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Abstract

In the modern knowledge economy, students often face the challenge of balancing academic responsibilities with physical activity, which may influence academic performance depending on the time and energy invested. Despite existing studies, there is still a lack of clarity regarding the impact of time and energy expenditure in physical activity on academic performance, especially in terms of how time is allocated between study and physical activity. To comprehensively investigate the relationship between physical activity and academic performance, the purpose of this study was to examine how time allocation and energy expenditure on physical activity influence university students’ academic success, a parallel mixed-methods research design. From a quantitative perspective, a questionnaire was conducted with 845 university students to measure physical activity duration, energy consumption, and GPA. From a qualitative perspective, 20 university students with a physical activity routine were selected as cases to discuss the impact of physical activity on academic performance. The quantitative findings underscore that physical activity does not significantly negatively impact university students’ academic performance. On the contrary, dedicating an appropriate amount of time and effort to physical activity may yield potential positive effects. Similarly, the qualitative results reinforce these benefits, indicating that engaging in physical activity promotes effective time management (e.g., time optimization and scheduling) and stress reduction, indirectly supporting academic success. Additionally, long-term participation in physical activity improves overall physical health and cognitive abilities, both of which are critical for academic achievement.

Plain Language Summary

How exercise time and effort affect students’ academic performance

In today’s world, students need to master a large amount of knowledge to succeed. However, there is concern that spending too much time or energy on physical activities could harm academic performance. Many studies have looked at the connection between physical activity and academic success, but the results are still unclear, particularly when it comes to how much time and energy students should dedicate to exercise. This study aimed to better understand how physical activity, including the amount of time spent and energy used, affects students’ academic performance. To do this, we used a parallel mixed-methods research design. We surveyed 845 university students to collect data on how long they spend on physical activity, how much energy they use, and their academic performance (measured by GPA). Additionally, we interviewed 20 students who regularly engage in physical activity to gain deeper insights into their experiences. The results showed that students who spend a reasonable amount of time and energy on physical activities tend to have slightly better academic performance, although the difference is not significant. The interviews supported these findings, revealing that most students use their free time for exercise rather than cutting into study time. Physical activity helped students relax, stay healthy, and improve their time management skills, which may lead to better learning efficiency in the long run. Exercise also boosted their confidence, fostered peer connections, and improved thinking skills, all of which contributed to their academic success.

Keywords

academic performance university students energy expenditure mixed methods physical activity time allocation

Introduction

Several historical sources (Demirel & Yildiran, 2013; Kruszewski, 2023) highlight the significant role of physical movement in early societies, such as its importance in avoiding predators in primitive times, being one of the primary methods of education for ancient Greek aristocrats, and preparing for combat in Sparta. However, with the transition of societies into the modern era, the role and status of physical education shifted with the increasing demand for specialized knowledge and academic achievement. As education evolved to meet the demands of the modern economy (Ramirez & Meyer, 1980), academic achievement became the primary focus, and physical education was increasingly sidelined (S. M. Lee et al., 2007). In contrast to ancient times, where physical education was integral, the modern educational system faces new challenges, particularly regarding the balance between academic demands and physical activity. Pennington and Wolfe (2022) noted that certain school laws and policies in the United States have adversely affected physical education. These policies have contributed to its decreasing prioritization. However, recent research has shown that there is no inherent contradiction between physical activity participation and academic success. Improving academic performance should not come at the expense of reducing participation in physical activity (Carlson et al., 2008).

Literature Review

The research on the relationship between physical activity and academic performance originated from the perceived conflict between them. While academic achievement gained importance, the potential “conflict” between academic demands and physical activity participation emerged, with concerns about excessive time and energy expenditures affecting academic performance (Cosh & Tully, 2015; Dwyer et al., 1983; Trudeau & Shephard, 2008).

However, very few studies have reported significant adverse effects of physical activity on academic performance. A study with 232 boys and girls from grades 8 to 11 (ages 13–16) assessed the relationship between frequency and duration of participation in sports-based physical activities and scores in English, Mathematics, and Science. Overall, no significant correlations were found in this study, and only weak negative correlations were observed between the amount of time in physical activity and English scores for children ages 13, 14, and 16 years (Daley & Ryan, 2000). Another study examined the relationship between children’s reported levels of physical activity, and reading and mathematics scores among 6,923 sixth graders in Canada, controlling for sex, family structure, and socioeconomic status. Results revealed no significant and negative relationships between physical activity and academic achievement in reading and mathematics (Tremblay et al., 2000). In a longitudinal study examining the relationship between physical activity and academic achievement in elementary school students, Carlson et al. (2008) found no negative impact of physical activity on academic performance. They argued that concerns about the adverse effects of physical activity on academic achievement may not be a valid reason for restricting students from participation in physical activity (Carlson et al., 2008). Similarly, a 3-year project called the Academic Achievement and Physical Activity Across the Curriculum Intervention (A + PAAC) was conducted, and the results showed that physical activity in the classroom did not negatively impact students’ academic achievement over the 3-year period of study (Donnelly et al., 2017).

In contrast, another trend suggests a mutually reinforcing relationship between physical activity and academic performance. Several mechanisms substantiate this standpoint. One reason is related to fitness health, with a positive relationship between physical fitness and academic performance (Zhai et al., 2022). A cross-sectional study conducted with a convenient sample of children aged 9 to 13 years in Spain collected data on physical activity, physical fitness, executive function, and academic achievement to explore their relationships, and the results indicated that doing physical activity regularly improves physical health, which in turn enhanced cognitive skills and academic performance (Muntaner-Mas et al., 2022). Similarly, in another study tracking 463 seventh-grade students (227 girls and 236 boys) over a 2-year period, data on physical activity participation, type of sport, academic performance, and other relevant information were collected at baseline and after a 2-year follow-up. Results revealed that participating in specific physical activity programs significantly benefited adolescents’ academic performance, mediated by cardiorespiratory fitness (Ishihara et al., 2020). Additionally, a stronger positive correlation was found between flexibility and academic performance than endurance (Yamatsu, 2017).

