Abstract
The successful launch of the One Belt and One Road Initiative in 2013, coupled with China’s growing international influence, has stimulated global interest in learning Chinese as a Second Language (CSL). However, recent studies reveal several problems relating to international students’ adaptation and adjustment in the distinct Chinese study abroad context. Additionally, the typology of the Chinese language, characterised by its logographic writing system and lexical tones, presents significant challenges for learners from various linguistic backgrounds. As such, exploring CSL learners’ emotional experiences and the influencing factors remains a critical issue. This mixed-methods study examines CSL learners’ positive emotions of enjoyment and pride and negative emotions of anxiety, shame and boredom. It also aims to explore the predictive effects of learner-internal factors involving attitudes towards the second language (L2) community and cultural interest and the learner-external factor of pedagogical context on emotions. Data were collected from 231 international students at a Chinese university using a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. Results showcase that participants experience higher levels of positive than negative emotions. Additionally, the three learner-internal and learner-external factors could predict emotions to various extents and differ from individual perceptions. The findings enhance the understanding of CSL learners’ emotions, providing language educators with insights to create a supportive learning environment that promotes students’ positive emotions and alleviates negative emotions in their learning journey.
Plain Language Summary
The primary aim of the study is to strengthen the understanding of Chinese as a second language learners’ emotional profiles by integrating quantitative results with qualitative insights. More importantly, it seeks to expand the scope of learner-internal factors by shifting from language-related attitudes and demographic variables to examining whether extracurricular factors such as attitudes towards the target language community and interests in cultural products may influence emotions.
Keywords
Introduction
The exploration of learners’ emotions in second and foreign language learning (SL/FL) has gained extensive popularity from applied linguists, particularly when MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012) introduced positive psychology to the field. Positive psychology not only emphasises the significance of cultivating positive qualities such as empathy, resilience and grit but also promotes a holistic view of studying emotions by integrating both positive and negative ones into language learning and teaching research (Huang, 2022; Y. Wang et al., 2021; C. Zhang et al., 2024). To date, anxiety, enjoyment and boredom have been identified as a ‘three-body problem’ in emotion research due to their prominent effect on learners’ language learning performance (J.-M. Dewaele et al., 2023). Consensus has been made by researchers that emotions are complex and dynamic constructs, influenced by various internal factors, triggered by interactions with the teaching context and are better examined in relation to one another (Ghafouri & Hassaskhah, 2025; L. Zhang et al., 2024). Existing research on the influencing factors of L2 emotions primarily focuses on identifying ‘learner-internal’ variables such as age, attitudes and personability as well as ‘learner-external’ variables like teacher behaviours and classroom atmosphere as crucial predictors of positive and negative emotions (J.-M. Dewaele et al., 2023; C. Li & Han, 2024). However, much of the investigation has been confined to English as a second and foreign language learning (ESL/EFL) contexts, attention is still needed to focus on languages other than English (LOTE) learners.
The past decades have witnessed a remarkable surge in global Chinese language learners, owing to China’s growing economic status and the government’s promotion of the Chinese language to worldwide countries and regions (Lu et al., 2022). The Chinese language family includes distinct varieties such as Mandarin, Gan, Yue and Hakka, with Mandarin Chinese being the largest group of over 900 million native speakers (Y. Gong et al., 2020). Recruiting international students to study in Chinese higher educational institutions becomes one of the country’s critical investments for enhancing cultural soft power (Tian et al., 2022). China was ranked the third-largest country for hosting international students and the most popular destination for international students from Asia and Africa thanks to the launch of the ‘One Belt and One Road’ initiative in 2013 (Ge & Ho, 2022; J. Li et al., 2020). While the popularity of studying in China continues to rise, several emerging issues relating to international students’ adaptation, acculturation and adjustment in the distinct Chinese cultural and linguistic contexts need to be given attention (Cao et al., 2024; Yu & Xu, 2024). Additionally, the complexity of the Chinese language, such as its logographic writing system with thousands of characters (known as hanzi), along with the four lexical tones, poses difficulty for learners from various linguistic backgrounds (Meckelborg et al., 2024; L. Zhang & Xing, 2023). These challenges emphasise the need to explore the emotional experiences of CSL learners and the factors influencing their study process.
This mixed-methods study is informed by the principle of positive psychology, studying positive and negative emotions from a holistic perspective and examining their antecedents. Apart from the well-known anxiety, enjoyment and boredom, attention will be paid to pride and shame, whose roles in language emotion research were largely overlooked but are influential to individuals’ academic performance, self-efficacy and autonomy (Csizér & Albert, 2024; L. Zhang et al., 2024). The primary aim of the study is to strengthen the understanding of CSL learners’ emotional profiles by integrating quantitative results with supplementary qualitative insights. More importantly, it seeks to expand the scope of learner-internal factors by shifting from language-related attitudes and demographic variables to examining whether extracurricular factors such as attitudes towards the target language community and interests in cultural products may influence emotions. The findings are expected to offer CSL educational workers implications to assist students with facilitating positive emotions and managing negative ones in language learning.
Literature Review
Positive and Negative Emotions in Second and Foreign Language Learning
The 1970s were marked critical in the field of applied linguistics due to a shift of research focus from the emphasis on language learning and cognition in the teaching process to a learner-centred approach, represented by the highlight individual affective experiences like motivations, attitudes and emotions (Tutton & Cohen, 2024; Y. Wang, 2024). The seminal works such as Krashen’s (1982) hypothesis of affective filter theory and Horwitz et al.’s (1986) conceptualisation of foreign language classroom anxiety into three components involving communication apprehension, test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation shed light on how it can impede individuals’ language learning speed and success (Barcelos et al., 2022; J.-M. Dewaele et al., 2018). To date, a considerable body of research has unmasked its detrimental effect on ESL or EFL learners’ meaningful use of learning strategies (Acosta-Gonzaga & Ramirez-Arellano, 2021), achievement in high steak examinations, academic engagement and resilience as well as mental health (Hu et al., 2024; S. Li et al., 2024; Qian & Yu, 2023). Nevertheless, there were also studies suggesting that language learners experiencing certain levels of anxiety could boost their intrinsic and extrinsic motivations and envisioned self-images to reach the designated goal (Luo et al., 2020; Welesilassie & Nikolov, 2022).
