Abstract
The objective of this study is to conduct a scoping review of the literature on access and permanence initiatives for the teaching profession aimed at immigrant teachers. The guidelines from the PRISMA-Scr protocol and the Johanna Briggs Institute protocol are used for this purpose. The literature search was performed in 8 databases, selecting 27 documents published between 2006 and 2021. The results show numerous studies on immigrant teachers, but many of them focused on their experiences after having passed an access and permanence initiative, while only a few described them. Three main initiatives for immigrant teachers were found: recertification, attraction, and professional development. Recertification initiatives are the most studied initiatives. No publications made in Ibero-American countries were found. There is a need to create partnerships and networks among researchers and policy makers to support countries that do not have initiatives for immigrant teachers. In addition to injecting resources for initiatives related to the retention and professional development of immigrant teachers, to avoid the loss of valuable human resources that are in short supply.
Plain Language Summary
We conducted a systematic scoping review of the literature on existing political and private initiatives for immigrant teachers to enter the teaching profession in their new host countries. We used the Johanna Briggs Institute protocol as a guide and systematized the results in the Prisma-Scr. Likewise, we searched eight databases for references, which returned 27 studies that met our criteria. Numerous studies on immigrant teachers were evidenced, but many of them focused on their experiences after having passed an access and permanence initiative, while only a few described them. Three main initiatives for immigrant teachers were found. No publications made in Ibero-American countries were found. With these results, we call for more research on the subject, providing more details of the initiatives that can help countries that are receiving a greater migratory flow of teachers.
Introduction
One of the concerns of teaching policy-makers and educational managers is the shortage of teachers. This concern is shared by organizations like UNESCO, which have indicated that almost 69 million teachers will be needed by 2030. Therefore, one of the goals of Sustainable Development Goal 4 is to significantly increase the number of qualified teachers (UNESCO Institute Statistics, 2019). The achievement of this goal is threatened by the low level of interest in studying teaching (Sutcher, 2019), the increase in teacher dropout a few years after teachers enter the teaching profession (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011), and the retirement of older teachers (Sutcher, 2019).
To satisfy the demand for teachers, countries have implemented a series of policies for improving the teaching profession. Some of these are the attraction of young talent who feel a calling to be a teacher, the improvement of teachers’ work conditions and salaries, scholarships for studying teaching, continuous professional development, and support from mentors for new teachers, among the most relevant initiatives. In addition, initiatives have also been generated for immigrant teachers as a potential response to the shortage of teachers. These would allow immigrant teachers to access employment and transition to the exercise of their profession in another country, since despite their training in education and teaching experience, cultural differences and new school systems may represent a challenge for them (Ennerberg & Economou, 2022; Oloo, 2012).
The first requirement of some countries is validation, which aims to recognize qualifications and previous degrees held by teachers (Reid et al., 2014b; Vandeyar et al., 2014). This has been one of the recurring topics for research about experiences during the professional transition of immigrant teachers to a new country, and has been identified as one of the greatest obstacles they face, due to bureaucracy (Al-Shakrchy & Jansson, 2021; Marom, 2017; McDaid & Nowlan, 2022), the lengthy and expensive process (Donlevy et al., 2016; Walsh & McDaid, 2019) and the fact that, depending on the country, a language proficiency test may be required (Janusch, 2015). Other policies aim to recertify the training of the immigrant teacher through teaching preparation programs, which seek to provide information about the school system and curriculum of the host country and involve completing a specific number of teaching hours and an internship. In connection, some studies have indicated that this type of initiative involves additional resources (Donlevy et al., 2016; Marom, 2017; Walsh & McDaid, 2019), and finding a balance between family and work responsibilities (Chassels, 2010).
Finally, some of the most important policies for teachers are induction and mentorship programs that have the objective of accompanying, encouraging and providing inductions for teachers during their first year of teaching (Mercado & Trumbull, 2018; Oloo, 2012; Yan, 2021) through workshops, collaborations, support systems, coaching, seminars, and tutorships (Datta & Lavery, 2017; Yan, 2021). The assistance of a mentor has been documented to provide teachers with opportunities for cooperation and advice from more experienced colleagues (Wexler, 2020), as well as an enhanced sense of belonging to their communities (Al-Shakrchy & Jansson, 2021; Economou, 2021; Proyer et al., 2019).