The second reason may be linked to positive psychological factors. Tremblay et al. (2000) mentioned that physical activity may indirectly enhance academic performance by improving physical health and self-esteem for children. A review has indicated that engagement in physical activity has been positively associated with numerous dimensions of psychological affective development (Bailey et al., 2009), especially self-esteem (Biddle & Asare, 2011; Fox, 2003). High self-esteem is considered a desirable outcome in itself, and an important mediator for enhancing other positive psychological variables (Groth-Marnat, 2003). A study found that academically successful and physically active boys exhibited higher self-esteem (Yu et al., 2006). This suggested that engaging in physical activity and achieving academic success may share some positive psychology indexes and could be transferred and mutually influence each other.

The last reason deals with cognition. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses on this topic have consistently shown that regular physical activity can improve children’s cognitive function (Donnelly et al., 2016; Fedewa & Ahn, 2011; Singh et al., 2012; Tomporowski et al., 2008), thereby academic performance. One study published in Science highlighted the positive effects of physical development activities (as shown by the positive effects of aerobics, martial arts, and yoga) on executive function, which is crucial for creativity and academic performance (Diamond & Lee, 2011). Using electroencephalographic (EEG) activity records, Hillman et al. (2009) found that acute bouts of moderately-intense aerobic exercise positively impacted preadolescent children’s cognitive control, potentially enhancing academic performance. Besides that, there are several hypothesized mechanisms for the cognitive benefits of physical activity. One aspect involves the growth factors and synaptic plasticity, which could facilitate nerve regeneration through regular physical activity (Hillman et al., 2008). Another is about the increased blood and oxygen flow to the brain. Through the near-infrared spectroscopy, it was found that oxygenation of the prefrontal cortex might be the reason for physical activity promoting cognitive function (Endo et al., 2013). The third one is about the increase of brain-derived neurotrophic factor as well as catecholamines (dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine), which more sustained levels during learning after intense exercise were related to better short-term learning success (Winter et al., 2007). In other words, there may be a synergistic development in participating in physical activity and achieving academic success, indicating a collaborative promotion for certain brain conditions.

Although existing research explored the relationship between physical activity and academic performance, several gaps remained in the literature. Firstly, despite extensive research across cross-sectional and experimental studies, a systematic review highlighted divergent findings, with some researchers reporting a positive correlation while others found no significant relationship (Rasberry et al., 2011). It remains a lack of consensus on the impact of physical activity on academic performance. This implies that different outcomes might have arisen in diverse populations with different emphases.

Secondly, existing research has insufficiently addressed widespread concerns that devoting excessive time and energy to physical activity might detract from academic pursuits. Consequently, when discussing physical activity and academic performance, the public often leans toward reducing physical activity to preserve academic performance.

Thirdly, while many of these studies were quantitative and identified the relationship between physical activity and academic performance, they often lacked an exploration into the subjective perceptions of students engaged in physical activity. This absence may hinder resonance with the general public, who struggle to relate it to their lives. Moreover, several studies were implemented through interventionist strategies rather than observing physical activity in naturalistic contexts, potentially affecting the genuine understanding of its impact on academic achievement. This methodological approach may overlook the real-world dynamics and complexities influencing the relationship between physical activity and academic performance.

Fourthly, contemporary studies primarily centered on primary and secondary school students, offering limited attention to university students. Nevertheless, students, possessing heightened subjective awareness and greater autonomy in distributing time and energy between physical activity and academic pursuits, warranted a more profound investigation. Delving into research within this demographic might have yielded a more comprehensive understanding of the nuanced relationship between physical activity and academic performance.

Despite extensive research on physical activity and academic performance, few studies have specifically addressed the role of physical activity duration and energy expenditure, which are at the core of conflicting findings in this area. This study aimed to examine how both physical activity duration and energy expenditure influence academic performance among university students. A parallel mixed-methods design was employed to integrate qualitative and quantitative components, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship. The rationale for using this mixed-methods approach was twofold: first, to triangulate findings from both data types, thereby enhancing the reliability of the conclusions, and second, to provide a richer, more nuanced interpretation by combining objective quantitative data with in-depth qualitative insights.

From a quantitative perspective, the study examined the relationship between physical activity duration, energy expenditure, and academic performance, with a particular focus on identifying potential threshold effects. Specifically, two hypotheses were tested: (H1) physical activity does not have a significant detrimental effect on academic performance, and (H2) moderate levels of physical activity duration and energy expenditure positively affect academic performance. From a qualitative perspective, the study utilized case studies of students who are passionate about physical activity and demonstrate strong academic performance. These case studies explored how regular physical activity, particularly in relation to duration and energy expenditure, influences their subjective perceptions on academic performance.

Materials & Methods

Research Design

A critical aspect of this study was the use of a convergent design within a parallel mixed-methods framework, enabling the simultaneous collection and analysis of quantitative and qualitative data to address a unified research question: how do the duration and intensity of physical activity influence academic performance? This approach ensured equal emphasis on both data types, allowing for a comprehensive and integrated exploration of the research problem.

Methods and results were intentionally separated during reporting to maintain methodological rigor. Quantitative data from a large-scale survey provided generalizable evidence on PA thresholds linked to academic performance improvements. Concurrently, qualitative data from in-depth case studies offered rich, contextual insights into students’ experiences, highlighting the mechanisms through which PA influences academic outcomes.