Influenced by the wave of positive psychology, one positive emotion that has received extensive attention is foreign language enjoyment. According to J. M. Dewaele and MacIntyre (2016), enjoyment is not limited to superficial pleasure but reflects language learners’ drive for success. It is likely to be produced when students facing challenging tasks align with their perceived capacities. Enjoyment can be conducive to boosting motivation and creativity (C. Li & Li, 2024) as well as strengthening learning outcomes in traditional, online and blended learning environments (J. Chen & Kim, 2023; Fraschini & Tao, 2024; Yuan, 2025). To promote these positive effects, factors underlying enjoyment have been examined by researchers targeting different languages. For example, L. Zhang and Tsung (2021) found that CSL learners’ enjoyment in Chinese universities involved personal fulfilment, social bonds and interpersonal relations. On the other hand, H.-I. Kim (2024) confirmed that Korean EFL learners’ enjoyment can be composed of teachers’ facilitation, personal engagement, and social cohesion.
The emotion that received the latest attention among applied linguists is foreign language boredom (X. Li et al., 2024). Informed by Pekrun’s (2006) control-value theory, C. Li et al. (2023, p. 225) defined it as ‘a negative, deactivating emotion arising from ongoing learning activities or tasks’, attributing negative states like disengagement, depression and helplessness as the major contributors. Boredom has always been co-investigated with anxiety and enjoyment in terms of their relationships and interactions with other individual difference variables on language learning (J.-M. Dewaele et al., 2023; C. Li, 2025; X. Zhao & Wang, 2025). In the study conducted by C. Li and Wei (2023), the three emotions were examined to see their independent and joint effects on EFL learners’ achievement. Results revealed that participants’ enjoyment negatively correlates with anxiety and boredom. When examining their combined effects on learners’ performance at four distinct periods of the semester, enjoyment outweighed anxiety and boredom in influencing learning outcomes, further highlighting the role that it plays in sustaining individuals’ long-term success.
Notably, the overwhelming research on the three-body problem (i.e., anxiety, enjoyment, and boredom) indicates a need to broaden the scope of emotion research (J.-M. Dewaele et al., 2023). Recent scholarship highlights the roles of pride and shame because of their connections to individuals’ psychological functioning and academic performance (Mairitsch et al., 2024; Teimouri, 2018). Ross and Stracke (2016) provided preliminary insights into conceptualising pride, highlighting that the construct can be multi-dimensional in language education. By interviewing 12 English academic learners in Australia, they identified the classroom-based aspect of personal achievement as the most prominent sub-component, followed by communication outside the classroom and external pride related to the recognition of others. This was further specified by Mairitsch et al. (2024), whose conceptual framework classified pride into the social-based, social-comparison-based, help-based, and praise-based aspects. The model was proven by two different samples of learners studying English at Iranian universities. Besides examining it as a single construct, the positive impact of pride on language learners was noted in its correlations with engagement, achievement and motivation (Derakhshan & Yin, 2024; Fraschini & Tao, 2024; S. Li et al., 2024).
Contrary to pride’s focus on the positive aspects of human beings, shame is a self-conscious emotion developing from negative self-evaluation and self-awareness. It emerges when people perceive themselves as unsuccessful (J. Kim & Turner, 2024). Shame can either indicate a general tendency as part of individual identity or an immediate response to a particular shame-inducing situation (Galmiche, 2017). The levels of shame experienced by language learners may vary according to different scenarios (Teimouri, 2018; Wilson & Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, 2019). It could become more apparent when students were exposed to public scrutiny and checkups (e.g., in an exam practice or oral presentation) compared to that in an outside classroom speaking environment (Wilson & Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, 2019). Notably, the deliberating effects of shame examined in recent research require the attention of language teachers. For instance, Zhong’s (2023) investigation into Chinese students’ perceptions of shame in learning Japanese as a foreign language showed that its symptoms of fear of rejection, negative evaluations and gaze from others could result in their avoidance of interactions with teachers, a decrease in speaking activity participation, and even learning quit.
The growing research on the wide range of emotions in language learning aligns effectively with positive psychology’s call for studying emotions through a holistic lens. Nevertheless, the relationships between these emotions and the extent to which they are experienced and described by L2 learners in the Asian context remain to be explored.
Impact of Learner-Internal and Learner-External Factors on Emotions
The previous section’s review of positive and negative emotions in second and foreign language learning reflects their multifaceted nature and distinct impact on learners across various study environments. To promote students’ positive emotional experiences and alleviate the negative ones, examining their antecedents is of significance. Consensus has been made by scholars that learner-external factors, especially the in-class learning experiences such as teachers’ use of the target language and predictivity in class (J.-M. Dewaele et al., 2018), instructional methodologies (e.g., use of games and funny activities), familiarity with the internet and technology (Shao et al., 2023) as well the school locations and infrastructures (Yeşilçınar & Erdemir, 2023) could have an outweighing effect on enjoyment than on anxiety or boredom. Beyond the traditional classroom study settings, a recent study conducted by Myhre et al. (2023) signified the positive effect of outdoor learning, arguing that EFL learners’ enjoyment could be enhanced when they were situated in an environment with less strict norms and expectations.
Different from positive emotions, which are more easily influenced by external factors, studies found that negative emotions such as anxiety, are closely linked to personal traits and thus more prone to be predicted by learner-internal factors such as emotional stability, motivations, self-efficacy and learning strategies (J. M. Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2019; Sun & Teng, 2021; Yue et al., 2024). However, C. Li and Han (2024) argued that both learner-internal and learner-external factors can be influential to predict boredom. In their large-scale study focusing on EFL learners in Chinese universities (N = 1502), task characteristics and pedagogical activities, along with student factors, were identified as the top three antecedents. They added that boredom was easy to produce in situations where students perceived the learning tasks as over-challenging and repetitively occurring or lacked mental and physical energy (e.g., fell asleep) in classroom engagement. Other studies, such as Ghafouri and Hassaskhah (2025), shifted their attention to the antecedents of shame. Their qualitative study targeting Iranian EFL learners revealed that both external influences, such as the judgement and negative feedback from teachers and peers, as well as internal factors like self-criticism and comparative thinking were all effective in triggering shame.