Some reviews on immigrant teachers have addressed the increase in international mobility of education professionals, the experiences during the transition to new contexts (Bense, 2016), and the professional integration of teachers who emigrated from Canada and other western countries (Niyubahwe et al., 2013). In these studies, teachers are reported to have difficulties establishing collaboration networks with their colleagues, trouble integrating into the new school systems, managing the classroom and understanding new ways of teaching. Some of these works report that many teachers underwent initiatives to facilitate their professional integration, which still seem limited in their ability to address access and employment obstacles faced by immigrant teachers in their new countries. When the cultural transition of migrant teachers becomes difficult, there is a risk that they abandon the teaching profession (Mercado & Trumbull, 2018; Yan, 2021), and that their professional identities are undermined (Al-Shakrchy & Jansson, 2021; Economou, 2021; Proyer et al., 2019; Yan, 2021). Likewise, school communities could face the loss of valuable human resources and the impoverishment of school culture, since the school would not faithfully reflect today’s societies. Other broader consequences are that these teachers may experience downward mobility, that is, perform jobs where their skills are not fully exercised (e.g., childcare), which may generate a loss of social and symbolic capital. Therefore, the capacity of these professionals to adapt to a new environment is a vital factor for their acceptance by the school community and their acknowledgment as professionals (Al-Shakrchy & Jansson, 2021; Economou, 2021; Miller, 2019; Niyubahwe et al., 2014). Consequently, address these challenges with public and private initiatives promoting their access and professional development are seen as favorable measures for professional and cultural adjustment. They also allow teachers to have more permanence guarantees that are equal or similar to those of their local peers.
Literature about professional immigration of teachers is rather abundant, but no record of revisions made in the area of programs was found, as well as public policies and private initiatives for immigrant teachers to integrate these teachers into education systems. Thus, the objective of this study is to conduct a scoping review to determine the existing initiatives for incorporating immigrant teachers into the school systems of their new countries, and their characteristics. To achieve this objective, we propose the following research questions:
RQ 1: What do the reports show regarding the initiatives to attract and retain immigrant teachers in the school system?
RQ 2: What are the characteristics that studies show regarding these initiatives?
Methods
The scoping review methodology was selected (Levac et al., 2010; Peters et al., 2020) because of the nature and scope of the objective proposed. As such, this scoping review focused on the comprehensiveness rather than depth of the studies, in order to influence the evolution of policies and practices (Davis et al., 2009; Levac et al., 2010), which allowed for a wider range of studies related to the field under investigation. Scoping reviews are different from other types of reviews in that they do not assess the quality of studies and require a more analytical interpretation of studies during the delimitation process (Levac et al., 2010). A scoping review was preferred over another type of review, because it is a broader type that aims to map the existing literature on a topic, as well as identify gaps in knowledge that make it possible to point out some future researches.
The scoping review proposed was carried out based on the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology (Peters et al., 2015, 2020), and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA-Scr; Page et al., 2021) for the systematization of results.
Search Strategy and Source Selection
A constrained initial search was conducted to identify articles on the topic. Text words contained in the titles and abstracts of the relevant articles, as well as the key-words used to describe the articles, were employed to create a complete search strategy, which was designed in collaboration with an expert in librarianship (C. Flores-Fernández) who set the parameters for the scope of the search in Scopus, Web of Science, Eric, Ebsco, ProQuest, Taylor & Francis, Sage, and Emerald (see Table 1 for an example). The search strategy, which includes all the key words and index terms identified, is catered to each database. The search is carried out in the title, abstract and keywords fields. Moreover, to search for additional studies, the reference list of the sources of information was also examined.
Example Database Search.
Study Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The following criteria were used for study selection (Table 2).
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria.
Source of Evidence Selection
Study selection was conducted according to the stages proposed by the JBI protocol, namely (a) searching on a database according to the planned search strategy (see Table 1 for example) and the removal of duplicates; (b) review of titles, abstracts, and keywords of the articles that complied with the inclusion and exclusion criteria; (c) review of the sources selected for a full-text reading; (d) final decision on the studies included; and (e) analysis of information based on the research questions.
To organize the resources retrieved, all identified references were collated and loaded on the bibliographical manager Zotero to then eliminate duplicates. Afterwards, a pilot test was conducted with fifteen randomly selected studies. Titles and abstracts were examined independently by two of the three authors of this work in order to assess them according to the inclusion criteria of the review, since the JBI protocol points out that the screening must be done for at least two reviewers, which helps increase extraction reliability and consistency (Peters et al., 2020). The third reviewer acted as a judge in case of disagreement, but this was unnecessary given the high degree of agreement between the other two reviewers. The inter-reviewer agreement rate was previously set at 90%.
