings:Care should be taken to ensure that students do not get injured while playing sports. If the number of students in training sessions is too high, they can be divided into groups. The teacher’s intervention should be minimal during the sessions. The teacher can contribute to the process with guiding questions. Tablet, computer and internet facilities can be provided for students to collect information on the subject.

ORCID iD

Ahmet Akif Erbaş

Ethical Considerations

The ethical approval certificate for this study was issued on 12.03.2024. It was taken with the permission of the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Zonguldak Bulent Ecevit University numbered 427292.

Consent to Participate

Informed consent was obtained from all of the students participating in the study.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Transforming Education Through Life Skills: A Search for a Solution for Disadvantaged Students

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Problem Solving Training in Türkiye

Education of Disadvantaged Students in Türkiye

Life Skills for Schools Project

Theoretical Framework

Method

Study Design

Sample

Implementation of the Experimental Study

Data Collection Tool

Data Analysis

Ethical Considerations

Findings

Conclusion and Discussion

Recommendations of the Study

Limitations of the Study

Footnotes

Appendix

ORCID iD

Ethical Considerations

Consent to Participate

Funding

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Data Availability Statement

References