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Abstract

This paper explores the understanding and application of epicene pronouns in English among Chinese EFL learners. Thirty-three Chinese college students took part in a questionnaire to gauge their perceptions and usage of English epicene pronouns. A content analysis of 10 English grammar textbooks was also undertaken to discover current vernacular norms and their implications for gender-inclusivity. The findings reveal that he or she is the most commonly used epicene pronoun but that there has been an increase in the use of the singular they and a decrease in the use of he as epicene pronouns. Content analysis of books showed that guidelines for epicene pronouns were often provided. These pronouns are predominantly used with indefinite pronouns. Informal writing frequently employed the singular they, while formal writing leaned towards he or she. He was used as an unmarked epicene pronoun, but its usage style varied. These findings hold significant implications for EFL language teaching and learning.

Keywords

English epicene pronouns gender-inclusive language Chinese EFL student English grammar books

Introduction

The current era has witnessed a burgeoning shift towards eradicating gender bias and promoting equity, a cultural revolution that prominently manifests in our use of language (Baron, 2020; Bennett-Kastor, 1996; Madson & Hessling, 1999). Stemming from this expansive global movement towards gender-inclusive language, a stream of scholarly conversation has emerged wherein the issue of gender neutrality takes center stage (Bodine, 1975; Newman, 1997; Stormbom, 2022). While various languages grapple with their unique gender-related issues, the specific focus of this paper is the “epicene problem” in English, namely, addressing the usage of language in a gender-neutral manner (Baron, 1986; Hazenberg, 2015).

English grammar traditionally used proforms like he/she and his/her to indicate gender distinctions (Zuber & Reed, 1993). However, this binary approach is outdated, especially considering the growing recognition of non-binary and gender-diverse individuals (Brutt-Griffler & Kim, 2018). A more inclusive linguistic alternative is the use of gender-neutral or epicene pronouns, such as they, them, and theirs, in the singular form (Baron, 2020; Bjorkman, 2017).

Despite a growing body of research around English epicene pronouns, there remains a gap in the understanding of this phenomenon among EFL learners (Baranowski, 2002; Speyer & Schleef, 2019; Tarrayo, 2023), particularly in the Chinese context (Yue et al., 2023; Zhang & Yang, 2021). Most existing studies are focused on native English speakers or are region-specific, rendering them inadequate to address the diverse cultural and pedagogical nuances the EFL context presents (Stormbom, 2019; Tarrayo, 2023).

Given this, our research aims to achieve two goals: (1) studying the awareness and usage of English epicene pronouns among Chinese EFL learners, and (2) analyzing the gender inclusivity of commonly used English grammar textbooks in China. By considering both the learner’s perspective and the instructional materials, our study contributes to the broader discussions on gender-neutral language, especially in the EFL context. This research provides valuable insights for educators, policy-makers, and language researchers, leading to more inclusive language learning and instruction. This study aims to answer the following questions:

(1) Which epicene pronouns are preferred by Chinese EFL learners and is the choice of epicene pronoun influenced by antecedents?

(2) How do English grammar books provide guidelines for using epicene pronouns?

Literature Review

Gender-Inclusive Language Movement in English

Pioneered by a broader societal shift towards equal rights and recognition for all genders, the gender-inclusive language movement promotes linguistic changes that respect and acknowledge diverse gender identities beyond the traditional binary (Baron, 2020; Pauwels, 2008). English, a predominant global language, has experienced a concerted push towards gender neutrality, inclusive of not only words but also grammar and syntax (Hellinger & Bussmann, 2003).

Inclusive language intends to embrace all social groups and collectives that have previously faced bias or exclusion (Pauwels, 2008). To break down the conventional gender divide, non-sexist language explicitly tries to increase the visibility and respect of women in society. Additionally, gender-inclusive language also attempts to advance gender diversity, a departure from the traditional binary gender division (Brutt-Griffler & Kim, 2018).

The concept of inclusive language is dynamic and adapts alongside societal changes. As a result, our understanding of language also evolves. In the Anglo-Saxon nations, starting in the 1970s, feminist organizations and the rise of women in society led to the creation of rules encouraging non-sexist language (Paterson, 2014). This development is a significant illustration of this trend. Policies against sexism in language were used to assist these measures (Sczesny et al., 2016; Weinberg, 2009).

Various English-speaking institutions began promoting inclusive language standards in the 1970s as advocates of the feminist movement (Pauwels, 2008). The United Nations promotes gender-inclusive language and strives for global gender equality. Their “Guidelines for gender-inclusive language in English” offers practical recommendations for using inclusive language in official documents, speeches, and publications. These guidelines emphasize the avoidance of gender bias, stereotypes, and discriminatory language to foster a more inclusive and equal society (United Nations, n.d.).

To sum up, gender-neutral pronouns are becoming increasingly common in English as a means to promote equality in society (Newman, 1997, 1998). One of the most discussed topics is the use of a third-person singular gender-neutral pronoun, such as an epicene pronoun, to refer to an individual without specifying their gender (Curzan, 2003). This practice aims to create a more inclusive and respectful language environment by acknowledging and validating individuals who identify outside of the traditional gender binary.