To conduct the pilot test, an Excel spreadsheet was created for extracting data, which was also tested in order to extract the main characteristics of the studies, such as authors, year of publication, country of the study, study objectives, methodology, and participants. After testing, the extraction spreadsheet was refined and the usefulness of the retrieved characteristics was verified.
After the pilot test, the review of all the eligible studies was carried out against the inclusion criteria and by the three reviewers independently, following the principles established in the initial extraction. The reasons for excluding full-text evidence resources that did not comply with the inclusion criteria were recorded and reported in the scoping review. The search results and the study inclusion process were reported in their entirety and are presented in an adapted flowchart of the PRISMA-Scr extension for scoping review (Page et al., 2021) in Figure 1.
Flowchart of the Prisma Scr-extension Adapted from Page et al. (2021).
Data Extraction
The three authors of this work independently extracted data from the articles included in the scoping review through a data extraction spreadsheet developed for the same. Data extracted includes specific details about participants, concept, context, methods, and the key findings relevant for the review questions. A draft of the extraction form is provided (Appendix). The draft of the data extraction tool was modified thanks to the pilot test previously conducted to meet the needs that arose during the data extraction process of each evidence source included. The discrepancies among reviewers at each stage of the selection process were solved through a discussion among the authors.
Results
Article Selection Process
The search strategy yielded 1,613 potentially relevant studies. Subsequently, the time inclusion criteria were applied, removing 440 documents dated before 2006, which reduced the total to 1,173. It should be noted that the year 2006 was chosen as the initial year for the search because the researchers carried out a bibliometric analysis (Ferrada & Flores-Fernández, 2024, under review) which found that the sustained increase in publications on the subject began that year. After controlling duplicates, 116 documents were removed. The suitability of the remaining 1,057 documents was assessed through the reading of the title and abstract. After this assessment, 1,000 documents were excluded because they did not meet the inclusion criteria or because their central concepts were unrelated to the objective of this scoping review, for example, studies related to initiatives targeting other populations of teachers and non-teachers immigrant people. With a total of 57 documents left for review, and after full-text reading, 30 documents were discarded, obtaining 27 relevant studies for the review. This process is shown in the flowchart of PRISMA-Scr in Figure 1.
According to the JBI scoping review recommendation, we have performed a descriptive analysis of the extracted documents. For the characteristics of the studies, we report frequencies and percentages. For the study of the initiatives we used a descriptive qualitative analysis, using a deductive method of extracting categories from the literature on actions aimed at teachers. The results were synthesized by classifying them according to the type of initiative and reporting the characteristics that emerge from the studies.
Studies Characteristics
In Table 3, the main characteristics of the 27 selected documents were enumerated and described, including tittle, author(s), country, methodology, and aim of the study. Eleven of these studies were conducted in Canada (40.7%), 4 from Sweden (14.8%), 2 from Australia (7.4%), 2 from the United States (7.4%), 4 from the United Kingdom (14.8%; 1 from Ireland and 3 from England), 2 from Germany (14.8%), 1 corresponds to a work of the European Union (3.7%), and 1 is an inter-country study (3.7%; Germany, Sweden and Austria). The works included used the following research approaches: 17 were qualitative studies that use data collection and analysis strategies according to this type of method; 2 were literature reviews with different approaches; 4 were mixed studies; 3 were theoretical studies; and 1 corresponded to compared policy.
Description of Studies Selected.
Programs by Country
In Table 4, the initiatives reported in the studies are shown together with the country or countries offering the initiative and the type of initiative as reported in the literature.
Initiatives for the Incorporation of Immigrant Teachers into the School System.
Note. The starred initiatives (*) have a generic name as their exact names were not reported in the studies.
Initiatives and Their Characteristics
All countries that have public or private initiatives for access and permanence in the teaching profession that were mentioned in this study, indicate having a series of requirements inherent to their own migration laws and others that are exclusive for teachers. These requirements widely vary across countries. Some of them correspond to language proficiency, as in the case of Ireland (Walsh & McDaid, 2019). In this country, there are no level requirements in the majority language, but in the Irish language, which is spoken by a minority of the population. In the case of Australia (Datta & Lavery, 2017; Reid et al., 2014a), English is a migration requirement and, for teachers, some states have a language registration system in which teachers must prove their professional command of English through an international test such as IELTS, as in South Australia or New South Wales, whereas this is not a requirement in Western Australia.