The discussion phase integrated all findings. It synthesized broad, generalizable patterns from the quantitative data, complemented by nuanced, individual narratives from the qualitative strand, providing a holistic understanding of the relationship. This integration exemplified the strengths of the convergent design, offering a holistic understanding of how the duration and intensity of PA jointly shape academic trajectories. By leveraging the complementary nature of both methods, the study ensured methodological robustness and reinforced the validity of its conclusions.

Approval for the study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board for Human Research Protections at Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China, and it adhered to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. Before the research, informed consent was obtained from each participant.

Survey

Participants

To mitigate variations in academic achievement evaluation methods across different schools and ensure access to more data and resources, convenience sampling was employed to recruit participants from a single university in China. Freshman students were excluded because they had not yet established academic records, such as GPA. A power analysis was conducted for the linear regression with a total sample size of 567, α level of .05, and 1-β of .095. A total of 948 questionnaires were initially collected. After applying detailed screening criteria, 843 valid responses were retained, yielding an 89% response rate. The detailed screening criteria were explained in the statistical process. Demographic information was detailed as follows: The sample comprised 205 females (24.4%) and 638 males (75.6%). The mean age was 19.58 years, with a standard deviation of 0.94. Concerning academic year distribution, the majority of participants were in sophomore year (628 individuals, 74.5%), followed by junior and senior years, constituting 142 individuals (16.8%) and 73 individuals (8.7%), respectively.

Measures

A questionnaire collected information on basic demographics, including gender, age, grade, and hometown.

Academic performance was measured by GPA in the 2023 spring and fall semesters, obtained on a 4.3-point GPA scale. The questions were posed directly, “What is your GPA for the spring semester” and “what is your GPA for the fall semester.” To avoid errors due to an extended period and to correspond to students’ recent physical activity situations during the semester, the difference between the GPAs of the two semesters was calculated for analysis, reflecting academic performance during a specific time. Compared to a single semester’s GPA, this approach reduces potential inaccuracies. First, it mitigates the influence of varying periods across participants from different grade levels. Furthermore, given the fluctuating nature of physical activity levels, relying on data from an extended period may lead to discrepancies that fail to accurately capture students’ current activity levels.

The time allocation and energy expenditures of physical activity were measured by the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) short version (IPAQ, 2002). This validated and examined brief survey is considered relatively suitable for the current demographic (Gao et al., 2022; P. H. Lee et al., 2011), providing a straightforward and efficient means of inquiry. The IPAQ defines physical activity intensities as follows (IPAQ, 2002). Vigorous intensity activities include heavy lifting, digging, aerobics, or fast bicycling. Moderate intensity activities refer to activities that take moderate physical effort and make you breathe somewhat harder than normal. Walking (low intensity) includes activities at work and at home, walking to travel from place to place, and any other walking done solely for recreation, sport, exercise, or leisure. Sedentary behavior encompasses periods spent at work, at home, during coursework, and in leisure activities, involving sitting at a desk, visiting friends, reading, or sitting or lying down to watch television. Among students, sedentary behavior primarily consists of sitting during academic study sessions and engaging in screen-based activities.

The duration of physical activities was measured by questions regarding the time spent on various intensity levels of physical activities. For example, participants were asked, “How much time did you usually spend doing vigorous physical activities on one of those days?” To determine total daily physical activity duration, the aggregated times from the questions about the duration of vigorous, moderate, and walking activities were utilized. Sedentary time was computed based on the responses to the sedentary time question.

Energy expenditure was calculated using the provided method in the IPAQ short questionnaire. Weekly engagement in different intensity levels of physical activity was determined by multiplying the MET corresponding to each activity’s intensity by the frequency per week (days/week) and the duration per day (minutes/day). High-intensity activities were assigned a MET value of 8, moderate intensity was given a value of 4, walking (low intensity) received a value of 3.3, and sedentary behavior was assigned a value of 1. Based on the calculated levels of physical activity (IPAQ, 2005), participants were categorized into three groups: high, moderate, and low physical activity levels. The specific criteria for each group are as follows:

High Activity Group: Participants in this group met at least one of the following criteria:

Engaged in high-intensity physical activity for a total of ≥3 days, with a weekly total physical activity level of ≥1,500 MET-min/week.

Engaged in activities of all three intensities for a total of ≥7 days, with a weekly total physical activity level of ≥3,000 MET-min/week.

Moderate Activity Group: Participants in this group met at least one of the following criteria:

Engaged in at least 20 min of high-intensity physical activity for a total of ≥3 days.

Engaged in at least 30 min of moderate-intensity activity and/or walking for a total of ≥5 days.

Engaged in activities of all three intensities for a total of ≥5 days, with a weekly total physical activity level of ≥600 MET-min/week.

Low Activity Group: Participants in this group met at least one of the following criteria:

Reported no physical activity.

Reported some physical activity, but did not meet the criteria for the moderate or high activity groups.

In this study, we did not explicitly measure potential confounding factors. Given the complex nature of academic performance, where multiple variables can influence outcomes, it would be challenging to control for all possible factors. Therefore, we focused on participants from a single university, which allowed us to control for basic contextual variables and strengthen the internal validity of the study.

Data Analysis Process

SPSS 26 was utilized for data analysis. Prior to the formal use of the data, and to ensure its accuracy and applicability, this study performed data cleaning and outlier removal. The specific procedures are as follows (IPAQ, 2005):

Convert the daily cumulative duration of each activity into minutes and exclude individuals with missing data on activity frequency or duration.

Based on the reported sleep duration of university students and the recommendations provided by the IPAQ, it is assumed that each individual requires a minimum of 8 hr of sleep per day. If an individual reports a total cumulative physical activity time exceeding 960 min (16 hr/day), their data will be considered anomalous and excluded.