The Epicene Pronoun Problem in English

The epicene dilemma is a key component of the gender-neutrality in English. Grammar issues arise because English does not have a third-person gender-neutral singular pronoun (Bodine, 1975). There are some potential solutions to the epicene pronoun conundrum. The widely accepted gender-neutral pronouns are he or she, generic he, and singular they in English (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002).

First, since the 18th century, generic he has been the only acceptable form to denote the third person singular and gender-neutral (Paterson, 2014). Grammarians would rather uphold the pronoun-antecedent agreement in number than violate gender agreement (Newman, 1997). According to Baron (2020), Latin grammar impacted English grammar, which emphasized that men were superior to women and that the masculine form of he could contain the feminine form, she. Secondly, the nonsexist language reform that emphasizes gender inclusivity has led to the introduction of the combination he/she as an epicene pronoun (Zhang & Yang, 2021). He or she could meet pronoun-antecedent agreement both in number and gender. However, it is too clumsy and awkward, especially with repetition in the reflexive cases himself or herself (Sibanda & Begede, 2015). Thirdly, the singular they is becoming a more widely accepted and preferred third-person singular pronoun among grammarians, editors, dictionaries, and style manuals (Baron, 2020), though some individuals hold that singular they pronouns are grammatically incorrect or non-standard and should be avoided (Baron, 2020; Bodine, 1975).

However, research on comprehension suggests that the belief that singular they is problematic may not hold true. On the contrary, studies have shown that singular they is easily understood by native speakers and does not cause significant difficulties in comprehension, as indicated by Gerner (2000), LaScotte (2016), Paterson (2014), and Pauwels (2008).

The increasing usage of the singular they is also evident in style guides and dictionaries. Many style guides now acknowledge the acceptability of the singular they in certain contexts, especially in spoken English. The influential APA style guide has even endorsed the use of they in its latest edition for written English (APA, 2019). In recent years, dictionaries like the Oxford English Dictionary, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, and Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary have also recognized and included singular they in their entries.

Previous studies on the rise of singular they can be divided into two categories: experimental and theoretical. Experimental research includes surveys, experiments, and corpus data. For instance, a Pew Research Centre survey in 2018 found that 60% of Americans were aware of the preference for gender-neutral pronouns like they. Among the respondents, 22% had heard a lot about this preference (Geiger & Graf, 2019).

Noll et al. (2018) used a lexical decision task to examine college students’ awareness of singular they. They found that university students widely used singular they as an epicene pronoun, while the use of he as an epicene pronoun had decreased. Stormbom (2019) conducted diachronic corpus research using academic papers written by Swedish university students from the 1970s to the 2010s. The study revealed a significant decrease in the use of the generic he as an epicene pronoun, with singular they frequently taking its place to refer to gender-neutral entities. In written British Standard English, Paterson’s (2011) corpus analysis showed that the singular they is the most commonly used epicene pronoun.

Theoretical investigations have also been conducted. Hwang and Li (2019) argued, based on Linguistic Adaptation Theory, that the singular they is the best option to fill the lexical gap for a third-person singular gender-neutral pronoun. Bjorkman (2017) explored the morpho-syntactic features and distribution of singular they, which contributed to understanding gender representation in English syntax and co-reference rules. Paterson (2014) suggests that the singular they is already distinct from the plural they and may be treated as a separate form in the mental lexicon. These findings lend support to the idea that singular they and plural they are homonyms, as they are syntactically different, similar to singular you and plural you.

The present study builds upon previous studies that have explored epicene pronouns and the factors that influence their usage. These existing research efforts provide a foundation for the current investigation. However, it is important to note that there are still gaps in the study of epicene pronouns in the context of second language (L2) acquisition. Understanding how L2 learners navigate the complexities of epicene pronoun usage is crucial for promoting effective language learning and fostering inclusive communication (Darren, 2021).

Epicene Pronouns in EFL Context

The EFL context presents a distinct set of challenges in regard to gender-neutral language learning. Most studies on epicene pronouns focus on native English speakers of English or learners in Anglophone countries, and overlook the unique experiences of EFL learners (Lee & Collins, 2010; Stormbom, 2022; Tarrayo, 2023). However, in the context of global English, it is essential to investigate the usage and acquisition of epicene pronouns in second language (L2) learners.

The acceptability of the singular they has reportedly been correlated with the antecedent type (Baranowski, 2002; Lagunoff, 1997; Quirk, 1985). According to Quirk (1985) and Baranowski (2002), the singular they is most frequently associated with indefinite pronouns like everyone, everybody, and NP with a qualification like every student or every patient. With respect to the antecedent of singular they, Lagunoff (1997) revealed that the singular they is widely accepted by American English speakers, and that it is most likely to be co-referent with an animate non-referential antecedent. Bjorkman (2017), who investigated the history of the singular they also found that it could refer to a definite, specific, known, binary gender antecedent.