The literature review of emotions and influencing factors presents several gaps in existing research. First, the conceptualisation of pride and shame lacks insights from the LOTE learners, particularly learners of the Chinese language. In addition, previous studies examining antecedents of emotions were mostly associated with educational factors such as attitudes towards the target language and classroom atmosphere, so there is a need to expand the scope by moving beyond the formal pedagogical settings to the L2 community and cultural interest. In light of these research gaps, this study proposes the following two research questions:
Methods
Research Design
This study is part of a large research project exploring the individual difference variables of CSL learners, which was approved by the ethics committee of the university. A mixed-methods research design combining both quantitative and qualitative research methods was used to inform the study. Specifically, an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design was employed, meaning that much weight was given to statistical analyses while the qualitative data was used to explain and enrich the quantitative findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2023). The first phase was to conduct a quantitative study by distributing an online questionnaire. After finishing analysing the quantitative data, the authors developed the semi-structured interview guidelines and proceeded to the next step of the qualitative study. In Phase 2, qualitative insights were given by participants to explain and enrich the statistical analysis results. The final Phase 3 was to mix and interpret the quantitative and qualitative results for a thorough understanding of CSL learners’ emotional experiences and influencing factors. Both quantitative and qualitative results were applied to answer the two research questions. Figure 1 visualises the framework for the research design.
Framework for the research design.
Participants
This study was conducted at a Chinese university, targeting international students studying Chinese as their second language. The Chinese language studied by participants is Mandarin Chinese. Convenience sampling was used to recruit participants. The method belongs to non-probability sampling in which members of the target population meeting certain criteria such as availability at a given time, willingness for participation and proximity of geographical location can be involved in the research (Etikan et al., 2016). In this study, the prerequisites established for potential participants are that they are above 18 years of age and currently enrolled at the research site learning Chinese as their compulsory or optional classes. Data collection started after receiving ethics approval.
Among the 231 questionnaire respondents, 139 students are aged between 18 and 25. As for their gender, approximately 57% of students are females, while the rest identify themselves as male or non-binary. More than half of the students (n = 162) are pursuing academic degrees at the university, while the remaining 69 respondents are exchange students or those undertaking online Chinese learning courses initiated by the university. Notably, 225 students were willing to offer information regarding their countries of birth. Among them, 171 students are from Asian countries, and others are from the continents of Africa, North America, Oceania and Europe. Around 60% of participants have been studying Chinese for more than 2 years.
Participants taking part in the qualitative study are those who expressed willingness to participate in the final part of the questionnaire survey. The 28 interviewees (11 are males and 17 are females) are in their undergraduate, postgraduate and doctoral degrees, respectively. There are 17 students majoring in Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Languages (TCSL), while the other students specialise in various fields like foreign language studies (e.g., English written translation), neurobiology, preschool education, history, archaeology, economics and sports health education. The interviewees were labelled as Student (S) 1 to S28 in the qualitative analysis.
Instruments
Questionnaire
The questionnaire contains four parts, starting with an investigation into learners’ demographic information, followed by a scale for emotions, a scale for influencing factors and a final part concerning students’ willingness to be interviewed. Items in the scales were evaluated by respondents on a 5-point Likert scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The questionnaire was designed in both Chinese and English versions. The Chinese version was translated and verified by the National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters (NAATI). Detailed information on the two scales can be seen below.
Scale for Emotions
This scale aims to comprehensively assess CSL learners’ emotional experiences, including two positive emotions, namely, enjoyment and pride and three negative emotions, namely, anxiety, shame and boredom. Most items in the scales were adapted from Davari et al. (2022) and J.-M. Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014). However, since they were originally used to assess English and other foreign language learners’ emotions, the word ‘English’ or other languages is replaced by the word ‘Chinese’ in the present study. There were also items designed by the authors based on the features of the Chinese language (e.g., EN3: ‘I enjoy the sound and tone of Chinese’). Table 1 summarises the five emotions, number of items for each emotion, sample items and their sources. The reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s α) of the 31-item emotion scale achieves .90.
Summary of Items in the Scale for Emotions.
Scale for Influencing Factors
The scale for influencing factors examines two learner-internal factors (i.e., attitudes towards the L2 community and cultural interest) and one learner-external factor (i.e., pedagogical context). The reliability coefficient for the 14-item scale for influencing factors is 0.91. Table 2 summarises the questionnaire items in the scale for influencing factors.
Summary of Items in the Scale for Influencing Factors.
Items regarding the two learner-international factors were retrieved from Dörnyei and Taguchi (2010) and J. Li and Tsung (2025), focusing on examining students’ attitudes towards the L2 community, especially the Chinese people and interests in Chinese cultural products such as music, movies, and TV programmes. The learner-external factor concerning the pedagogical context was adapted from Moskovsky et al. (2016) and J. Li and Tsung (2025) to examine students’ evaluations towards teachers’ teaching styles, learning materials and classroom atmosphere.
Semi-Structured Interview
The semi-structured interview was used to explain and add critical insights to the quantitative results. It was structured into a series of theme-directed topics, starting with a general inquiry into students’ background information, such as status in Chinese language learning, self-perceived Chinese language learning proficiency and cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Following this, students were invited to discuss unforgettable experiences that triggered positive or negative emotions and discuss their frequently experienced emotions in the language learning journey. Furthermore, information regarding the impact of attitudes, interests and the classroom learning environment was sought to collect individual ideas about the possible factors that generate emotions. The interviews took students 10 to 20 min to finish.
Data Analysis
This study combines quantitative and qualitative data analytical techniques to address the two research questions. Detailed information on the analytical techniques can be seen in the following two parts.
Quantitative Data Analysis
Quantitative data were analysed through SPSS Statistics (Version 29). Prior to addressing the two research questions, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was employed to explore the underlying structure of the two scales and to demonstrate their construct validity in the CSL learning context (see Section 4.1). The quantitative aspect of RQ1 was answered by descriptive and correlation analyses and a paired samples t-test to compare levels of positive and negative emotions experienced by participants. RQ2 was first answered by Pearson correlation analysis to identify whether relationships exist between emotions and the learner-internal and learner-external factors. Based on the results, multiple linear regression analyses (stepwise) were followed to examine the significant predictors of emotions.