Given that each bout of physical activity must last at least 10 min to provide health benefits, activities with a cumulative duration of less than 10 min will have both their duration and weekly frequency recoded as 0. To minimize the impact of extreme values, if the duration of any activity intensity exceeds 3 hr per day, the time will be recoded to 180 min.

In the actual calculation process, the dependent variable was represented by the difference between GPAs of two semesters rather than the GPA of one semester, to mitigate interference from behavior changes over a more extended period. Scores were transformed into Z-scores before computing the differences, avoiding scale differences of GPAs for two semesters. All data involved in the calculations underwent Z-score transformation to mitigate the impact of different scales on the model.

Descriptive analysis was initiated to portray the GPA status and physical activity profile of the participant group. Subsequently, Pearson correlation tests were conducted to examine relationships between variables. Finally, regression analyses were performed. Two steps were constructed to progressively explore the specific impact of physical activity duration on academic performance. In step 1, the independent variables included total physical activity duration (sum of low, moderate, and vigorous intensity durations) and total sedentary duration. In step 2, Restricted cubic splines (RCS) were used to explore the non-linear effects of physical activity duration on academic performance, allowing for a more flexible assessment of the dose-response relationship. The dependent variables were the GPA differences between the two semesters. Covariates, including demographic variables (gender, grade, age) and GPA in the fall semester, were controlled.

Two additional models were constructed to further explore the specific impact of physical activity energy expenditure on academic performance. The independent variables included total physical activity energy expenditure (the sum of low, moderate, and vigorous intensity expenditures) and total sedentary energy expenditure. Furthermore, categorical variables representing low, moderate, and vigorous intensity energy expenditures were transformed into dummy variables, with sedentary behavior (no physical activity energy expenditure) serving as the reference category. To assess the non-linear effects of physical activity energy expenditure on academic performance, Restricted cubic splines (RCS) were applied. For these two models, the dependent variable for both models was the difference in GPA between the two semesters. Covariates, including demographic variables (gender, grade, age) and GPA from the fall semester, were controlled for in the analysis.

Case Study

Participants

Twenty students, aged between 21 and 26 years, including three males and 17 females, were purposefully selected from universities in China. The recruitment process involved a combination of convenience sampling and snowball sampling methods, allowing us to include participants who met the study’s criteria within a reachable scope. These participants had gained admission to a prestigious university through the National College Entrance Examination and had a substantial history of participating in various physical activities such as basketball, track and field, table tennis, taekwondo, and swimming, having been involved in national sports competitions in China. The specific details of the participants were provided in Table 1. To ensure data richness and comprehensiveness, the recruitment continued until theoretical saturation was reached, meaning no new information or themes emerged from the interviews, thereby confirming that the sample size was sufficient for the study’s purposes.

Table 1.

Demographics of Participants in the Case Study.

Participant	Age	Gender	Major	Educational background
A1	21	F	Electric Engineering & Automation	UG
A2	21	F	Physics	UG
A3	23	M	Rehabilitation Therapy	UG
A4	20	F	Software Engineering	UG
A5	20	F	Engineering Mechanics	UG
A6	25	F	Mathematical Sciences	G
A7	21	F	Computer Science & Technology	UG
A8	21	F	Computer Science & Technology	UG
A9	21	F	Medical Testing	UG
A10	23	F	Journalism	UG
A11	24	F	Journalism	G
A12	26	F	Public Services & Utilities Management	G
A13	25	F	Human Kinesiology	G
A14	21	F	Economic Planning & Management	UG
A15	21	F	Material Science & Engineering	UG
A16	21	F	Journalism	UG
A17	20	F	Pharmacy	UG
A18	21	M	-	UG
A19	21	M	-	UG
A20	20	F	-	UG

Note. A18, A19, and A20 pertain to majors that require confidentiality. F = female; M = male; UG = undergraduate; G = graduate; G(Ph.D.) = doctor candidate.

Data Collection

In-depth semi-structured interviews served as the primary method for data collection, complemented by informal interviews and observations to ensure comprehensive data gathering. To enhance the validity and reliability of the findings, a triangulation approach was adopted, integrating data from multiple sources (interviews and informal interactions). This method allowed for cross-verification of the information collected, providing a more robust and nuanced understanding of the participants’ experiences and perspectives.

During the formal semi-structured interviews, participants were reminded that participation in the study was voluntary, and their interviews would be audio recorded. Assurances were given regarding the confidentiality of the interviews, emphasizing that it was neither a test nor an assessment that would impact them. The researchers clarified the purpose of the study, emphasizing the absence of “right” or “wrong” answers. The interviews varied in duration, ranging from 30 to 60 min, and were conducted in person at mutually convenient times. Following the interviews, researchers transcribed the recordings and provided the transcripts to participants for accuracy verification, prioritizing privacy protection.

The interviews were conducted individually and followed a specific outline:

Please share your experiences with physical activities and education.

What conflicts did you encounter between your educational and physical activities at different stages?

How did you go about resolving these conflicts?

What impacts do you believe these experiences had on your future?

To enrich the data collection process, the researcher actively participated in participants’ activities, with their consent, and simultaneously conducted informal interviews and observations. The duration of the informal interviews ranged from 10 min to 1 hr, depending on the activity, such as casual conversations during shared meals. Friends of the interviewees were allowed to be present and contribute insights. This approach was implemented to nurture a relaxed and comfortable communication environment, maximizing participant engagement. The involvement of friends played a crucial role in establishing a supportive context, fostering open dialog, and ensuring a more comprehensive understanding of the participants’ experiences.