The use and acceptance of epicene pronouns among L2 learners could be influenced by several factors, including exposure to authentic English, sociocultural settings, and the specific goals and contexts of language learning. Exposure is the first factor. According to Stormbom (2019), advanced-level speakers in Europe use epicene pronouns at the same level as native speakers, while lower-level speakers tend to prefer using the generic he as their primary epicene pronoun. Stormbom (2022) attributed this difference to advanced learners having more exposure to authentic English. Similarly, Lee’s (2007) study on epicene preference among advanced English-speaking young adults in Hong Kong showed that they preferred using epicene pronouns such as he or she or the singular they over the generic he.

Socio-linguistic influence from the L1 language and culture is another possible factor affecting the use of epicene pronouns. Gas (1979) explores the concept of language transfer, which refers to learners’ tendency to apply the rules and structures of their native language to the target language. Stormbom (2019) observed that learners with gendered L1s, like Italian and Russian, preferred using the generic he over the singular they more frequently than speakers of non-gendered languages. Similarly, Abudalbuh (2012) found that Arabic L2 English learners commonly used the generic he as their epicene pronoun, possibly due to the influence of their patriarchal society. In India, the use of singular they appears to be associated with the influence of the women’s rights movement, with young people and women utilizing it more often than older individuals and men, who primarily relied on the generic he and, to a lesser extent, he or she (Loureiro-Porto, 2020).

The importance learners place on grammatical accuracy is a third factor influencing the use of singular they. In countries like China, Korea, or Japan, where rules and grammatical accuracy are highly valued, studies have shown that despite being familiar with the singular they, students still predominantly use the generic he and the combination of he or she rather than singular they. In fact, singular they is not widely accepted in these contexts (Kim, 2011; Zhang & Yang, 2021). Zhang and Yang (2021) point out that Chinese English education often prioritizes structural accuracy at the expense of socio-linguistic competence.

Regarding Chinese EFL learners, we can anticipate that the factors mentioned above would likely impact them similarly. In China, English exposure for many students is primarily limited to the classroom. However, EFL textbooks have been slow to adopt the use of the singular they, with many still neglecting to include it. This lack of exposure is likely to have a detrimental effect on students’ attitudes towards using the singular they. Yue et al.’s (2023) behavioral experiments and corpus analysis discovered that a small proportion of Chinese college students utilize gender-neutral singular pronouns, while the majority still exhibit gender bias. These findings indicate that Chinese EFL learners possess limited awareness of gender equality, insufficient exposure to accurate forms, and inadequate cognitive abilities when it comes to processing second-language pronouns.

The studies by Lee (2015) and Ettner (2002) shed light on the impact of cultural norms and language transfer on language learners’ preferences and use of gendered language. Lee (2015) and Ettner (2002) specifically focus on Chinese EFL learners’ inclination towards using the generic he. They propose that this preference might be influenced by the male-first convention and masculine dominance in Chinese language and social norms.

Materials and Methods

Participants

The demographic information of participants is shown in Table 1.

Table 1.

The Profile of Participants.

Characteristic	Group	Cases	%
Gender	Male	10	30.3
	Female	23	69.7
Age	Under 18	0	0
	18–23	32	96.97
	Over 23	1	3.03
Language proficiency	Below CET4	2	6.06
	CET4	6	18.18
	CET6 or TEM4	25	75.76
Majors	Arts	2	6.06
	Science	25	75.76
	English	6	18.18

As shown in Table 1, 33 Chinese university students (M = 10, FM = 23) are participants in this study. The 32 participants are between 18 and 23 years of age, with one being over 23. Regarding their language proficiency, 31 respondents are above CET4 (CET = College English Test; CET4 = 6, CET6 or TEM4 = 25), which indicates that the level of most participants is higher than an intermediate level of proficiency. For the majors of students, six are English majors; two are arts majors, and 25 major in science. The study participants were Chinese students learning English as a foreign language from various academic backgrounds and proficiency levels.

Questionnaire

An online questionnaire was designed and circulated among the participants. It captured relevant demographic information, their awareness and usage of English epicene pronouns. The structure of the questionnaire was presented as follows:

As shown in Table 2, there are three sections of the questionnaire. Section one included five items and is concerned with the demographic information of the participants; section two contained 20 items in the form of multiple-choice questions testing the perceptions of EFL learners about epicene pronouns. Section two included 20 questions to test the actual use of epicene pronouns using fill-in-the-blank exercises.

Table 2.

The Sections of Questionnaire.

Subtitle of the questionnaire	Number of items
I. Demographic information	5
II. Multiple choices	20
III. Sentences filling	20

The questions used in the questionnaire in this study were derived from previous studies (Kim, 2011; Hwang & Li, 2019; Lagunoff, 1997; Paterson, 2014). Considering that these previously used questions have undergone significant piloting, there is a likelihood that “most of the bugs will have been ironed out of them” (Sudman & Bradburn, 1982, p. 120).