In addition to diplomas, degree certificates or other certificates, some countries require other qualifications. For example, in Australia, specifically in the New South Wales state, teachers must undergo tests to prove their knowledge, adjustment level and suitability to work as teachers, as well as professional and colloquial communication skills, while South Australia requires them to hold a first aid certification (Datta & Lavery, 2017).
Some countries require immigrant teachers to have authorizations to practice teaching, which can be classified into temporary and permanent. In the province of Quebec, Canada (Morrissette et al., 2016, 2020; Niyubahwe et al., 2013), the administrative process for professional insertion of teachers trained abroad requires them to first apply for a foreign degree equivalency certificate before the Ministry of Immigration, Diversity, and Inclusion (MIDI; currently called Ministry of Immigration, Francisation and Integration). When equivalency is granted, teachers can request an authorization before the Ministère de l’Éducation, du Loisir et du Sport (MELS; currently called Ministère de l’Éducation), which allows MELS to grant a temporary teaching license. This situation is similar to that of the province of Manitoba, also in Canada (Schmidt et al., 2010). In this province, only authorized teachers can work in the public school system of Manitoba, which gives them the right to teach any subject at any teaching level. The requirements for a temporary authorization vary from one applicant to another depending on the diplomas and work experience they can provide. A permanent authorization implies that they do not need to complete more university courses, while a temporary one requires a number of technical-practical hours to be completed at university.
Meanwhile, in Ireland (Walsh & McDaid, 2019), after registration with the Irish Teaching Council for credential validation, a conditional or full approval is obtained depending on the background review. Teachers granted a conditional registry are informed of their weaknesses and how to tackle them, as well as the deadline for rectifying them, with a maximum period of 3 years while they work.
Regarding access and permanence initiatives for migrant teachers, the literature review indicates that there are three main types, namely attraction, recertification, and professional development.
Attraction
These initiatives seek to attract teachers to countries other than their native ones to practice the profession. The Commonwealth protocol (Miller, 2008; Ochs, 2008, 2012) is a political initiative that provides a regulatory framework for hiring international teachers among the 53 member countries, whether receiving or sending teachers, in order to narrow the gap between teacher supply and demand, as well as to balance and protect the rights of teachers, preventing the exploitation of this human resource, but also protecting education systems, mainly from poorer member countries. The hiring country should guarantee that recently arrived teachers receive suitable orientation and initiation programs, including cultural adaptation programs, centered on the school and its environment. Meanwhile, countries that do not have their own initiatives can use the services of a recruitment agency, which will have to develop and maintain a quality assurance system to ensure adherence to the Protocol and to fair labor practices. Countries sending teachers can use the Protocol as an instrument to follow up with both leaving and returning teachers. The role of the Commonwealth Secretariat is to oversee hiring and inform the respective Ministries of Education of the member countries about the situation.
Other attraction initiatives are found in Germany, specifically in Bavaria (Brunold, 2018). The German Ministry of Education wants more immigrants to become teachers. Therefore, it has launched several initiatives to attract them to the teaching profession, among which is the organization of courses and seminars about the possibilities offered by the profession, as well as the duties and entry requirements. Another initiative is the Horizon scholarship program, which aims to fund the teaching program for immigrants who show interest in studying or to support their professional development. These resources are obtained through foundations, universities and the Ministries of Education of the member states. Finally, in North-Rhine Westphalia, there is the íProkekt Lehrkräfte mit Zuwanderungsgeschichte in Nordrhein Westfalen (Teaching staff with migration background project in North Rhine-Westphalia), belonging to a regional network of teachers with migration backgrounds. This project has three objectives that comprise the entire teaching career: attraction, encompassment, retention and professional development; however, no information about each of them was found.
In turn, the United States has diverse programs (Mercado & Trumbull, 2018), on which not much information was found. Nevertheless, an account of private initiatives can be given. According to Union of Professionals (2009), there are 33 hiring companies, each of them with different policies and practices, which implies a great deal of variation in the way immigrant professionals arrive in the country. In general, these companies offer, through their websites, information about the districts interested in hiring teachers. These websites contain resumes, credentials and recorder interviews of teachers previously recruited and selected. There are at least two hiring and visa modalities for those teachers. In the first one, they are directly hired by the district, while in the second one, they are hired by the recruiting company.
