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Abstract

Critical reading is a fundamental transversal competence for the development of meaningful learning in police education and law enforcement training. This study aimed to evaluate the mediating role of knowledge about human rights in the relationship between critical reading and citizenship competencies in Colombian police students. The design was non-experimental cross-sectional with correlational-explanatory scope. The sample consisted of 5,313 Colombian police students (59.1% male and 40.9% female, M_age = 22.56; SD = 3.46). Maximum performance tests were used to measure critical reading, human rights, and citizenship competencies. A mediation analysis using PROCESS Model 4 found a significant direct effect of critical reading on citizenship competencies (β = .3202, SE = 0.0066, p < .01; 95% CI [0.3072, 0.3331]), and on human rights (β = .5193, SE = 0.0083, p < .01; 95% CI [0.5031, 0.5356]). Additionally, knowledge about human rights had a direct effect on citizenship competencies (β = .2286, SE = 0.0105, p < .001; 95% CI [0.1071, 0.1303]). Moreover, an indirect effect of critical reading on citizenship competencies through knowledge of human rights was observed (β = ,1,187 SE = 0.0059, p < .001). The global model explained 31.01% of the variance (R² = .3101). The study highlights the importance of enhancing pedagogical strategies to foster critical reading, as it is essential for strengthening knowledge of human rights and citizenship competencies.

Plain language summary

From knowledge to action: Cultivating citizenship competencies through critical reading and human rights in police students

In this study, we explore how critical reading skills impact the citizenship competencies of Colombian police students. We found that students with better critical reading skills also showed greater civic competencies. Knowledge about human rights played a mediating role in this relationship. The findings suggest that improving critical reading through effective teaching strategies can improve both understanding of human rights and civic skills among students. Therefore, it is important to promote educational strategies that include transversal skills, such as critical reading so that police students have better citizenship skills to interact with the population and thus prevent crimes.

Keywords

police education critical reading human rights citizenship competencies

Introduction

Citizenship competencies allow people to actively collaborate to maintain peace in their community, participate responsibly and positively in democratic procedures, and show respect and appreciation for diversity and discrepancies, whether in their immediate environment, in their community or even on a global level (Maldonado-Vera et al., 2022). These competencies are particularly relevant in police education, where the ability to make informed, ethical, and well-reasoned decisions becomes essential for officers to align their actions with democratic values and human rights principles. Officers must analyze legal documents, interpret policies, and assess social dynamics to ensure their actions align with democratic values and human rights principles (Enarsson et al., 2021). This is particularly important in police training, where officers must engage in security tasks while maintaining close collaboration with society. The development of these competencies in higher education requires an integrative approach that considers elements such as civic behavior, democratic values, and respect for human rights, which together contribute to both individual and collective well-being (Cabrera-Jimenez, 2020). Therefore, government strategies must aim to stimulate citizen competencies to promote peaceful coexistence, which can be achieved through dialog between civil society and the state (Crespo-Sánchez, 2019).

While previous research has examined critical reading and human rights as independent constructs to promote citizen competencies (Abdi & Hashi, 2024; Santamaría-Cárdaba et al., 2024), there is a lack of empirical studies exploring their interconnected role in fostering citizenship competencies among police students. Understanding how critical reading contributes to ethical decision-making and the practical application of human rights in law enforcement is essential, as it directly impacts police officers’ ability to navigate complex social dynamics, uphold legal frameworks, and engage with communities in a just and equitable manner.

In the Colombian context, the mission of the National Police is to ensure security and public tranquility through effective services focused on the prevention, investigation, and control of crimes and misdemeanors. This mission aims to foster a culture of solidarity that enables the people of Colombia to live in peace (Ministry of National Defense, 1997). To achieve this, it is essential to implement training programs aligned with societal changes and professional standards, ensuring that officers develop the competencies necessary for ethical and effective law enforcement. The Police Education Directorate (DIEPO) emphasizes the development of both technical and transversal competencies, with particular emphasis on critical reading, knowledge of human rights, and citizenship competencies.