Data Analysis

The interview data were transcribed verbatim, capturing both verbal and nonverbal behaviors such as pauses and laughter to ensure a comprehensive understanding of participants’ experiences. All interviews were conducted in Mandarin and translated into English. To ensure translation accuracy, multiple reviews were conducted by English-major students, with ambiguities resolved through discussion. These steps enhanced the reliability and fidelity of the data.

Thematic analysis was chosen for its flexibility and suitability for identifying patterns of meaning in qualitative data, aligning with the study’s objective of exploring the nuanced effects of physical activity on academic performance. A systematic six-step process was implemented, with measures to ensure trustworthiness and credibility embedded throughout.

The first step, familiarization, involved the research team immersing themselves in the data by repeatedly reading the transcripts to identify key patterns. Multiple researchers conducted independent reviews to ensure consistent interpretations, reducing potential bias. In the second step, generating initial codes, the team created initial codes by systematically labeling and categorizing data segments related to participants’ experiences with physical activity and academic performance. Reflexivity was considered during this step, as the primary researcher’s background as both a professional athlete and a doctoral student in this field may have influenced the interpretation of certain data. To mitigate potential bias, the research team included individuals with diverse backgrounds, such as a doctoral student not specializing in sports and professional athletes, and consulted external experts. Independent coding was performed by the primary researcher and an external qualitative expert, with discrepancies discussed and resolved collaboratively to enhance credibility. In the third step, theme development, the initial codes were grouped into preliminary themes based on shared characteristics. Team discussions and cross-checks with the original data ensured that the identified themes accurately reflected participants’ narratives. The fourth step, reviewing themes, involved a rigorous evaluation of the identified themes to refine and confirm their accuracy. This process included additional validation by an independent researcher, who compared interpretations with the research team to ensure consistency. In the fifth step, defining and naming themes, each theme was precisely articulated to encapsulate its core meaning, with further refinements made during team discussions to ensure clarity and consistency. Finally, in the sixth step, synthesis and reporting, the themes were synthesized into a comprehensive report, providing an in-depth understanding of the positive effects of physical activity on academic performance (Clarke et al., 2015). Table 2 presented categories, themes, and verbatim examples from the interviews for illustration.

Table 2.

Categories, Themes, and Verbatim Examples From the Interviews.

Category and theme	Verbatim example
Enhance time management skills
Time optimization	Our team does not allow us to take leave for studying purposes, except during exam periods. To attend sports training on time, I have to manage my time efficiently and complete my academic tasks promptly. (A7)
Time scheduling	I cannot dedicate all of my time to one thing. I have to manage my time effectively. For instance, if I am currently preparing for a sports competition, I may allocate 80% of my time to it, involving training, learning tactics, stretching, nutrition preparation, mental adjustments, and even rest. These activities are all directly related to the competition. However, once the competition is over, I will shift my focus to studying, such as writing articles, analyzing data. (A13)

Results

Quantitative Findings

Table 3 presented descriptive statistics (maximum, minimum, mean, and standard deviation) and the correlation matrix for variables. Overall, there were no significant differences in GPA between each semester. In terms of duration, sedentary behavior was the norm and occupied the majority of time, excluding sleep. Examining energy expenditure, sedentary behavior accounted for a significant portion, while in physical activities, although the duration of energy expenditure was shorter, their higher MET values resulted in a noticeable energy expenditure.

Table 3.

Descriptiveness and Correlation of Each Variable.

	MIN	MAX	M	SD	1	2	3^a	4^b	5	6^c	7
1	1.000	4.300	3.378	0.478	1
2	1.600	4.300	3.393	0.433	0.871**	1
3	−3.120	2.670	0.000	0.507	−0.254**	0.254**	1
4	0.000	22,386.000	4,515.706	2,129.545	0.048	0.042	−0.012	1
5	0.000	6,720.000	2,794.196	1,160.251	0.081*	0.090**	0.017	0.443**	1
6	0.000	3,660.000	384.792	398.324	0.021	0.019	−0.004	0.801**	−0.097**	1
7	0.000	6,720.000	2,794.200	1,160.251	0.081*	0.090**	0.017	0.443**	1**^d	−0.097**	1

Note. The unit for physical activity level is MET-hours, and the unit for physical activity time is minutes. 1 = GPA (spring); 2 = GPA (fall); 3 = ΔGPA; 4 = physical activity level (total); 5 = physical activity level (sedentary); 6 = physical activity time (total); 7 = physical activity time (sedentary).

The standardized difference between standard GPA (Fall) and standard GPA (Spring).

The sum of the physical activity for vigorous, moderate, and low-intensity activities.

The total time spent on vigorous, moderate, and low-intensity physical activities.

Since the MET for sedentary activities is 1, the physical activity for sedentary activities is calculated by multiplying the sedentary physical activity time by 1 MET.

p < .01; *p < .05.

The correlation matrix revealed significant positive correlations among GPA-related variables and significant positive correlations among physical activities-related variables. However, there was a significant negative correlation between physical activities-related variables and sedentary behavior.

In the initial predictive modeling using physical activities duration and sedentary duration as independent variables, no significant positive effects on academic performance were observed (Table 4). Restricted cubic splines (Figure 1) revealed a potential inverted U-shaped relationship between physical activity duration and academic performance. Moderate levels of PA duration were positively correlated with academic outcomes, reaching a peak at 316.8188. These findings highlighted the nuanced role of moderate physical activity in academic achievement, underscoring the importance of maintaining an appropriate balance to achieve optimal benefits.

Table 4.

The Impact of the Duration of Physical Activities on Academic Performance.