Recertification
Other initiatives found in this review correspond to those that allow access to the profession once other credential verification and specific test requirements are approved, such as those mentioned above, as long as teachers pass the courses and an internship period in schools. These study recertification initiatives (Al-Shakrchy & Jansson, 2021; Bengtsson & Mickwitz, 2021; Block, 2012; Chassels, 2010; Donlevy et al., 2016, Economou, 2021; Janusch, 2015; Malm, 2020; Marom, 2015, 2017; Morrissette et al., 2016, 2020; Niyubahwe et al., 2013, 2014; Proyer et al., 2019; Schmidt et al., 2010; Terhart, 2022) are a compulsory step for an immigrant teacher to have a guarantee of obtaining a permanent or substitute position. Diverse programs of this nature were found in the literature. Donlevy et al. (2016) conducted a comprehensive study at the European level, commissioned by the European Union, which included a mapping of the initiatives, from those aimed at attracting ethnic and racial minorities to teaching to those focused on permanence in the profession. Regarding recertification, the initiatives of Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Italy, Sweden, Germany, and Lithuania were found, which mainly seem to be used as measures for increasing the diversity of teacher bodies. Nevertheless, although these address some obstacles, they are not concerned with all the problems faced by immigrant teachers when reinserting themselves into the teaching practice.
In Canada (Block, 2012; Chassels, 2010; Janusch, 2015; Marom, 2015, 2017; Morrissette et al., 2016, 2020; Myles et al., 2006; Niyubahwe et al., 2013, 2014; Schmidt et al., 2010), programs vary by province, with a wide variety of programs, from those focusing on degree holders who want to become teachers, to programs specific to teachers with international experience. Their duration is also variable, with ranges from 8 to 12 months. With respect to the information received, these programs include two essential and integrated components; and even though their intensity, number of credits and duration may vary, they center on the theoretical foundations of teacher training and internships in schools.
The case of Canada has the most noticeable differences in terms of objectives when compared to other initiatives, as observed in the study by Schmidt et al. (2010). The recertification program for immigrant teachers, in addition to the curricular and practical experience components related to Manitoba’s school system, holds the premise of including promotion and guidance, anti-discriminatory work at the system level, employment assistance and both academic and professional language support.
Sweden is one of the countries that has recently increased its migration flow, but it has also suffered from a shortage of labor. As a result, two programs with similar characteristics but different requirements, timeframes and content have been launched. The Fast Track program (Al-Shakrchy & Jansson, 2021; Bengtsson & Mickwitz, 2021; Economou, 2021; Malm, 2020) targets everyone with a teaching diploma from abroad, but does not lead to obtaining a diploma; instead, it is considered an introduction to the Swedish school system. The participant of the program receives information and orientation for obtaining the diploma and about the labor market. The Fast Track program was created in 2007, but a unique initiative of this program allowed that, between 2016 and 2019, this program was delivered not only in Swedish but also in Arabic, considering the target population during those years. The program is composed of 120 credits that should be completed in 26 weeks, which are divided into: (a) 2 days for content on the Swedish school system, its values, organization, and teaching leadership, among others; (b) 1 day for Swedish learning in professional environments; and (c) 2 days for school internships. Another Swedish program is the Snabbspår för nyanlända lärare och förskollärare i Utländska lärares vidare-utbildning. It consists of a university course package whose objective is to provide knowledge and skills that allow students to complement their previous studies to obtain a Swedish diploma. In contrast with the Fast Track program, each student received an individual study plan based on work objectives and academic and professional training, but the maximum number of credits that can be taken is 120. Additionally, being proficient in Swedish is a requirement, according to the regulations of the country’s Ministry of Education. The courses immigrant teachers have access to cover the following topics: (a) education sciences and the Swedish school system, (b) Swedish language with academic and communicational purposes at school, and (c) internships in schools or preschool centers. In addition, it provides the opportunity to take a Swedish language introductory course for students in need of extra opportunities to practice the language.