Furthermore, Colombia’s historical context is complex, shaped by armed conflict and the ongoing pursuit of peace. This reality has created an urgent need for reconciliation and the promotion of human rights as fundamental pillars for achieving lasting peace (Rojas, 2016). In this regard, strengthening human rights education and citizenship competencies is essential for fostering a culture of dialog, justice, and social cohesion—key elements in the construction of sustainable peace.

The first transversal competence corresponds to critical reading, which is defined as the ability to analyze and interpret information beyond surface-level comprehension (Hajare et al., 2016). It involves evaluating legal texts, procedural guidelines, and social contexts to make informed decisions, a skill essential for police officers in their professional practice, as it enhances reasoning abilities and supports ethical judgment (Méndez-Rendón et al., 2014; Tronchoni et al., 2022). The second transversal competence corresponds to knowledge of human rights, which are defined as the rights that recognize and protect the dignity of all human beings, regulate how individuals live in society, interact with one another, and relate to the State. These rights are inherent to everyone, regardless of nationality, sex, ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights [OHCHR], 2024). In the context of police action, knowledge of human rights ensures that officers uphold these principles in their decision-making processes, fostering a democratic state, and strengthening public trust in security institutions (Hope, 2020). The integration of human rights principles into law enforcement practices is essential for maintaining public trust and ensuring justice (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2019). This approach not only enhances the legitimacy of law enforcement agencies but also contributes to more effective policing by fostering community cooperation and reducing instances of abuse and misconduct (Modise, 2023). The third one is referred to citizen competencies, which are defined as the ability to engage in civic behaviors, respect democratic values, and uphold human rights in policing contexts (Ministerio de Educación Nacional, 2004).

While these competencies are particularly relevant in the Colombian context, international frameworks also provide valuable insights into their role in law enforcement education. Understanding how different regions approach competency-based training can help refine pedagogical strategies and align them with global best practices.

International Background

Competencies become a key factor that allows the teaching-learning process to be comprehensive and allows students to acquire not only fundamental knowledge to be, do and know, but also skills and abilities that will be key to the development of their profession (Martínez et al., 2019). In this way, the learning results allow identify the degree of assimilation of the knowledge taught (Rocha, 2021).

According to Mora-León et al. (2019), learning results facilitate the acquisition of knowledge that will be important for the activities that the person develops in a comprehensive manner, and therefore, it is necessary to articulate it with pedagogical models that facilitate knowledge and streamline training processes.

In 2015, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2016) published the reference framework of competencies for sustainability because we must not only think individually but also create a sustainable future for this and future generations. In 2019, the learning outcomes guide was published, this guide is based on international precedents and collaborates by giving an orientation to be able to evaluate the learning outcomes of the Colombian education systems, providing the basis for their formulation, implementation and evaluation, this guide defines learning outcomes as everything that the student is able to do, understand and demonstrate, as the results must be clear, concise, relevant, coherent, achievable and measurable (Sotoca-Orgaz et al., 2023). It should be clarified that this guide is a tool focused on improving the quality of education in Colombia, which is oriented toward learning and additionally collaborates with educators to design learning experiences and types of learning that facilitate the display of knowledge and skills.

In the European Union, the Digital Skills Framework is a system designed to promote the development of digital skills. These skills are taught based on the identification of community needs within economic, social, environmental, and political contexts, requiring active participation in society (Gómez-Parra & Huertas-abril, 2019).

Due to its effectiveness, this framework has also been adopted by the United Nations in various areas, including its application in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs serve as tools to improve people’s living conditions by ensuring the responsible use of natural resources and fostering collaboration among different stakeholders. Among the 17 SDGs, SDG 4 specifically focuses on inclusive, high-quality, and equitable education. In this context, several transversal competencies are essential for professional practice, including critical reading, written communication, citizenship skills, and quantitative reasoning (Delahoz-Domínguez et al., 2022; Londoño et al., 2020).