The goal of this study is to look into how the epicene pronoun is understood and used by Chinese EFL students, focusing on the singular they. Considering our research goals, certain changes have been made to the questionnaire’s design. First, research from the past (Lagunoff, 1997; Paterson, 2014) demonstrates a close relationship between the type of antecedent and the use of an epicene pronouns. In light of Paterson’s (2014) classification as well as Hwang and Li’s (2019) categorization, we have divided the types of antecedents into four categories.

Type 1: Indefinite pronouns (e.g., If anyone wants to visit the museum, they should make reservation first.)

Type 2: NPs with a quantifier (e.g., Every visitor to the US should make sure their passport is valid.)

Type 3: Indefinite NPs (e.g., I heard a teacher spent their money on school supplies.)

Type 4: Definite NPs (e.g., The perfect student always finishes their homework.)

Adapted from Hwang and Li (2019, p. 227)

Secondly, the multiple-choice items and sentence context items are used to test the perceptions of Chinese EFL learners on epicene pronouns. The multiple-choice items are adapted from Lagunoff (1997, p. 213). The purpose of Lagunoff’s (1997) study was to make the grammaticality judgment of the singular they by native English speakers based on their intuition. A Grammaticality Judgment Test is used in formal linguistic and L1 acquisition research to determine whether a structure or sentence is acceptable or not (Mandell, 1999). Nevertheless, prior research indicates that there are concerns regarding the reliability (Gass, 2013) and validity (Ellis, 1991) of grammaticality judgment tests as measures of L2 proficiency. Therefore, the author modified the grammaticality judgment test of Lagunoff (1997, p. 213) into a multiple-choice test to perceive Chinese EFL learners’ preferences and perceptions of pronouns—generic he, feminist she, he or she, one, and singular they. Regarding EFL learners they learn English grammar mainly from grammar books in classes taught by English teachers in formal classes. Chinese EFL learners are familiar with multiple choice items/tests, which benefits the success and validity of our data collection. Therefore, we modify the original judgment test into a multiple-choice format.

Thirdly, fill-in-the-blank questions are used to assess the use of epicene pronouns by Chinese EFL students. The content of this section is based on Kim (2011), Lagunoff (1997, p. 213), and Hwang and Li (2019). Kim (2011) looked at how English epicene pronouns are used and understood by Korean EFL learners. We find it helpful to examine how English epicene pronouns are actually used by Chinese EFL learners using these well-established materials. However, Kim’s (2011) study focuses on generic he and singular they, while this study’s purpose is to identify the preferences of epicene pronoun use of Chinese EFL learners, especially regarding singular they. Moreover, the author has modified the antecedent of the epicene pronoun and focused on the four types of antecedents (see Table 3). The distributions of four types of antecedents in the questionnaire are presented in the Table 3.

Table 3.

The Distributions of Four Types of Antecedents in the Questionnaire.

Types of antecedents	Multiple choice	Filling blanks	Total number
Indefinite pronoun	1, 2, 5, 6, 7	24, 25, 34, 36, 39	10
NP with qualifier	3, 8, 11, 12, 15	21, 26, 26, 29, 30	10
Indefinite NP	4, 9, 14, 16, 19	22, 31, 32, 33, 35	10
Definite NP	10, 13, 17, 18, 20	23, 28, 37, 38, 40	10

Content Analysis of English Grammar Textbooks

The second part of the data collection involved performing a content analysis of English grammar textbooks commonly used in EFL education in China. The textbooks were scrutinized for their presentation and treatment of gender-neutral pronouns, their examples, and any exercises relating to this grammatical aspect.

A content analysis is done to find out how the epicene pronoun debate is represented in the grammar books of English published in the last 20 years in China. According to Pauwels (1998, p. 28), grammar textbooks are “supposed to be repositories of linguistic knowledge,” and investigating them might shed light on the linguistic standards of education. That is to say, especially in an EFL context, the format of the language or even conventional norms of usage that learners get depends significantly on the instructional materials.

Data Collection

An online survey was conducted through Sojump (http://www.sojump.com), a well-known online survey platform in China. The online survey was feasible due to the high online connectivity of the participants. The data was distributed and collected by WeChat and QQ, both of which are prominent and established social messaging platforms in China. Convenience sampling was adopted to randomly release the questionnaires through these social messaging platforms. We select respondents based on the convenience and availability of participants. It took 1 week to collect the results after distributing the questionnaire. 12 copies and 21 copies were collected by QQ and WeChat, respectively.

Ten of the most popular English grammar books produced in China are gathered for the study. The selection of an English grammar book is based on two criteria. The first criterion considers books published by China’s most renowned publishing houses. These publishers are known for their expertise in producing high-quality educational materials. The second criterion involves evaluating the circulation of grammar books in China. The study identifies books widely embraced by language learners and educators nationwide by examining their popularity and wide distribution. By considering both the reputation of the publishing house and the book’s circulation, a comprehensive evaluation can be made to determine the most suitable English grammar book. Table 4 shows the English grammar books used in the present study.

Table 4.