In Austria (Proyer et al., 2019), which has a recertification program for refugee teachers, the goal is different from the other initiatives observed. In this case, teachers are directly incorporated into the secondary schools of the country. Additionally, this program is shorter than the other initiatives observed, as it comprises a total of forty credits divided into eight modules, with three of them as school internships. Finally, in this country and for secondary teachers, specialization in two subjects is required, and therefore teachers who pass the certification program need a qualification in a second subject to have right to a regular contract.
Although the execution of these initiatives is often the responsibility of public organizations like the respective Ministries of Education, they rely on other relevant institutions such as universities in the states, which are in charge of implementing the programs, and school districts. Furthermore, in the studies consulted, some countries are observed to have their own units for the arrangement and assessment of foreign credentials, for example, Ireland with its Irish Teaching Council (Walsh & McDaid, 2019), MIDI in the province of Quebec and MELS in Canada, and the Ministries of Education and representatives of minority groups (Donlevy et al., 2016).
An aspect observed in the recertification initiatives is that they are not equivalent between states of the same country, as in the case of Australia and Canada. In other words, each state decides on the design and execution of the programs, as well as the requirements for them.
Professional Development
Lastly, another type of initiative offers immigrant teachers support for their professional development and aims to retain them in the school system. Donlevy et al. (2016) identified two types of initiatives in this category: those oriented to provide support through teacher networks in Scotland, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom, and those promoting more diversity in school leadership in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.
Other initiatives of this type are mentorships. The study by Mercado and Trumbull (2018) indicates that to conduct mentorships with immigrant teachers, some mentors receive payment and do not have other teaching responsibilities in order to work with a group of them individually once a week. Meanwhile, in other tutorship models, mentors work with groups of new teachers while having their own teaching load, or work with a single teacher occasionally. These authors indicate that in 29 states of the United States, districts are required to offer some type of special support to teachers considered beginners. In the case of California, where the study was conducted, districts are required to provide 2 years of tutorship to facilitate the transition to teaching when their temporary authorization for the profession becomes permanent.
In Germany, Brunold (2018) mentions the MigraMentor tutorship program developed between 2011 and 2014 for immigrant teachers already practicing and potential candidates for teacher training. Its objectives were diverse, but in the case of practicing teachers, the objective was to orient them and advise them, as well as to strengthen their professional knowledge. This program was developed by teacher organizations, two universities, networks of teachers with an immigration background and others. Due to its positive evaluation, the program, with some adaptations, is still offered to refugee teachers, and former students now employed in Berlin schools collaborate with it.
In Canada, specifically in Ottawa (Myles et al., 2006), practicing immigrant teachers are assigned the guidance of experienced teachers, who provide comments and suggestions for improving their professional practice. In addition, teachers have the support from someone at the Faculty of Education where they underwent recertification, who is responsible for visiting them regularly to ensure communication between the schools and the university. Immigrant teachers have a progressive immersion in teaching and as their participation advances, their responsibilities and the complexity of the tasks assigned also increase.
Discussion
The objective of this study was to review the literature on the initiatives for incorporating immigrant teachers into the teaching profession within the school systems of their new country, and to determine the main characteristics of these initiatives. Regarding the first research question of what type of initiatives are found, our results show that initiatives of varied nature exist, and that countries with an immigration tradition and more diverse student populations (Donlevy et al., 2016) are the countries that have the most longstanding and consolidated programs. Specifically, the results showed three types, namely attraction, recertification, and professional development. With respect to the first type, the most widely used is the Commonwealth protocol, possibly due to the quantity of signatory countries and its years of implementation, although each country must design its own programs based on its current regulations. The most widespread initiative was recertification, as it is considered the main measure for increasing teacher diversity (Donlevy et al., 2016).
Studies were found that were conducted in countries with a long immigration tradition, mainly from Canada and Australia, and with a recent immigration history like Sweden. However, no research was found from countries with recent mass immigration waves such as Chile and Colombia (Ferrada et al., 2022), nor were studies conducted in Spanish. The lack of studies could indicate the public policies for the insertion of qualified human resources like immigrant teachers in the countries of the global South were overlooked, or an academic silence about these initiatives in the scientific literature.
Furthermore, we observe that the studies conducted are mostly qualitative with diverse objectives—not only showing the impact and implications of undergoing an initiative for immigrant teachers—and data collection strategies. The lack of quantitative studies does not allow for the visualization, for example, of how many teachers have been recertified or mentored, how many have obtained permanent positions in their workplaces, and what grades and subjects they teach, among others. Updated data by country and concentrated in some international organization such as the IOM or UNESCO would not only give researchers more efficient access to information, but also allow them to formulate the research needed to advance training policies for immigrant teachers.