Theoretical Framework

Critical reading is a fundamental competence for future professionals, as it enables them to understand and analyze information in a critical, ethical and responsible manner. Lack of understanding and uncritical attitudes can hinder the development of these skills, which can have negative consequences for society (Benavides, 2020). It is worth noting that critical reading is not exclusive to written texts but can occur in any type of media such as videos, images and presentations (Harwood & Koyama, 2020).

Critical reading enables the acquisition of cognitive and empowerment resources (Morales & Floriza, 2021) to participate in civic and security processes that have consequences for society, enable the expression of ideas and opinions in a coherent and logical manner, and allow advocacy for the respect of human rights (Acosta-Navas, 2020; Donnelly & Whelan, 2020).

Similarly, critical reading enhances logical reasoning by enabling the discernment of various perspectives and contexts within a document. This ability is essential as it allows individuals to evaluate the validity of the arguments presented based on the information contained within the text (Arias-Vivanco, 2018). By establishing a connection between the multidimensional competency of critical reading and that of human rights, critical reading emerges as a potent instrument for perceiving, appreciating, and advocating for human rights effectively. This interplay not only fosters empowerment and awareness but also equips individuals with the essential skills needed to comprehend the underlying principles and values inherent in human rights discourse. It also facilitates the analysis of legal texts and documents, whether they are informative or for carrying out a specific formality or procedure for the population (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean [ECLAC], 2017). Moreover, Álvarez-Ossa and Ramírez-Dávila (2020) argues that critical reading is essential to understand, defend and create strategies to foster citizenship competencies. Each of the actors who direct their attention to this relationship agrees that critical reading is developed through practice; providing opportunities to read texts, spaces to discuss them and reflect on the issues raised therein; it also allows informed decisions to be made (Lohne, 2021).

Furthermore, critical reading contributes to the development of critical thinking in higher education, which is fundamental for having citizenship competencies that allow for an active role in society (Castellanos, 2019). It is therefore relevant to position the approach to these competencies from a specific model in the field of police training, for which purpose conceptual contributions in the field of secular higher education are taken up to make a proposal for a specific model for citizenship competencies in police service.

Arce-Ramírez (2019) points out that the basic competencies that are directly associated with citizenship competencies are: cognitive, emotional and communicative competencies, which allow the integrality of the person to be brought to the fore and potentiate citizen action (Pantzerhielm, 2023). According to Ocampo-Zapata (2023), citizenship competencies seek to improve comprehensive and professional training, enabling the integration of cross-cutting themes such as peace, equity, care for the environment, among others. Moreover, previous studies highlight that critical reading and ethical decision-making are essential in police intervention, as they significantly influence practical decisions and behavior. Studies indicate that sociomoral dimensions impact the complexities of police work, while lethal means and moral injury affect decision-making processes (Dempsey et al., 2023).

In other hand, human rights education is intrinsically linked to the development of citizenship competencies, citizens can better appreciate the principles of equality, justice, and respect that underpin democratic governance (Bueno & Bright, 2020). Human rights-based education in higher education institutions is fundamental for developing citizenship competencies, as it fosters critical thinking, ethical decision-making, and active participation in democratic societies (Mami, 2017). Additionally, emphasizing human rights education in social studies curricula is essential for police officers, as it enhances their ability to engage with complex societal issues and apply citizenship competencies in their professional duties (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2019. This approach not only promotes a sense of global citizenship and interconnectedness but also reinforces the role of human rights as a guiding principle in ethical and responsible policing.

Regarding to categorization of citizen competencies, Paba-Medina et al. (2020) classify competencies into cognitive (knowledge, argumentation, multi-perspective, systematic thinking), emotional (empathy and emotion management) and communicative (oral and written). Based on this classification, the following theoretical model of citizenship competencies and critical reading for police service is proposed (Figure 1), which will not be fully tested in this study, but will serve as a basis for future studies and to theoretically guide the pattern of relationships of the variables of interest.