Qualitative Data Analysis
The interview data was used to explain and add insights into the quantitative results obtained in the first stage. The software used for coding interview data is MAXQDA (Version 24), which is designed to analyse multiple types of data such as interviews, surveys and media (Marjaei et al., 2019). The analytical approach is the thematic analysis, following Nowell et al.’s (2017) six steps, including data familiarisation, generation of initial codes, theme searching, theme reviewing, theme defining and naming and report production. Specifically, a deductive analytical approach was employed because the themes were established based on existing theories (Kiger & Varpio, 2020). The authors worked together on the thematic analysis to minimise potential bias in coding. To answer RQ1, the five emotions were established as themes, while the sub-themes (categories) were factors underlying the emotions. For instance, codes such as ‘I really like the Chinese characters’ and ‘I enjoy Chinese pronunciation’ were classified into the category of Chinese linguistic features underlying enjoyment. In terms of RQ2, the three learner-internal and learner-external factors were established as themes, while individuals’ descriptions of components within these factors were coded as sub-themes.
Results
Exploratory Factor Analysis of Scales for Emotions and Influencing Factors
The 31 items assessing emotions and the 14 items exploring influencing factors were entered into EFA, respectively, using principal axis factoring (PAF) as the extraction method and oblique rotation (i.e., Promax) as the rotation method. This is because the positive and negative emotions and the learner-internal and learner-external factors examined in this study are assumed to be correlated. Factors were retained according to Kaiser’s criterion (i.e., eigenvalues > 1) and scree plot (Karami, 2015). The cutoff point for the loadings of factors was set at 0.40, which is the standard researchers commonly agree upon (Howard, 2016). Data were inspected using KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy and Bartlett’s test of sphericity. The KMO value for the 31-item emotion scale is 0.879, and for the 14-item influencing factor scale is 0.884, both of which are appropriate to proceed with factor analyses. The results of Bartlett’s test of sphericity for the two scales (p < .001 for both) further confirm the correlations between the items.
The first EFA was conducted with the scale for emotions. Results revealed that these items were clustered into five factors, all of which have eigenvalues more than 1.0. Moreover, the scree plot exhibits a 5-factor solution of the emotion scale, and the number of factors aligns well with the factors decided by the eigenvalue method (see Figure 2 for the scree plot). All items in the first scale exactly load on the five emotions that this study aims to assess. Table 3 summarises the rotated factor analysis results, including the factors, items, loadings and percentage (%) of variance explained, alongside their reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s α). The five emotions are: Factor 1 – shame (SH), with six items explaining 28.62% of the variance; Factor 2 – enjoyment (EN), involving seven items explaining 23.56% of the variance; Factor 3 – boredom (BO), with six items explaining 7.45% of the variance; Factor 4 – pride (PR), with six items explaining 5.08% variance; and Factor 5 – anxiety (AN), with six items explaining 4.47% of the variance. Altogether, the five factors can explain 69.17% of the cumulative variance.
Scree plot of the scale for emotions.
Factor Analysis Results and Reliability Coefficients of the Scale for Emotions.
The second EFA test was conducted using the scale for influencing factors. Initially, three factors with eigenvalues more than one were extracted. However, the loading of CI5 was suppressed (lower than 0.40) in the first round of factor analysis, which means it needs to be excluded. After deleting it, the researchers re-manipulated the factor analysis. In this second round, the loading of ATC1 was suppressed, indicating that the item’s contribution to the scale was also limited. After excluding this item, the final factor analysis achieved the desired results, with three factors’ eigenvalues over 1.0 extracted. The scree plot further confirms the rationale for the factor retention (see Figure 3). These factors are: Factor 1 – pedagogical context (PC), with five items which can explain 45.50% of the variance; Factor 2 – cultural interest (CI), with four items explaining 11.84% of the variance; Factor 3 – attitudes towards the L2 community (ATC), with three items explaining 9.87% of the variance. The factors explained 67.21% of the cumulative variance. The results for the rotated factor analysis and reliability coefficients of the scale for influencing factors can be seen in Table 4.
Scree plot of the scale for influencing factors.
Factor Analysis Results and Reliability Coefficients of the Scale for Influencing Factors.
The above EFA analyses of the two scales identified the underlying structure of emotions and influencing factors, which aligns well with the factors the study intends to assess. The following section will use these factors to explore the profiles of CSL learners’ emotional experiences and the predictive effects of the learner-internal and learner-external factors on emotions.
The Emotional Profiles of CSL Learners (RQ1)
Descriptive Analysis of CSL Learners’ Emotions
The emotional profiles of CSL learners were analysed by descriptive and correlation analyses. Table 5 summarises the combinative results, including the mean (M), standard deviation (SD) and the Pearson correlation coefficient (r).
Means, Standard Deviation and Correlations of Emotions.
p < .05. **p < .01.
According to the table, CSL learners experienced high levels of positive emotions regarding enjoyment (M = 4.17, SD = 0.58) and pride (M = 4.09, SD = 0.59). In terms of negative emotions, participants faced a moderate level of anxiety (M = 2.78, SD = 0.8) and a low level of boredom (M = 2.29, SD = 0.78). A paired samples t-test comparing the means of positive and negative emotions was followed to enhance the understanding of learners’ emotional experiences. The descriptive statistics of the positive and negative emotions, as well as the paired samples’ t-test results, are summarised in Table 6. The mean difference of 1.54 suggests that participants experienced significantly higher positive emotions than their negative counterparts (t = 25.98, p < .001). Notably, the Cohen’s d value of 0.90 indicates a large effect size (Lovakov & Agadullina, 2021).
Paired Samples T-test of Positive and Negative Emotions.