Collections of English Grammar Books Published in China.

Book number	Author	Name of English grammar book	Year of publishing	Publisher
1	Sun Yi-li	An Advanced Grammar of English for College Students	2001	Peking University Press
2	He Qingji	English Grammar	2006	Donghua University Press
3	Zhang Zhen-bang	A New English Grammar Course Book	2017	Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press
4	Liao Fei and He Wen-Zhong	Comprehensive English Grammar of FLTRP	2016	Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press
5	Zhang Jian-min	Advanced English Grammar of FLTRP	2018	Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press
6	Gu Shi-Min	Grammar Essence	2014	Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press
7	Bao Bing	A Handbook of English Grammar	2016	The Commercial Press
8	Meng Qing-Sheng (Michael Swan and Catherine Walter)	Oxford English Grammar Course Advanced Volume 2	2016	The Commercial Press
9	Zhang Ke-li	A New English Grammar	2001	Higher Education Press
10	Zhang Dao-zhen	A Practical English Grammar	2002	Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press

As seen from Table 4, out of 10 books, five were published after 2015. Specifically, one book was published in 2018, one in 2017, and three in 2016. All the books were published after the 2000s. As for the issuing authority, 4 books are published by Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press located in Beijing, the largest publishing company in foreign languages. Two books were issued by The Commercial Press. Among the 10 books, the most popular grammar books are compiled by three grammarians: Zhang (2017), Bao (2016), and Zhang (2002).

Data Analysis

After data collection, the next step was to analyze them utilizing an explanatory sequential design. The questionnaire responses were coded and subjected to descriptive statistical analysis. A frequency count was primarily used for analysis. We also analyze the frequencies of epicene pronouns by types of antecedents.

Content analysis of the textbooks was achieved through the investigation of epicene pronouns in English grammar books. We thoroughly investigated the endorsement of epicene pronouns in English grammar books, focusing on their presence, treatment, and rules. We paid close attention to the rules governing the usage of epicene pronouns, including their definitions, functions, and guidelines. This analysis ensured clear and comprehensive explanations, helping learners understand and use epicene pronouns effectively.

This dual data collection and analysis approach aimed to offer well-rounded insights into Chinese EFL students’ awareness and use of gender-neutral pronouns and pedagogical materials’ role in shaping these understandings. This method and analysis framework further aims to broaden the discourse regarding gender-neutral language practices.

Results

Epicene Pronoun Frequency Among Chinese EFL Learners

The frequency of the epicene pronouns chosen by respondents is shown in Table 5. This data encompasses the 33 copies of the questionnaire received. Part 2 and part 3 have 20 items, respectively, and a total of 1,320 cases (33 × 40 = 1,320). The frequencies are added according to the lemma of the target form no matter what the noun and pronoun case and form. In this survey, the three cases and reflexive pronouns presented included subjective, objective, and possessive cases.

Table 5.

Overall Frequencies of Epicene Pronoun in the Present Study.

Epicene pronoun	Section 2	Section 3	Frequencies	Percentage
He ^*	81	181	262	19.85
He or she	346	156	502	38.03
They	185	257	442	33.48
She	20	11	31	2.35
One	28	45	73	5.53
Other (it/that)	0	10	10	0.76

Note. *As with other epicene pronouns, the pronoun “he” is included in all of its forms and situations in this instance. He uses the pronouns himself, himself, and him, for instance.

According to the data presented in Table 5, the epicene pronoun he or she is the most commonly used (38.03%) by respondents. Interestingly, the usage of the singular pronoun they is only slightly lower, with 33.48% of respondents utilizing it. This indicates only a 5% difference between the two options.

Regarding frequency, the generic epicene pronoun he accounted for 19.85% of all pronoun usage. On the other hand, the feminine pronoun she was used by a smaller percentage of respondents (2.35%), while the neutral pronoun one was utilized by 5.53% of respondents. Together, these two options make up a total of 7.88% of pronoun usage.

In section 3, a small proportion of respondents (0.75% of total frequencies) filled in the blanks with incorrect pronouns such as it and that. This indicates a minor deviation from the expected usage patterns.

Epicene Pronoun Usage Based on Antecedent Types

According to earlier research (Kyu-Hong & Li, 2019; Lagunoff, 1997), the nature of antecedents determines the choice of epicene pronoun. The study offered all four types of antecedents in sections 2 and 3, each containing five items, respectively. As a result, there are 330 examples (10 × 33 = 330) for each type of antecedent and 10 items for each type. The frequency distribution of epicene pronouns in the current study is shown in the table below.

According to Table 6, he or she is the most preferred epicene pronoun regardless of the antecedent. He or she appears 147 times as an epicene pronoun with definite NP as the antecedent and 139 times with indefinite NP. She is the least frequently occurring epicene pronoun among the four classes of antecedents—4 times, 10 times, 6 times, and 11 times in type 1 to type 4, respectively. This suggests that Chinese EFL learners did not value she as an epicene pronoun. The most frequently occurring antecedent associated with generic he is Indefinite NP (82 times), while Indefinite NP with Qualifier is the least frequent.