Figure 1.

An integrative model for Police competencies for citizen attention.

According to the theoretical and empirical background described, the research question is: Does human rights knowledge mediate the relationship between critical reading and citizenship competencies in Colombian police students? To address this question this article aims to evaluate the mediating role of human rights knowledge in the relationship between critical reading and citizenship competencies in Colombian police students.

It is hypothesized that (H1) critical reading will be directly related to citizenship competencies; (H2) critical reading will be directly related to human rights knowledge; (H3) human rights knowledge will be directly related to citizenship competencies; and (H4) critical reading will have an indirect effect on citizenship competencies through human rights knowledge.

Method

Sample

This study was a non-experimental cross-sectional design with a correlational-explanatory scope. Sampling was non-probabilistic for convenience, yet the large sample size enhances the reliability and generalizability of the findings. The sample consisted of 5,313 Colombian police students (59.1% male and 40.9% female, M_age = 22.56, SD = 3.46), which is a sufficiently large number for robust statistical analyses, particularly for correlation and mediation models. Furthermore, the sample includes students from diverse geographical regions: 69.5% from the Andean region, 12.8% from the Caribbean region, 9.4% from the Pacific region, 7.8% from the Orinoco region, and 0.60% from the Amazon region. This broad representation allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between critical reading, human rights knowledge, and citizenship competencies in police education across different Colombian regions.

Instruments

A socio-demographic questionnaire was applied to find out the participants’ age, gender and region of study. In addition, a process of item collection was carried out to construct tests to measure transversal competencies. As a result of this instrument construction process, the following tests were used:

Critical Reading Test

It consisted of 30 multiple-choice questions (4 possible answers), which sought to assess critical analysis and recognition of the meaning of a text. The critical reading test, validated by two educational experts and two psychometricians, achieved Cronbach’s alpha of .86, indicating good internal consistency. However, future studies should conduct a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to establish the construct validity of these measures.

Human Rights Test

It consisted of 30 questions in multiple choice format (4 possible answers), 10 questions sought to assess the student’s understanding of the right to life, identifying its foundations and relevance at both national and international level based on practical cases and concrete situations.

Likewise, 14 questions were used to examine whether the student was able to identify the most common illegal methods of repression and analyze their ethical implications and thus propose solutions contributing to the fight against practices that undermine fundamental values. And finally, seven questions were used to find out if the student was able to critically analyze the intersection between human rights and international humanitarian law, prioritizing principles and values in conflict situations. The human rights test, validated by two educational experts and two psychometricians, achieved Cronbach’s alpha of .77, indicating good internal consistency. However, future studies should conduct a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to establish the construct validity of these measures.

Citizenship Competencies Test

It consisted of 30 questions in multiple choice format (4 possible answers), 19 questions sought to assess whether the student was able to name behaviors that go against coexistence and affect the main constitutional rights and freedoms of citizens in the national territory.

In addition, 11 questions assessed whether the student was able to distinguish intervention situations in aspects such as human rights, coexistence, environment, discrimination and violence. The citizenship competencies test, validated by two educational experts and two psychometricians, achieved Cronbach’s alpha of .70, indicating good internal consistency.

However, future studies should conduct a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to establish the construct validity of these measures.

Procedure

Institutional research was conducted at the Directorate of Police Education (DIEPO) in Colombia. Before starting the data collection phase, permission was requested from the Director of Police to carry out the study and the ethical safeguards were explained. Once permission was obtained, the application of the test was planned in the different educational facilities of the DIEPO in the regions of Colombia, the format was digital, and the students were in the classroom answering the tests.

Ethical Statement

All procedures were approved by the Research and Ethics Committee of the sponsoring higher education institution, which is ascribed to the Declaration of Helsinki and ethical principles dictated by the American Psychological Association (APA, 2017) were respected. All participants were informed of the purpose of the study and did not receive financial compensation for their participation. This study was part of a broader project that sought to establish a strategy for obtaining better competencies and learning outcomes in police training at the service of the territories. All participant data were anonymized, and no personally identifiable information was collected or stored during the study.