The Pearson correlation analysis results, as also shown in Table 5, demonstrate a positive correlation between enjoyment and pride (r = .66, p < .01), indicating that the pleasure students obtained from learning Chinese may make them feel pride in corresponding accomplishments. Regarding correlations between the negative emotions, significant and positive relationships were identified between anxiety and shame (r = .71, p < .01), anxiety and boredom (r = .47, p < .01), as well as shame and boredom (r = .51, p < .01). Such correlations indicate the potential for negative emotions reinforcing each other. On the other hand, enjoyment was found to have a significant and negative relationship with boredom (r = −.18, p < .01), while pride was also negatively correlated with boredom (r = −.16, p < .05). This means the higher the levels of positive emotions experienced by learners, the less likely they are to feel bored in learning the Chinese language.
Thematic Analysis of CSL Learners’ Descriptions of Emotions
This section examines the underlying factors of the five emotions to see how they were perceived by the CSL learners. Table 7 displays the themes, categories and frequency counts. It can be observed that enjoyment, with 41 occurrences and anxiety, with 35 occurrences, remain the most prominent positive and negative emotions, supporting findings in the quantitative stage.
Thematic Analysis of Emotions and Underlying Factors.
Enjoyment was described by interviewees from four aspects, in which affection for Chinese linguistic features emerges as the most significant dimension, with 14 mentions. Some students enjoyed pronouncing the Chinese tones because they are ‘interesting’ (S17) and ‘sound like music’ (S10), while others preferred writing Chinese characters because of their resemblance to drawing and direct representation of physical objects. A sample expression can be seen below,
I like the characters, yes. Because it’s just drawing… and one word, just drawing can mean a lot of things. In English, you have to write maybe two or three alphabets to mean one word, but in Chinese, just one can mean a lot of them. (S9, Ghana)
Subsequent to the linguistic aspect is students’ pleasure developed from language learning, which contains an inherent interest in Chinese (e.g., S4, 11, 28) or other language-related subjects (e.g., S6, 10, 14). On the other hand, CSL learners feel enjoyment when there is an alignment between the challenges and abilities. They highlighted that they ‘like challenges’ (S2) and believe that Chinese ‘is a bit simpler as you go’ (S8) and ‘is about principles’ (S9). A more detailed expression from S20 is shown as follows:
I’m happier because I liked it from the beginning, and I feel happier learning Chinese. Although there are times when it’s difficult because it keeps getting harder, I still enjoy learning it. (S20, Thai)
Interestingly, the use of technological applications, for instance, Baidu Translate, as noted by S26 and mobile learning applications like HelloChinese also contribute to enjoyment. Some students, for example, S17, even suggested that they can, in some cases, outweigh the functions of traditional education, which can be seen below:
It was very good. It made my Chinese went very fast. I was able to understand quickly. I think after that, when I was done with the HelloChinese, then I started using the book. And it was very smooth. But first, when I took the book, I just couldn’t study anything, so I put it up…I think some people will start maybe reading the books and later, maybe, but I think started with communication first before the books. (S17, Ghanaian)
The second positive emotion of pride was mainly derived from the interviewees’ progress in Chinese language skills, particularly speaking and listening. Some reported that they “kept improving” (S1) as they engaged with the language in depth. Such increased knowledge also enabled them to ‘work out’ (S20) and interact with other Chinese speakers. Following improvements in language skills is the sense of personal development gained beyond language learning. For instance, S12 from Tanzania said that he ‘felt nice even if his Chinese is not that good’, but he still felt he had a “big advantage” studying in Chinese compared to those who study abroad in English-speaking countries. The opportunity of studying in China was valued by him as he believed it would enhance his job prospects and professional network.
Pride can also be socially driven and associated with higher recognition from others. For instance, S11 shared his experience of helping Chinese people in Sri Lanka find their way, which he believed was ‘a good experience’ that allowed him to give back for the support he received from the Chinese while he was in China. On the other hand, the social-based pride can relate to students’ comparison with other people in the social community. In the following extract, S18 mentioned his higher achievement in HSK than other students. HSK is the Chinese Language Proficiency Test aimed at assessing the language proficiency of non-native Chinese speakers (Kong & Zhang, 2024). The test includes six levels, with HSK1 as the lowest and HSK6 as the highest.
The teachers recommended which courses we should take, but their levels were lower, and my level was higher. They were studying at HSK 2 or 3, but I already had an HSK 4 certificate. (S18, Russian)
Regarding negative emotions, interviewees primarily linked their anxiety to the challenges they faced when learning linguistic features, which contrasts with those who considered it a part of the enjoyment. These students found writing Chinese characters particularly challenging because they are hard to remember (S17, 18) and have one character possessing multiple meanings (S11). The challenging aspects of the lexical tones involve how to stress and pronounce them adequately. Moreover, the difficulty and complexity of grammatical knowledge could also arouse anxiety. Below are two representative extracts concerning anxiety in the linguistic features:
In the first time, I’m anxious because I don’t know how to use and how to pronounce the four tones. (S7, Sri Lankan) Chinese grammar is more difficult. So that’s why, like, sometimes I can understand what people are saying to me about this. Sometimes it’s very hard to need to explain some like my things. Cuz a grammar like, it’s a little bit difficult to me. (S22, Kyrgyzstani)
The second component of anxiety arises from the linguistic difference. Students found it challenging to switch from their way of acquiring native languages to Chinese. For example, S25 compared learning Chinese to English and French, suggesting that the language’s non-alphabetic nature challenged him to a great extent:
But the negative one is Chinese is not easy. I told you I can speak, I say in a traditional way is, because of French, when I was learning French, it was not that hard, because English to French is easy. We all have the same alphabets, but Chinese doesn’t have alphabets. (S25, Tanzanian)
As for the language skills, some participants found speaking particularly challenging, while others struggled with a combination of language skills. The following two extracts represent these distinct difficulties.
Learning Chinese and speaking Chinese is different. I can pass maybe HSK5, but I cannot speak it well. (S17, Ghanaian) Sometimes I can’t understand them, but sometimes it’s difficult when I want to express. (S12, Tanzanian)
Other sub-components of anxiety involve fear of negative evaluation and test-related factors. Specifically, the former was characterised by interviewees in terms of fear of making mistakes (S21, 10) and ‘saying words that may be bad’ (S9) in class. The latter was related to difficulty in passing the HSK test (see the extract below).