Table 6.

Epicene Pronoun Frequency Based on Types of Antecedents.

Antecedent types	Frequency of epicene pronoun in sections 2 and 3
	He		She		He or she		They		One
	S2	S3	S2	S3	S2	S3	S2	S3	S2	S3
Indefinite pronoun	20	49	2	2	83	34	56	66	14	11
Indefinite Np with a Qualifier	17	26	6	4	89	30	47	73	6	14
Indefinite Np	21	61	4	2	89	50	43	45	8	7
Definite Np	23	45	8	3	85	62	39	62	10	13

Note. S2 = section 2; S3 = section 3.

The most frequent antecedent for the singular they as the preferred epicene pronoun is the indefinite pronoun (e.g., everyone; 122 occurrences); the next most frequent antecedent is the indefinite NP with a Qualifier (e.g., each patient; 120 occurrences). The responders to the study preferred using the epicene pronoun singular they the least, with indefinite NP as the antecedent (for example, a patient).

Content Analysis of the English Epicene Pronouns in Chinese-Printed English Grammar Textbooks

The content analysis aims to find how English grammar books provide guidelines for epicene pronouns. We have conducted a comprehensive investigation into the endorsement of epicene pronouns, focusing on their presence and treatment in English grammar books. This examination involved a detailed analysis of the rules, examples, and explanations provided in these grammar books regarding epicene pronouns. The result of the content analysis is listed in Table 7.

Table 7.

Content Analysis of English Grammar Books in China.

Epicene pronoun	Book number	Rules	Example
Generic he	1	Generic he is used as unmarked epicene pronoun in traditional grammar, especially in formal style.	Everyone thinks he has a chance to be a success.
	2	Generic He can refer to both males and females when used as an epicene pronoun and antecedent to indefinite pronoun or indefinite NP such as some, any, every, each and someone, someone, somebody, anyone, everyone, everybody, each one, no one, nobody.	Somebody came into the room with his dog, looked around and then left.Every man and woman 18 years of age has a right to vote for the candidate of his choice.
	3	When the indefinite pronoun such as everyone, everybody, no one, nobody, anyone, anybody, someone, and somebody is used as subject, generic he is used as epicene pronoun.	Everybody talked at the top of his voice.Everybody looked after himself.
	4	Masculine pronoun or feminine pronoun could be used as epicene pronoun, but generic he is more popular to refer to gender neutral pronoun.	Such tasks as these can only be carried out when the engineer has derived methods of organizing his knowledge on a wide range of subjects.
	9	Generic he is used to refer to gender indefinite third person esp. in informal style.	When a person has no will to live, he is often very difficult to help.
He or she	1	In formal style, he or she is used as epicene pronoun.	If anyone needs this book, he or she could go to library.
	5	In the formal style, he or she is used as gender neutral pronoun to replace singular they.	If your child is a high school athlete, he or she may be at risk of sudden cardiac death.
	4	In the form style or law language, when referring to a gender-neutral antecedent, the pronoun he or she is used.	Before seeing your new doctor, make sure he or she sees your old tests.
	6	In the formal style, he or she is used as gender neutral pronoun to refer to antecedent of indefinite pronoun such as everybody, somebody, someone, anyone etc.	Everybody should learn to stand on his or her own two feet when he or she is old enough.
	9	In the formal style, he or she is used as gender-neutral pronoun to refer to male or female esp. antecedent to indefinite pronoun.	Everybody has his or her way of doing things.
Singular they	7	Singular they is more popular than generic he and he or she as gender neutral pronoun.	Everyone has a way of their own.Everyone in favor of this proposal raise their hand.
	3	Singular they as gender neutral pronoun antecedent to these indefinite pronouns is not only be idiomatic expressions but also can avoid gender bias.	Everybody is ready now, aren’t they?
	5	Singular they is refer to gender indefinite person especially when it antecedent to the indefinite pronoun such as someone, anyone etc.	If anyone says that, they just don’t know what they are talking about.If someone genuinely enjoys their work, they’re more motivated.
	8	They (them, their or themselves) can be used as epicene pronoun to refer to third person singular gender indefinite antecedent.	Somebody has left their car outside the office. Would they please move it?
	9	Singular they can be used to refer to both male and female pronoun in informal style.	Everybody knows that, don’t they?

Note. Here, the number of the grammar book refers to the same index number as in Table 4: Collections of English Grammar Books Published in China.

Based on our analysis of these 10 popular English grammar books, as seen in Table 7, the majority of the books (9 out of 10) provide extensive explanations on using gender-neutral pronouns, offering valuable guidance to learners. Notably, Zhang Daozhen’s book stands out as the only one among the 10 that lacks an illustration or explanation of this grammar point, indicating a difference in coverage compared to the others.