Statistical Analysis

An analysis of the quality of the database was carried out, assessing the existence of missing data and out-of-range data. Descriptive and inferential techniques were used for the statistical analysis of the data. Then, to test hypotheses a path analysis was performed, using as a referential model 4 from the book Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis (Hayes, 2018), it is proposed that the effect of critical reading on citizenship competencies is mediated by human rights. Statistical analyzes were conducted using IBM SPSS 29 statistical software and its extension PROCESS v. 4.2 to model mediation path analysis and statistical moderation.

Results

Firstly, a correlation analysis was carried out between the study variables. It was found that critical reading has a direct, statistically significant relationship of moderate intensity with knowledge of human rights (r = .65; p < .01) and with citizenship competencies (r = .55; p < .01). Human rights correlates directly with citizenship competencies (r = .54; p < .01). This can be seen completely in Table 1.

Table 1.

Correlation of the Variables.

Variables	Mean	DE	1	2	3
1. Critical reading	3.01	1.03	-	.65**	.55**
2. Human rights	3.00	0.82	-	-	.54**
3. Citizenship competencies	3.00	0.59	-	-	-

p < .01.

Secondly, we checked whether there were differences in the averages of the variables of interest between males and females. The independent samples Student’s t-test revealed that there are no significant differences in the mean of critical reading [t (3958,120) = −1.673, p = .094]. Likewise, no significant differences were found in average human rights (M_men = 3.05, SD = 0.86; M_women = 3.10, SD = 0.79) [t (4462) = 1.917, p = .055].

With respect to citizenship competencies, statistically significant differences were observed, with males having a higher average (M_men = 3.08; SD = 0.60; M_women = 3.02; SD = 0.55) [t (4466) = −3.422, p = < .01]. Although the differences in citizenship competencies between men and women were statistically significant, the effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.104) indicates a very small difference that may not be practically meaningful.

Differences in the averages of the variables of interest were examined according to the region where the test was taken, in order to assess whether there are differences in the results according to institutional and local dynamics. Thus, it is observed that there are differences in critical reading averages according to regions [F (4) = 12,079, p < .01]; the effect size (η² = 0.08) of the difference was small and indicates a minimal difference that is unlikely to have practical significance.

Differences are also observed in the Human Rights average [F (4) = 26,671, p < .01]; the effect size (η² = 0.02) of the difference was very small and indicates a minimal difference that may not be practically meaningful. The other regions showed no significant differences. At the same time, significant differences were observed in average citizenship competencies [F (4) = 27,674, p < .01]. The effect size (η² = 0.02) of the difference indicates a very small difference that may not be practically meaningful. Table 2 shows the descriptive data by region. Tukey’s HSD post hoc test shows that the Andean and Caribbean region differs significantly from the Orinoco and Pacific regions (p < .01). The other regions did not show significant differences, the same result occurs in the comparison of group differences in all variables of interest. Descriptive information can be seen in Table 2.

Table 2.

Descriptive Statistics by Region.

	Critical reading			Human rights		Citizenship Competencies
Colombian Regions	N	Mean	DE	Mean	DE	Mean	DE
Amazon	30	2.89	0.77	3.03	0.55	3.12	0.50
Andina	3,630	2.97	1.04	2.94	0.81	2.97	0.59
Caribbean	677	2.96	1.10	3.00	0.85	2.92	0.54
Orinoco	413	3.16	0.95	3.28	0.92	3.02	0.58
Pacifica	497	3.24	0.88	3.23	0.76	3.25	0.61
Total	5,247	3.01	1.03	3.00	0.82	3.00	0.59

To analyze the mediating effect of human rights knowledge on the relationship between critical reading and citizenship competencies, we used the aforementioned PROCESS macro by Hayes (2018) modeling the 10,000 bootstrapping techniques for each confidence interval. Figure 2 shows the hypothesized mediation model with results. It was observed a significant direct effect of critical reading on average citizenship competencies (β = .3202, SE = 0.0066, p < .01; 95% CI [0.3072, 0.3331]) and a direct effect of critical reading on Human Rights (β = .5193, SE = 0.0083, p < .01; 95% CI [0.5031, 0.5356]).