	B	SE	Beta	t	P	q	CI
Model 1
Constant	1.324	0.553		2.395	.017*
Physical activity	0.024	0.017	.047	1.393	.164	0.219	[−0.012, 0.058]
Sedentary	0.006	0.017	.011	0.325	.745	0.851	[−0.031, 0.037]
R²	0.08
F	10.409***

Note. All data are calculated using standardized z-scores; the unit for physical activity duration is minutes. Covariance: gender, age, grade, GPA(Spring); dependent variable: ΔGPA, calculated as the GPA in the spring semester minus the GPA in the fall semester.

***

p < .001; *p < .05.

Figure 1.

The relationship between physical activity duration and GPA using a restricted cubic spline regression.

Similarly, in the analysis using energy expenditure from physical activities and sedentary behavior as independent variables, no significant effects on academic performance were observed (Table 5). Physical activities showed a negative correlation, while sedentary behavior indicated a positive correlation. Further exploration involved breaking down physical activity energy expenditure into different intensity levels to investigate its impact on academic performance. Compared to sedentary behavior (the reference category), low-, moderate-, and high-intensity physical activities all showed associations with improved academic performance, with a general upward trend observed across all levels. However, none of these associations reached statistical significance. Notably, moderate-intensity physical activity exhibited the highest coefficient, suggesting the strongest association with academic performance among the various intensity levels, although the overall results were not statistically significant. Restricted cubic splines (Figure 2) analysis further confirmed this result, revealing an M-shaped relationship between physical activity energy expenditure and academic performance. A positive association with academic performance was observed at below 2,649.12, and between 4,354.42 and 6,829.85. However, as physical activity energy expenditure increased between 2,649.12 and 4,354.42, and exceeded 6,829.85, the relationship reversed, showing a decline in academic performance. These findings emphasize the importance of maintaining an optimal level of PA intensity to achieve the best academic outcomes.

Table 5.

The Impact of Physical Activity Energy Expenditure on Academic Performance.

	B	SE	Beta	t	p	q	CI
Model 1
Constant	1.203	0.448		2.683	.007	0.019
Sedentary	0.027	0.019	.053	1.431	.153	0.159	[−0.047, 0.029]
Physical activity	−0.009	0.019	−.017	−0.462	.644	0.842	[−0.013, 0.065]
R²	0.076
F	11.382***
Model 2
Constant	1.228	0.556		2.209	.027	0.027
Low	0.034	0.053	.033	0.642	.521	0.521	[−0.055, 0.118]
Moderate	0.077	0.064	.055	1.198	.231	0.231	[−0.042, 0.188]
High	0.040	0.067	.027	0.596	.551	0.551	[−0.08, 0.158]
Non-participation (reference)
R²	0.08
F	9.032***

Note. All data are calculated using standardized z-scores; the unit for physical activity duration is minutes. Covariance: gender, age, grade, GPA (Spring); dependent variable: ΔGPA, calculated as the GPA in the spring semester minus the GPA in the fall semester.

***

p < .001.

Figure 2.

The relationship between physical activity level and GPA using a restricted cubic spline regression.

While the quantitative analysis showed no significant direct effects of physical activity on academic performance, the qualitative findings suggest that physical activity may potentially influence academic performance indirectly through some factors.

Qualitative Findings

Consistent with the quantitative findings, participants repeatedly emphasized the profound impact of dedicating a certain amount of time to moderate physical activity, including the following aspects:

Time Management Skills

While it was commonly believed that spending time on physical activity might encroach upon study time, participants in this study expressed a different perspective, suggesting that it primarily replaced leisure time, such as playing video games. Therefore, physical activity did not detract from their academic time, but instead, by promoting a healthier lifestyle, and enhanced their ability to manage time effectively. One participant noted,

“I believe that sports training is actually urging me… Our team has consistently held the top rank in our province for several years. This year is the time for team transition, since the seniors will graduate. As a member, it becomes my responsibility to maintain our team’s position, which requires giving my all in every training session. However, completing my studies on time is a prerequisite for me to have enough time for training… Training serves as a positive incentive in my life. I might spend my entire day entertaining myself without focusing on my studies, if I do not engage in training. But now, I have to finish my study on time for training.” (A7)

In summary, dedicating moderate time to physical activities did not necessarily encroach upon academic time; instead, participating in sports training motivated participants to develop robust time management skills. The ability to balance academic commitments with training demands required effective prioritization and time allocation, ultimately contributing to overall success in both academics and athletics.

Moreover, in addition to time management, dedicating moderate effort to physical activity also played a crucial role in recharging the mind, helping participants maintain mental clarity and focus.

Recharging the Mind

Excessive physical activity may deplete energy and lead to fatigue, but most participants shared experiences of feeling relaxed after moderate physical activities. By temporarily diverting their attention from academic demands, they were able to mentally and physically recharge, which, in turn, improved their study efficiency. One participant shared,

“We usually undergo training in the afternoon. Before that, I have to sit in front of the computer, studying motionlessly. During that time, I often feel irritable and eagerly look forward to any physical activities. It allows me to momentarily forget about tasks and assignments, and fully relax. After completing the training and returning to my studies, I feel a sense of mental clarity, making it easier to handle the difficulties.” (A16)

In summary, engaging in moderate physical activity did not deplete energy for studying; instead, it provided valuable mental relaxation, contributing to enhanced learning efficiency.

In addition to the benefits mentioned above, long-term engagement in physical activity at a moderate intensity and duration also brings potential advantages, such as improved physical fitness, enhanced confidence, and cognitive development.

Physical Fitness

Maintaining consistent moderate physical activity was recognized by participants as crucial for improving both physical and mental well-being over time. The long-term benefits of engaging in physical activity were evident in the enhanced fitness levels and overall health of the participants. As one participant (A14) shared,

“My body is getting stronger and stronger because of exercising and training. In our field, it is common to work overtime. With my improved physical condition, I am better equipped to work, and outperform my colleagues.” This improvement in physical fitness not only enhanced their ability to perform physically but also boosted their mental resilience and work performance.