When I first started learning Chinese, after two weeks, he gave us a test, an HSK Level 2 test. I didn’t even know what HSK was. (S1, Guinea-Bissauan)
The second negative emotion, shame, though not mentioned as often as anxiety, was mainly described by students in different situations. These include the avoidance of social interactions to remain ‘kept isolated’ (S9) and the feeling of worthlessness stemming from the inability to express meanings in the out-of-school context. One such example can be seen below.
My emotion is like when, when it comes, for example, when it’s come to speak something in Chinese, then I can’t, see for example, I have to, especially in the public. So maybe I have to speak something even like appreciation. And then when it’s come, I can’t, oh, I feel like, oh, that feel is so bad. (S12, Tanzanian)
Moreover, some interviewees felt embarrassed when their peers laughed at their performance in answering teachers’ questions (see extract from S1 as an example). Under such conditions, shame can develop easily and prevent students from improving their language skills.
There were many students, and if I answered enthusiastically, they would laugh at me. So, I thought I must be saying something wrong, and I stopped speaking. (S1, Guinea-Bissauan)
Finally, boredom was primarily expressed by participants concerning the absence of in-class engagement. Some recalled their previous learning experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. At that time, online teaching was implemented, resulting in delayed teacher feedback, reduced peer interactions, and increased technological barriers. Two typical descriptions can be seen below:
When I was still having online classes, I got no emotion. Because we just opened the cameras, listened to the teachers, and submitted the homework. There were no feelings like, I want to be good at it or a passion. (S2, Indonesian) I wasn’t as happy during online classes; they were quite troublesome. (S4, Indonesian)
The second underlying factor of boredom relates to a lack of interest in learning, particularly for students whose majors do not correlate with languages and cultures. For instance, S28 in the discipline of economics noted that the early stages of learning Chinese ‘sucks’ and ‘boring’. The other student, S1, who majors in TCSL but lacks any background knowledge, said, ‘At that time, I didn’t know what I was doing…I couldn’t learn this language, and I needed to go back home’.
The third factor underlying boredom is related to homework distribution. In the extract below, S9 pointed out that the considerable and difficult homework tasks assigned by the Chinese teachers left junior CSL learners like him insufficient time for knowledge comprehension and absorption. In this sense, learning Chinese seems boring.
When I came here initially, the teachers were expecting so much. They gave us too much homework … I was not happy about it because I think it’s difficult. I think that we need time to absorb, to understand, or to practice. I don’t think I had enough time to practice. (S9, Ghanaian)
The combinative quantitative and qualitative findings show that CSL students in the present study experience significantly higher levels of positive emotions than their negative counterparts. While descriptive and correlation analyses offer a general and objective account of students’ emotional profiles, the follow-up thematic analysis of interview data enhanced the understanding by focusing on individual perceptions of emotions and their underlying components.
The Predictive Effects of Learner-Internal and Learner-External Factors on Emotions (RQ2)
Correlation Analysis of Emotions and the Influencing Factors
Prior to analysing the effects of learner-internal and learner-external factors on emotions, Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to examine their relationships (see Table 8). Among the five emotions, enjoyment, pride and boredom were found to have positive or negative relationships with the three influencing factors. Enjoyment and pride both positively correlate with the two learner-internal factors in terms of attitudes towards the L2 community (r = .46, 0.39; p < .01) and cultural interest (r = .25, 0.21; p < .01), as well as the learner-external factor concerning the pedagogical context (r = .48, 0.41; p < .01). On the other hand, boredom was found to be negatively correlated with the pedagogical context (r = −.22, p < .01) and cultural interest (r = −.13, p < .05), which means students who possessed positive attitudes towards the Chinese community and who were satisfied with the educational environment were less likely to feel bored in learning Chinese.
Correlations Between Emotions and Influencing Factors.
Note. ns = not significant.
p < .05. **p < .01
Multiple Regression Analysis of the Effect of Learner-Internal and Learner-External Factors on Emotions
Based on the correlation analysis results, enjoyment, pride and boredom were each processed with follow-up multiple regression analysis. Table 9 summarises the unstandardised and standardised coefficients and collinearity statistics of the results. The three emotions are dependent variables, while the three influencing factors are independent variables (i.e., predictors). The collinearity statistics (Tolerance > 0.1, VIF < 10) suggest no multicollinearity issues exist in this study (Y. Zhao & Yang, 2022).
Multiple Regression Analysis for the Effects of Influencing Factors on Emotions.
Note. VIF = Variance Inflation Factor.
The R-squared value of .28 in the first regression equation model indicates that the three influencing factors can explain 28% of enjoyment (F (3, 227) = 29.57, p < .001). Among them, the influence from the pedagogical context had the most significant positive effect on enjoyment (β = .34, p < .001), with a medium effect size (Nieminen, 2022), followed by students’ attitudes towards the L2 community (β = .28, p < .001), with a small to medium effect size (Nieminen, 2022). This means educational components like teaching style and classroom atmosphere were most effective in shaping enjoyment, while students’ perceptions about people in the Chinese social community had a smaller predictive effect. In terms of the second model focusing on the predictive effects on pride, results revealed that 20% of the variance in pride could be explained by the learner-internal and learner-external variables (F (3, 227) = 19.39, p < .001). Pedagogical context (β = .30, p < .001) and attitudes towards the L2 community (β = .24, p = .00) were identified again as significant predictors of pride, with a medium and small to medium effect sizes, respectively (Nieminen, 2022). It can be inferred that students who scored higher on these two factors were more prone to experience positive emotions like enjoyment and pride in Chinese learning. Finally, the R-squared value of .06 in the third model means that the three factors could explain 6% of the variance regarding their predictive effects on boredom (F (3, 227) = 4.65, p < .001), which was lower than the variance explained in the two positive emotions. Pedagogical context was the only significant predictor and had a negative effect on boredom (β = −.26, p = .00), with a small to medium effect size (Nieminen, 2022). This means students who perceived the surrounding educational environment as positive and encouraging were less likely to suffer bored feelings. Notably, cultural interest did not show any predictive effects on enjoyment, pride, and boredom.