Figure 2.

Mediation model of citizenship competencies.

Likewise, the mediating variable (Human Rights) had a direct effect on citizenship competencies (β = .2286, SE = 0.0105, p < .001; 95% CI [0.1071, 0.1303]). In the analysis of the global model, the variance explained is 31.01% and the indirect effect of critical reading on citizenship competencies through human rights knowledge was (β = .1187 SE = 0.0059, p < .001). Therefore, we can speak of partial mediation. The total effect (sum of direct and indirect effect) was (β = .3202, SE = 0.0066, p < .001; 95% CI [0.3072, 0.3331]).

Discussion

According to hypothesis 1, it is confirmed that critical reading is directly associated with the development of citizenship competencies. Specifically, students who have more developed critical reading skills also have better citizenship competencies, meaning that they are better able to participate in society in an informed and responsible way (Lohne, 2021). This is consistent with the quest for a democratic society whose coexistence allows for high levels of well-being (Maldonado-Vera et al., 2022). However, it is also possible that differences in citizenship competencies are influenced by pre-existing regional disparities in educational access or institutional priorities, rather than solely by differences in critical reading or human rights knowledge. These structural factors should be considered when designing interventions aimed at strengthening these competencies. Therefore, if these competencies are to be strengthened in the police service, training processes need to generate pedagogical strategies that contribute to the improvement of critical reading as a basis for the development of other competencies.

Critical reading involves the ability to critically analyze and evaluate information, including content related to understanding society, politics, culture, historical context, among others. Police students should be able to understand the society in which they operate, the problems faced by citizens and possible solutions to those problems. This will enable them to make informed and responsible decisions in their future police service.

With respect to hypothesis 2, a direct relationship was found between critical reading and human rights. Critical reading, being a fundamental skill for learning and understanding complex concepts, enables better learning of human rights doctrine (Pantzerhielm, 2023). Therefore, police students who develop critical reading competence are more likely to understand human rights and consequently, will be more likely to connect their knowledge to the procedures they perform in their police service.

Regarding hypothesis 3, it was determined that students who have a higher average in human rights knowledge also have a higher average in citizenship competencies. To the extent that students build meaningful knowledge about human rights, they also tend to be able to identify and defend the rights of others, which is consistent with the search for a society that respects human rights (ECLAC, 2017).

In addition to the direct relationships, the research also found an indirect effect of critical reading on citizenship competencies through human rights knowledge, confirming hypothesis 4 of this research. This indirect effect can be explained by the fact that human rights are fundamental for police work with citizens to contribute to the construction of a peaceful and democratic society (Díaz-Seoane et al., 2022). The indirect effect of critical reading on citizenship competencies through human rights knowledge has significant implications for the training of police officers, which is beneficial for achieving a democratic society (Cabrera-Jimenez, 2020).

Implications for Research and Practice

Police students, as future police officers, must have the ability to critically evaluate and master their procedures, adhering to the law and ensuring uncompromising respect for human rights. The development of critical reading skills is fundamental to achieving this goal. The ability of police officers to correctly interpret legal frameworks in their professional work directly impacts the quality of their relationship with society. A thorough knowledge of human rights is vital for ethical and professional policing, contributing to the prevention of discrimination, violence, and injustice, and ultimately promoting the consolidation of a democratic society (De Rojas et al., 2018).

Police training programs should provide police officers with opportunities to reflect on the role of human rights in building a peaceful and democratic society and to understand the importance of human rights in their work. Such programs should include a critical reading component that focuses on the understanding, awareness, and application of human rights, equipping police officers with the citizenship competencies necessary for their daily work to contribute to public safety and crime prevention.