Another participant (A15) further supported this notion, recalling their experience with physical activity during school years:

“My body is not as strong as hers (A14). I was weak and sick when I was born. But my physical fitness improved after engaging in physical activities during middle school, which resulted in a better body condition for studying. During high school, I arrived at school at six in the morning, and attended classes until ten in the evening without feeling sleepy. I mean, I did not take any naps throughout the day. At that time, I thought this was a common occurrence, but my supervisor told me that I was the only one who did not doze.”

Long-term dedication to moderate physical activity at an appropriate intensity significantly improves physical fitness. For students, the physical improvements translated into increased dedication and stamina for academic tasks, ultimately enhancing their academic performance.

Confidence and Cognitive Development

Participants shared how their ongoing involvement in moderate physical activity played a crucial role in building both their confidence and cognitive abilities. The consistent engagement fostered a mindset of growth and resilience, which positively impacted their academic performance.

One participant described their experience with basketball, emphasizing how it helped them develop confidence and a growth-oriented mindset:

“Playing basketball gives me a unique sense of unlimited possibilities. For instance, if I fail to make a layup (a term in basketball) this time, I know I will have another opportunity, and will succeed next time. This also applies to my exams. Failing one exam does not mean I am not capable, I still have another chance to perform well with my capabilities. Overall, basketball instills in me the confidence that I can overcome any challenge, even if I stumble along the way. Admitting failure is not easy for me because I always believe in the potential for improvement and success… Moreover, playing basketball nurtures a sense of endless possibilities within me. I enjoy progressing and pushing my capabilities further. For instance, once I have mastered a jump shot (a term in basketball), I challenge myself to execute a jump shot with a spin (a term in basketball). Once I have acquired that skill, I seek out other movements with even greater difficulty. The process of attempting new skills is never-ending, without any upper limits, and it gives me a profound sense of having infinite possibilities. When facing pressure in my studies or encountering exam failures, I draw inspiration with the feelings I experienced from playing basketball. I remind myself that I can excel in my studies as well. I encourage myself with the mantra of YOU CAN! YOU DID SO WELL IN BASKETBALL, YOU CAN EXCEL IN YOUR STUDIES TOO, JUST DO IT!!! ” (A10)

In addition to fostering confidence, long-term participation in physical activities also nurtured cognitive development. The need for strategic thinking, quick decision-making, and self-reflection during sports played a pivotal role in enhancing cognitive skills. Participants recognized that success in sports required them to analyze techniques, understand the dynamics of the game, and make informed decisions under pressure. These cognitive abilities, developed through consistent engagement in physical activity, were directly applicable to academic success. The critical thinking, analysis, and decision-making skills honed in sports were transferable to academic challenges, where they enabled participants to approach studies with greater focus, clarity, and efficiency.

Long-term commitment to a certain amount of time and intensity in physical activity not only provided confidence-building experiences but also fostered cognitive skills that contributed to better academic performance.

Discussion

The study employed a parallel mixed-methods research design to examine whether and to what extent investing time and effort in physical activity would significantly hinder academic performance. The results indicate that engaging in physical activity at an appropriate intensity and duration may help relax the mind and foster time-management skills. Additionally, sustained engagement in moderate-intensity physical activity can enhance physical fitness, confidence, and cognitive development. All of these factors are critical in contributing to improved academic performance.

Conflicts arising from time constraints are commonplace in the context of physical activity and academic performance, as individuals are tasked with balancing both study time and physical activity within the limitations of a 24-hr day. Participants in the interviews highlighted this ongoing struggle, with many expressing the difficulty of choosing between engaging in physical activity and dedicating time to studying. A common belief, rooted in the importance placed on academic performance, is that reducing physical activity could free up more time for studying and thus improve academic outcomes. However, the study’s findings challenge this assumption. The quantitative analysis initially suggested that time spent on physical activity and prolonged sedentary behavior did not have a significant impact on academic performance. However, further exploration suggested that moderate amounts of time spent on physical activity may have a potential positive influence on academic performance. This was supported by the case study, which found that the time spent on physical activity did not detract from study time but instead replaced what would have otherwise been leisure time. Engaging in physical activity, instead of playing video games, contributed to both physical health and mental clarity. Moreover, the incorporation of physical activity appeared to foster better time management skills among students. Time management emerged as a critical, yet challenging, skill for students to develop. Physical activity provided students with a practical way to realize the importance of time management and how to plan their schedules effectively. It helped students recognize that overcommitting to any single activity could hinder the completion of other tasks (Rothschild-Checroune et al., 2012). In conclusion, reducing physical activity in order to allocate more time for academic subjects is not a feasible strategy. This aligns with previous research, which suggests that while reducing physical activity may not necessarily improve performance in academic subjects, it could have detrimental effects on overall health (Trudeau & Shephard, 2008).