Thematic Analysis of the Impact of Learner-Internal and Learner-External Factors on Emotions
To enhance the understanding of the interactions between emotions and influencing factors, the researchers asked students to discuss their perceptions of the influences of the L2 Chinese community, Chinese cultural products and the pedagogical context on emotions. Results revealed that CSL learners’ attitudes towards the L2 community could have distinct impacts on emotions. Among them, the ‘welcoming’ (S8), ‘hardworking’ (S17), and ‘kind’ (S18) Chinese people are influential in facilitating positive emotions. Following this is the positive effect of Chinese people’s life manner, which can be evidenced by the following two extracts:
I enjoy communicating with Chinese people. I find Chinese people very welcoming. Almost everything here is convenient. (S8, Tunisian) I like the food. I like the fact that they rest, break time. They go to work in the morning, by twelve they rest and after two they work. I think it’s a healthy way of living. It helps you, the human being, to rest. It helps you to stay healthy and all of that. I like that. (S9, Ghanaian)
Notably, some interviewees mentioned the impact of dialects and their potential to trigger negative emotions like anxiety. This emerges as a novel finding in the qualitative stage. As shown in the extract below, the student expressed her difficulty in understanding the regional dialect due to the rapid speech of local people, which she felt created an additional layer of challenges:
From the first time, this, that is so sucks because what we’ve learned and what they say here, especially their dialect. They speak so fast. (S2, Indonesian)
Furthermore, although cultural interest did not show a significant predictive impact on emotions in the regression analysis, it was identified as a prominent influencing factor of positive emotions in the interview stage. The first category of media and entertainment involves interest in movies (S1, 3, 17), TV shows (S10, 21), celebrities (S6, 16), music (S4, 26), and social media platforms. A sample extract can be seen below:
I find learning Chinese interesting. I like watching Chinese videos, listening to music. So, I feel that if I don’t know Chinese, I won’t be able to understand or enjoy these things. (S26, Tanzanian)
The second sub-theme of cultural interest is associated with travelling orientations. Participants exhibited their affection for the city where the university is located, pointing out that it has ‘traditional buildings everywhere’ (S10), ‘culture of China’ (S25), and is a ‘very quiet place’ (S17). They also expressed their wishes to visit more Chinese cities and experience their local customs. The following extract demonstrates such a positive impact:
As I told you, I need it (Chinese) for my personal use for me to move around…as well as you can travel to different cities. (S9, Ghanaian)
The final category within cultural interest is Chinese history and traditions. Interviewees’ desire to ‘know about Chinese culture’ (S19), experience the ‘Dragon Festival’ (S11) and ‘ancient-style clothing’ as well as interest in ‘Peking opera’ (S20) and ‘historical books’ (S1) significantly enhanced their positive emotions in the language learning journey.
When referring to the learner-external factor, the pedagogical context, such as teachers, peers, the university community and the classroom atmosphere, was highlighted as crucial to their emotional experiences. A majority of students highly appreciated their ‘patient’ (S21), ‘hardworking’ (S17), ‘kind’ (S11), ‘helpful’ (S4, 7, 10), and ‘encouraging’ (S1) teachers, which they believed have enhanced their positive learning experiences (see the extract from S24 as an example).
The teachers are very thoughtful. They teach us with great patience and diligence. We can message them even if it’s not during class time [at night]. (S24, Vietnamese)
However, some students, such as S16 and S28, pointed out that challenges in adjusting to Chinese teachers’ instructional methods or teaching styles might sometimes result in feelings of boredom.
When I started, some teaching methods or ways of memorising were difficult to adapt to. For example, we had to write each character five times. First, the character, then its pinyin, and its English translation, and so on. (S16, Equatorial Guinean) They affected, especially your teachers, your Chinese teachers or maybe your department, if it doesn’t deliver, he or she doesn’t deliver, it is difficult to learn, especially Chinese. If your teacher is not that good, the language becomes difficult and boring as well. (S28, Ghanaian)
Since participants in the study are from different majors, they sometimes have classes with domestic students. When they encounter comprehension difficulties with courses taught in Chinese, assistance from classmates becomes particularly valuable. The extract below from S12, who majors in preschool education, is an example.
I remember most of the help comes from the Chinese classmates. They help me to understand when I don’t understand something, I can ask them and they can tell me like, oh, this is…and this is…Even in my major, like when I face some problems. They help to correct this. (S12, Tanzanian)
In addition, the support that students receive from the host university can also contribute to positive emotions. For example, In the following extract, S27 mentioned that the university’s provision of online learning options after COVID-19 offered international students like himself increasing convenience and flexibility, thereby making the language learning more pleasant and enjoyable.
They (the university) organise well, they start Chinese classes every month. After Covid, he changed a lot of things…That change really helps us. (S27, Ivorian)
The final component of the pedagogical context is the supportive classroom atmosphere. CSL learners, for instance, S10, noted that he preferred to be in ‘a class that speaks a lot, where people understand they are there to learn’. As such, it can be inferred that positive emotions are likely to be developed when students are surrounded by individuals who are also active and hardworking.
To summarise, the impact of the three influencing factors on emotions can be complex and may differ from individual perceptions. While both questionnaire and interview data support the impacts of pedagogical context and cultural interest on emotions, the possible influence of attitudes towards the L2 community was identified in the qualitative stage. The next section will compare the findings with the existing scholarship and discuss the pedagogical implications based on the findings.
Discussion
This study offers a detailed account of CSL learners’ positive and negative emotions and the influencing factors. The EFA analyses of the two scales confirmed their construct validity and relevance to the CSL learning context. Results showcased that participants exhibited significantly higher levels of positive emotions than their negative counterparts, with enjoyment being the highest and boredom being the lowest. This supports previous findings on the role of positive emotions in facilitating language learning (Q. Wang & Jiang, 2021; L. Zhang & Tsung, 2021; X. Zhao et al., 2024). Featuring the Chinese language with significant typological differences from Western languages (Y. Gong et al., 2020), this study found that the language’s logographic writing systems and four tones could not only pose anxiety for its learners, especially those from alphabetic linguistic backgrounds (e.g., S7, 12) but also can be a major source of enjoyment (e.g., S10, 17). Notably, some relationships explored in this study differ from previous research. In particular, anxiety and enjoyment were found to have no significant relationship. This contrasts with research conducted in English learning settings (Shao et al., 2023; Shen et al., 2023), where a negative correlation is often observed. It is suggested that CSL learners experience both emotions simultaneously. Methods such as using online learning apps (e.g., HelloChinese) and interacting with native speakers outside the classroom, as suggested by the interviewees, may help alleviate anxious feelings in formal learning environments. Additionally, the negative correlations between enjoyment and boredom, as well as pride and boredom, indicate that even highly engaged and motivated students can experience boredom. This may result from a lack of classroom engagement, occasional learning bottlenecks and excessive homework distribution, as emerged from the qualitative data.