To achieve this, it is important to stimulate cognitive processes through the development of analytical skills, abstraction, generalization, and synthesis. Training instructors in critical reading strategies aligned with desired learning outcomes is essential. Additionally, emotional competencies are pivotal in police training, as officers must manage their own emotions and recognize those of others to perform procedures effectively and compassionately. Effective communication skills, both oral and written, should also be emphasized in police education to elevate levels of critical reading and overall professional competence.

These findings could be applicable to police forces in other Latin American countries facing similar challenges in human rights education and public trust. Given that issues of police-community relations, public safety, and ethical enforcement transcend national boundaries, comparative studies across different countries could provide valuable insights into best practices for integrating critical reading and human rights education into police training programs.

Limitations and Future Research

It is also important to point out some limitations inherent to the methodological design. Since this is a cross-sectional study, it is not possible to verify changes in the dependent variable (citizenship competencies) based on changes in the levels of the independent variable (critical reading) over time. Therefore, it would be appropriate to carry out an experimental study in which a critical reading program is applied and its effect on citizenship competencies is measured over time, which is typical of longitudinal designs (Hernández-Sampieri et al., 2014). However, given the scarcity of existing evidence on the subject, the cross-sectional design serves as an initial step toward more in-depth explanatory and experimental studies. Thus, we suggest conducting longitudinal studies that follow cohorts of police students from their initial training through several years of service.

This approach could provide valuable insights into the long-term relationship between critical reading skills, knowledge of human rights, and policing performance over time. Moreover, future analyses should investigate whether region and gender interact to influence outcomes, as cultural or institutional factors may explain the differences observed in this study. Additionally, research should examine how different law enforcement systems integrate these competencies and assess their impact on police effectiveness and legitimacy.

Conclusions

It is fundamental to improve police education programs in Colombia, since it is necessary to strengthen the skills of police officers, and this should be based on scientific evidence. Also, this study lays the groundwork for future research exploring the longitudinal impact of critical reading programs in police academies. Secondly, it has been proven that critical reading has direct effects on citizenship competencies and indirect effects through knowledge of human rights. To expand on these findings, future studies could focus on employing longitudinal designs to assess how the development of critical reading skills and human rights knowledge over time influences citizenship competencies. Additionally, experimental studies implementing targeted interventions, such as critical reading training programs integrated with human rights education, could provide further insights into causal relationships. These studies could also explore variations across different contexts, such as regional or cultural settings, to determine the generalizability of the findings and adapt the interventions to specific needs.

Finally, we recommend that police education programs integrate mandatory critical reading and human rights modules, supported by evidence-based teaching strategies, to foster citizenship competencies and prevent human rights violations and crimes.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Bernardo Gil-Rojas

Luis Mario Castellanos-Alvarenga

Mercedes Gaitán-Angulo

Melva Inés Gómez-Caicedo

Johemir Pérez-Pertuz

Ethical Considerations

The Research and Ethics Committee of the Dirección de Educación Policial approved our surveys (approval: AC-2023-011393) on Jun 2, 2023. Respondents provided digital informed consent for review and signature before starting the surveys.

Funding

The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The author(s) disclosed receipt of financial support from the Dirección de Educación Policial de Colombia (DIEPO), which provided funding for the execution of the study.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The data files from the current study are available upon request by emailing the corresponding author.

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Critical Reading and Human Rights in Police Students: Development of Citizen Competencies to Prevent Crimes

Abstract

Plain language summary

Keywords

Introduction

International Background

Theoretical Framework

Method

Sample

Instruments

Critical Reading Test

Human Rights Test

Citizenship Competencies Test

Procedure

Ethical Statement

Statistical Analysis

Results

Discussion

Implications for Research and Practice

Limitations and Future Research

Conclusions

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Ethical Considerations

Funding

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Data Availability Statement

References