The second aspect under investigation examined whether physical activity excessively depleted energy, potentially impacting academic performance. Although the preliminary quantitative results indicated a negative relationship between investing an appropriate amount of energy in physical activity and academic performance, this effect was not statistically significant. When physical activity was categorized by intensity according to the IPAQ classification, compared to non-exercise groups, there was a potential upward trend in academic performance across all levels of exercise intensity, with the most pronounced effect observed in the moderate-intensity group. In the qualitative research, participants emphasized that low-intensity physical activity could serve as a means of relaxation, providing a break from the learning environment to recharge the mind. They noted that engaging in physical activity could temporarily shift attention when feeling overwhelmed with study-related stress, ultimately contributing to improved learning efficiency. This aligns with the psychological phenomenon known as the incubation effect. The incubation effect refers to the phenomenon in which temporarily diverting attention, particularly when faced with an unsolvable problem, can be beneficial for ultimately solving the original problem (Wallas, 1926). However, at moderate intensity, physical activity not only provided relaxation but also contributed to cognitive enhancement. This finding is consistent with previous research in the field of physical activity and cognition (Carson et al., 2016; Plowman, 2008). Of course, some interviewees also mentioned that if the intensity was too high, it could lead to exhaustion, leaving them too tired to focus on further tasks after training. Long-term engagement in moderate-intensity physical activity not only promotes physical fitness but also builds psychological resources essential for effective learning. A substantial body of research consistently shows that physical fitness is positively associated with academic performance (Esteban-Cornejo et al., 2019; Macky et al., 2021; Páez-Maldonado et al., 2020; Zhai et al., 2022), and emphasizes the role of physical activity in reducing anxiety and depression (Jayakody et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2022) and fostering positive personality development (Tazegül, 2014). For students, maintaining both physical and psychological health not only provides more energy and time for study and work but also contributes to better academic outcomes.

The study suggests that students should be encouraged to engage in a certain amount of physical activity at appropriate times. Teachers and parents can foster a balanced lifestyle by implementing practical strategies that address both physical activity and time management. Teachers can incorporate short, purposeful physical activities during the school day to emphasize the value of staying active and guide students to reflect on the changes they experience, reinforcing the benefits of physical activity. Both teachers and parents can assist students in creating realistic schedules that integrate physical activity into their daily routines and teach them time management skills.

However, certain limitations need attention. Firstly, in the quantitative study, considering the variability in GPA evaluation methods across schools and to control for potential confounding factors, convenience samples from a single university were chosen. Moreover, the study excluded freshmen due to GPA considerations, resulting in a sample that was somewhat non-random. As freshmen are in a transitional phase, adjusting to greater autonomy and the challenges of managing their own schedules, their patterns of academic engagement and physical activity may differ from those of upper-year students who have already adapted. This exclusion may limit the study’s ability to capture the unique experiences of this group. Secondly, as the aim was to use a retrospective approach to explore the relationship between academic performance and physical activity, the qualitative aspect of the research focused on students consistently engaged in both academic performance and physical activity rather than solely focusing on those dedicated to a single aspect. The study did not encompass more specific groups, such as professional athletes. Thirdly, the utilization of convenience sampling and snowball sampling methods resulted in a relatively small sample size. The significant gender imbalance, with 17 women and three men, may introduce bias and make it challenging to control for potential differences. Although no significant differences were found in the results, it is essential to acknowledge the potential sampling bias.

Future research can focus on several key areas. Firstly, longitudinal studies are essential for investigating the enduring effects of physical activity on academic performance. Tracking students over an extended period allows researchers to observe how sustained engagement in physical activity influences academic outcomes over time. Secondly, comparing the impact of physical activity on academic performance across different educational levels, including elementary education, secondary education, undergraduate, and graduate studies, provides an opportunity to explore how this relationship evolves throughout the academic journey. Additionally, applying qualitative research methods for a more in-depth analysis can enrich future studies. Researchers may use qualitative methodologies to uncover nuanced themes and patterns that may not have been fully explored in previous research. Thirdly, exploring specific populations, such as professional athletes undergoing intensive sports training, offers an important direction for future research. Unlike typical university students, whose physical activity is primarily aimed at fitness or general well-being, professional athletes engage in highly focused training designed to improve athletic performance, often demanding substantial time and energy. For this population, the dynamics between physical activity and academic success may differ from those observed in the general student, warranting further investigation to understand how such specialized demands impact both athletic and academic outcomes.

Conclusions

This study emphasizes that investing a certain amount of time and effort in physical activity does not have significant negative effects on university students’ academic performance. On the contrary, dedicating appropriate time and effort to physical activity can help students develop time management skills and reduce stress. Long-term engagement in physical activity can improve physical health and cognitive abilities, which are important factors in enhancing academic performance. Given these findings, teachers and parents can implement strategies to guide and support students effectively. However, due to the sample selection and research design, the interpretation of the results should be made with caution. Future research could strengthen the causal relationship through longitudinal studies and expand the sample size to enhance the generalizability of the findings.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

Thank all participants in this study and all members who help with this study in our laboratory. We would like to express our gratitude for the support provided by the National Social Science Fund of China (Grant No. 21BTY030).

ORCID iDs

Jiali Qian

Kun Wang

Ethical Considerations

The study had been approved by the Institutional Review Board for Human Research Protections at Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China (H20200431I) and accorded with the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Consent to Participate

Informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-Assisted Technologies in the Writing Process

During the preparation of this work the author(s) used ChatGPT in order to language improvement. After using this tool/service, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take(s) full responsibility for the content of the publication.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the National Social Science Fund of China (21BTY030).

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this article are available on request from the corresponding author without privacy information showing. The complete data is not publicly available due to privacy restrictions.

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The Impact of Time and Energy Expenditure in Physical Activity on Academic Performance: A Mixed-Methods Study

Abstract

Plain Language Summary

Keywords

Introduction

Literature Review

Materials & Methods

Research Design

Survey

Participants

Measures

Data Analysis Process

Case Study

Participants

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Results

Quantitative Findings

Qualitative Findings

Time Management Skills

Recharging the Mind

Physical Fitness

Confidence and Cognitive Development

Discussion

Conclusions

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

ORCID iDs

Ethical Considerations

Consent to Participate

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-Assisted Technologies in the Writing Process

Funding

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Data Availability Statement

References