The other contribution of the study is the enhanced conceptualisation of pride and shame in the context of CSL learning. Although the two emotions are not as prominent as the three-body problems involving anxiety, enjoyment and boredom (J.-M. Dewaele et al., 2023), they did exist and could exert certain impacts on individual learning progress. Participants felt a sense of pride due to significant progress in Chinese language skills as well as a sense of fulfilment that goes beyond language proficiency, such as motivation, intelligence and learning strategies. Their pride can also be socially driven, including the ability to help people using the L2 and higher achievement than other CSL learners. On the other hand, shame was characterised by feelings of low self-worth, negative social judgement, and avoidance of social interactions. Even though interviewees rarely experienced it, it still requires attention from teachers, as it has the potential to impede students’ speaking practice, diminish self-confidence and possibly lead to the loss of long-term learning interest. Taking this into account, CSL teachers can increase students’ awareness of normalising mistakes and use small group cooperation and peer support instead of speaking in front of the whole class (Zhong, 2023). They can also encourage students by acknowledging their tiny achievements, using multimodal textual feedback such as images, colours and emojis (W. Li et al., 2024), by which their levels of shame can be reduced and their willingness to respond to teachers’ feedback can be promoted.
While RQ1 analyses the emotional experiences of CSL learners and the underlying factors contributing to each emotion, RQ2 explores the influencing factors that create the conditions for these emotions to arise. The external educational environment is the major determinant of enjoyment and boredom, whose respective positive and negative effects on enjoyment and boredom were in line with previous studies (e.g., J.-M. Dewaele & Dewaele, 2020; C. Li, 2025; Yeşilçınar & Erdemir, 2023). The results of the thematic analysis shed light on the critical role that teachers play in shaping CSL learners’ positive emotions. This is followed by classmates, the Chinese university community and the classroom atmosphere. However, there were students who perceived their teachers’ instructional methods (e.g., repetitive character memorisation) as hard to adapt to, which reduced their learning interest and resulted in boredom. One approach to reducing students’ disengagement in class can be employing a humour-based teaching strategy to transform the traditional Chinese classroom, where teacher authority, order and conformity hold more significance (Tong & Tsung, 2020). Teachers can encourage students to apply the taught language expressions to real-life practices as much as possible to increase their classroom participation and self-confidence.
The causal relationship between emotions and the two learner-internal factors is novel in the CSL context. CSL learners’ attitudes towards the L2 community had a significant and positive predictive effect on enjoyment and pride, indicating that the friendly and welcoming environment of the host country can indeed promote international students’ well-being. The follow-up interviews indicate that the lifestyle and social atmosphere in China continuously influences participants, which can be understood through the lens of their cultural backgrounds. Given most students are from the Asian and African countries involved in China’s Belt and Road initiative, they have significantly benefitted from China’s construction, transportation, financial and technological assistance and investments. It can be reasonably inferred that stable and friendly relationships have been established between China and these countries (H. Chen, 2016; X. Gong, 2019). Therefore, they are likely to develop positive attitudes and emotions while studying and living in China. Nevertheless, some students also expressed their difficulty understanding Chinese regional dialects when they go out and interact with native Chinese speakers, which somehow contributes to their anxiety. This supports Jiang and Dewaele (2019), highlighting that anxiety can be closely related to situational and sociolinguistic factors. Cultural interest, the second learner-internal factor examined in this study, did not show a significant predictive impact on emotions during the quantitative phase. However, it proved to be effective in promoting positive emotions as conveyed by the voices of CSL learners. Students’ interests can range from media and entertainment to travel and the history and traditions of China. While previous studies, often featuring EFL learners, emphasised the outweighing role of the educational environment (e.g., Myhre et al., 2023; Yeşilçınar & Erdemir, 2023), this study emphasises that attitudes and interests can also play a critical role in facilitating positive emotions.
Conclusion
This study investigated CSL learners’ emotional experiences and influencing factors. The quantitative and qualitative findings reveal that positive emotions are more influential to CSL learners. Despite the well-researched emotions of anxiety, enjoyment and boredom in language learning, pride and shame are also significant and can be grouped into various dimensions. When it comes to the antecedents of emotions, results reveal attitudes towards the L2 community and cultural interests internal to learners can exert distinct impacts on emotions. Language learners can benefit from immersing themselves in the target language community, engaging in conversations with L2 speakers to practice their skills, as well as exploring cultural products and travelling to different Chinese cities to experience local customs. However, they sometimes may encounter difficulties understanding Chinese regional dialects during their stay in China. In this case, using technologies to translate and seeking help from teachers and domestic students can be helpful. Moreover, this study further acknowledged the role that the external educational context plays in shaping positive and negative emotions. Results confirm that care and support from teachers, friends and the university community are essential to promoting CSL learners’ positive emotions and alleviating boredom in the context of study abroad. Nevertheless, there are several limitations of the present study. First, this study lacks the cultural diversity of participants since most students are from Asian and African countries. Therefore, future studies may adopt different sampling methods to compare how students’ emotions may vary across multiple cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Second, the limited number of participants (N = 231) can impact the generation of the study results in a broader context. Third, this study examines the direct relationships between emotions and the learner-internal and learner-external factors without including their Chinese language learning proficiency, achievement, or socio-economic backgrounds into consideration. Future studies may perform mediation analysis to examine how emotions can be shaped by other individual difference variables such as learning strategies and motivations. Finally, this study was conducted at only one Chinese university, which limited the generalisation of results. Future research can compare the emotions of Chinese language learners across various learning environments.
Footnotes
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data Availability Statement
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.