Regarding epicene pronouns, the three most important ones are the generic he, he or she, and the singular they. However, there are similarities and differences among these pronouns. In conventional language, the unmarked epicene pronoun he is commonly used to refer to the gender-neutral third-person singular. This usage often aligns with indefinite pronouns, as discussed in books 2 and 3. Nevertheless, there are conflicting recommendations regarding the appropriate occasions and styles for using he as an epicene pronoun. While book 1 suggests using he in formal contexts, book 9 recommends its use in informal settings. In formal writing, the pronoun he or she is commonly used to refer to both men and women, as recommended in the surveyed grammar books. This pronoun also aligns with indefinite pronouns, as discussed in books 6 and 9.

On the other hand, the pronoun they is used as a gender-neutral option in informal contexts. It is particularly favored when referring to indefinite pronouns, as mentioned in books 3 and 5.

The grammar books are changing the usage of the epicene pronoun. Since 2015, five English grammar books have been published (volumes 3, 4, 5, 7, and 8). According to Table 7, all of these books, except for Book 4, explain the use of the singular they as a gender-neutral pronoun. He or she and he as epicene pronouns are declining, while the pronoun they is rising, as mentioned in book 7.

Discussion

Chinese EFL Learners’ Perception and Usage of Epicene Pronouns

This research suggests that some Chinese EFL students are aware of gender-neutral English language usage. The majority (80.15%) made an effort to avoid using he as a gender-neutral pronoun to refer to someone with an ambiguous identity or gender, but 19.85% of respondents did so, suggesting that the prescriptive grammar rules these students studied had a significant impact on how they perceived pronoun usage. He or she remains the first choice of epicene pronoun among Chinese EFL learners, accounting for 38.03% of the total frequency. These findings align with Zhang and Yang’s (2021) corpus investigation of Chinese EFL learners’ epicene pronoun use in their writing.

However, 33.48% of the subjects chose the singular they as their epicene pronoun, which shows that these Chinese EFL learners have noticed the recent changes in English grammar, but that only a small number of students are trying to use it. Lee and Collins (2010), Stormbom (2022), and Abudalbuh (2012) conducted research specifically focused on the usage and acceptance of singular they among non-native speakers of English. Their findings suggest that L2 English learners have yet to fully embrace or incorporate the use of the singular they as an epicene pronoun in their language production. The results are also in accordance with Huddleston and Pullum’s (2002) study. According to their research, the three most common epicene pronouns in native English speakers’ speech are generic he, coordination he or she, and singular they. The singular they is increasing in use, while the generic he is trending downward.

Speyer and Schleef (2019) also explore the reluctance of L2 learners to accept the acceptance of singular they. They found that the limitations in the input non-native speakers receive from textbooks, teaching materials, interactions with teachers, and exposure to media can contribute to their limited knowledge and usage of the singular they. It is important for language educators and materials developers to continually update and improve these resources to ensure that learners receive comprehensive and accurate input on this grammatical feature.

Chinese EFL Learner’s Perceptions and Usage of Epicene Pronouns Based on the Antecedent Type

Results indicated a disparate use of epicene pronouns based on antecedent types. They as a singular pronoun was employed more frequently when the antecedent was indefinite or unspecified, indicating a certain comfort level among learners in using epicene pronouns in these contexts. However, the usage of singular they was significantly lower when the antecedent was a known person. This reflects a possible gap in fully understanding or accepting pronoun use beyond traditional gender norms. This aspect requires more emphasis in teaching pedagogy.

The results support earlier research from Baranowski (2002) and Quirk (1985, pp. 342–343), among others. They found that the use of the word they is most frequently coincident with indefinite pronouns such as everybody and NP with qualifiers such as every person.

Zuber and Reed (1993) also argue that language textbooks play a significant role in language pedagogy, shaping learners’ language perception and usage. Based on the investigation of English grammar books in our study, it is clear that five out of 10 books clearly state that the indefinite pronoun is preferred as an antecedent regardless of the chosen epicene pronoun.

Content Analysis of the Chinese English Grammar Books on Epicene Pronouns

This investigation emphasizes the significance of gender-neutral pronouns in contemporary English language learning resources, considering their prevalent inclusion in most surveyed grammar books. However, one of the most widely circulated grammar books does not mention this particular grammar feature. On the other hand, the epicene pronoun should be used with the singular they according to the four English grammar books produced in China over the last 5 years. Six English grammar manuals, however, also suggest using a generic he or he/she combination as the gender-neutral pronoun. More has to be done to encourage gender-neutral language in L2 settings. English is being studied by more than 300 million people in China right now (Cai, 2019). English grammar books are crucial for Chinese language learners who want to study the language because they have the ability to influence students’ social conceptions, attitudes, and awareness of conventions (Hall, 2014). Through a content analysis of English grammar books printed in China, this study has offered evidence of the acceptance of the singular as a gender-neutral pronoun from the L2 context.

The present study has implications for future epicene pronoun research and Chinese EFL learning. Firstly, the findings show that L2 learners accept the singular they as an epicene pronoun. However, Chinese EFL learners still commonly use he or she, and the adoption of the singular they lags behind that of L1 speakers (Zhang & Yang, 2021). Further work is needed to promote gender-neutral language in L2 learning and teaching.

Secondly, these findings encourage textbook writers and grammarians to pay attention to emerging changes in gender-neutral language (Mustapha, 2013). Lessons can be drawn from this to improve the design and content of grammar books, focusing on the presentation of epicene pronouns for a more gender-inclusive language learning experience. By incorporating the latest developments in grammar features, textbooks can offer more authentic English to L2 learners (Stormbom, 2019).

Thirdly, Chinese EFL learning should aim for a balance between rule accuracy and language appropriateness. The focus of language learning has shifted from structural accuracy to understanding the appropriate conditions for using alternative grammatical constructions (Zhang & Yang, 2021; Zhang & Yang, 2024).

Conclusion

This study explored the awareness and usage of epicene pronouns among Chinese EFL learners, aligned with the broader movement towards gender-fair language. The investigation, conducted via a questionnaire and content analysis of English grammar textbooks commonly used in China, garnered important insights.

First, the extent of usage of epicene pronouns among Chinese EFL learners was found to be diverse and context-dependent, revealing well-founded familiarity and some hesitation in daily use. This points towards the need to bolster this aspect in English language pedagogy to promote a comprehensive understanding and acceptance among learners.

Second, a major influence shaping the students’ awareness and acceptance of epicene pronouns in English is the teaching materials, particularly grammar textbooks (Speyer & Schleef, 2019). The content analysis of books revealed that guidelines for epicene pronouns among Chinese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners were present. The analysis also suggested constructive criticism for material creators, emphasizing the significance of incorporating a gender-neutral tone in educational grammar books.

As we strive towards a more gender-inclusive society, it becomes crucial to reflect these changes in our languages in practice and teaching. Through its findings, this study provides a valuable contribution to this continuing effort, particularly within the EFL context. It underscores the need for further research in this area, encompassing diverse geographical locations and learning environments (Stormbom, 2022).

Though this study offers certain evidence regarding the use of epicene pronouns by Chinese EFL learners, it does have a few limitations. First, regarding to the size of sampling, more participants could be enrolled to ensure the optimization of results. Second, the grammar books collected were published between 2001 and 2018. Analyzing more recent grammar books would greatly aid in investigating current trends related to epicene pronouns. Further research with more diverse and representative samples would help to overcome these limitations and provide a more comprehensive understanding of the use of epicene pronouns by Chinese EFL learners.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We thank all the participants’ efforts in the study. And we appreciate the support from Center for Cognitive Science and Transdisciplinary Studies, Jiujiang University.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Center for Cognitive Science and Transdisciplinary Studies, Jiujiang University (Grant No. RZZD202204).

Ethical Approval

This document represents the ethics statement accompanying the submission of our article titled “Chinese EFL Students’ Awareness of English Epicene Pronouns—Towards a More Gender-Inclusive Language.” The purpose of this statement is to fulfill the journal’s requirement to address the ethical aspects of our research.

Informed Consent

Throughout this study, we strictly adhered to the principles of informed consent. Participants were provided with detailed information about the study’s objectives, procedures, risks, and benefits before their involvement. They were explicitly informed that their participation was voluntary and that they had the right to withdraw their consent at any stage without facing any consequences.

Confidentiality and Privacy

To protect the confidentiality and privacy of our participants, we took several measures. All data collected during the study was anonymized, ensuring that no identifiable personal information was included in any form of reporting or analysis. Data storage and handling were done in accordance with the University’s data protection guidelines, ensuring that access was limited to authorized researchers only.

Potential Harm or Risks

We acknowledge the potential risks associated with this study, which primarily involve slight discomfort or inconvenience to participants while responding to survey questions or participating in online discussions. To minimize such risks, we ensured that participation was voluntary, and participants were made aware of their rights and the option to discontinue their involvement at any time.

For enquiries and requests for correction or access of data regarding personal details of the Form, please contact Mr. Zhang Xiufeng at 352838983@qq.com

ORCID iD

Xiufeng Zhang

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

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Chinese EFL Students’ Awareness of English Epicene Pronouns: Towards a More Gender-Inclusive Language

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Literature Review

Gender-Inclusive Language Movement in English

The Epicene Pronoun Problem in English

Epicene Pronouns in EFL Context

Materials and Methods

Participants

Questionnaire

Content Analysis of English Grammar Textbooks

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Results

Epicene Pronoun Frequency Among Chinese EFL Learners

Epicene Pronoun Usage Based on Antecedent Types

Content Analysis of the English Epicene Pronouns in Chinese-Printed English Grammar Textbooks

Discussion

Chinese EFL Learners’ Perception and Usage of Epicene Pronouns

Chinese EFL Learner’s Perceptions and Usage of Epicene Pronouns Based on the Antecedent Type

Content Analysis of the Chinese English Grammar Books on Epicene Pronouns

Conclusion

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

Ethical Approval

Informed Consent

Confidentiality and Privacy

Potential Harm or Risks

ORCID iD

Data Availability Statement

References