Regarding the second research question about the characteristics of the initiatives for immigrant teachers, it was observed that Australia and Canada have this type of initiative available by province. These same countries have the largest number of published studies, probably due to their long history of qualified immigration and the early measures for solving teacher shortages, but also due to accumulated experience.
Regarding the initiatives of recertification, it was observed to cover at least three substantial kinds of content, despite their differences in duration and credits. These are teaching knowledge, knowledge of the local school system and school practice. These training plans are in line with the basic components of teacher training, except for the disciplinary aspect; in fact, in some countries the plans are the same as those for the training of local teachers.
In general, a larger gap is observed regarding the professional development offering for immigrant teachers. Only a few studies address this topic (Brunold, 2018; Donlevy et al., 2016; Myles et al., 2006), and their reports are not sufficiently thorough to allow for conclusions. There is ample evidence that indicates that supporting teachers during their first years in the school system, through mentorships conducted by an experienced peer, is beneficial for new teachers (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011; Mercado & Trumbull, 2018). A relevant consideration when creating both public and private initiatives for immigrant teachers is that initiatives not only provide options to access the teaching profession in new countries, but also aim for their retention at schools, cooperation opportunities (Wexler, 2020), the development of a sense of belonging (Al-Shakrchy & Jansson, 2021; Economou, 2021; Proyer et al., 2019), their acceptance in the new system, and a gentle transition to their new school culture (Author et al., 2022). Likewise, intercultural tutorship is recommended (Mercado & Trumbull, 2018), that is, having a mentor who has explicit knowledge of the school culture and the culture of the new immigrant teacher. The lack of publications in this field may be related to the fact that immigrant teachers are considered experienced and therefore do not need to be included. Another reason could be related to the little concern for retaining immigrant teachers from some countries.
One of the characteristics shared by most initiatives is the existence of both public and private institutions involved, whether in the design or management of recertification. We consider this a positive signal, since a good organization of roles generates better workflow and distribution, and consequently this task is not only in the hands of training institutions like universities. Nevertheless, careful consideration is needed regarding the access to the entry information and roles fulfilled by each organization, as it can create more bureaucracy (Al-Shakrchy & Jansson, 2021; Marom, 2017; McDaid & Nowlan, 2022) or confusion about the information provided when there is more than one organization involved (Marom, 2017).
In turn, despite not being a common characteristic, we underscore initiatives in which migrant teachers have been incorporated (Brunold, 2018) as another way of integration and support for their peers, as this allows for a sense of belonging to the host country and may generate more trust in the newly arrived teachers. Although the intercultural mentorships may be more beneficial for immigrant teachers, having the guidance of someone who underwent the same process may also have equal or similar positive effects. In this sense, building teacher networks (Donlevy et al., 2016) is a good alternative to support and reduce the obstacles faced by immigrant teachers.
Practical Implications
Based on the issues addressed and the main results of this work, we consider it useful to provide some practical guidelines for decision-makers on initiatives for immigrant teachers. Firstly, we see the need to create alliances and networks between countries (Author, 2024, under review), researchers, decision-makers to support those public and private organizations that do not have initiatives of this nature, and to serve as a model to improve access, attraction and even exchange of immigrant teachers to the profession.
We also see the need for policy makers to consider the experiences of faculty when creating initiatives. These may not always meet the needs of immigrant teachers, and repeating one or more years of university may not be the best way out for all of them.
Another aspect is the reinforcement of initiatives created mainly for the retention and continuous training development of teachers (Mercado & Trumbull, 2018), since, being the least found in the research, it seems that the investment is more focused on access, given what we observed in our study. Supporting teachers who are already in the system, even with their own initiatives emanating from school leaders, could help teachers create a sense of belonging to the community (Reid et al., 2014a) and feel valued for their contributions to the education of the countries that host them (Ennerberg & Economou, 2022), so as not to lose valuable human resources that are currently in short supply.
Also, we recommend making access more flexible without altering the quality of these initiatives and unbureaucratic procedures that may exist when it comes to accessing a professional space, thinking that these teachers can be an option to expand the diversity of teachers in schools and address the urgency of the lack of teachers in the world (UNESCO Institute Statistics, 2016). Starting the discussion by asking, how many good immigrant teachers are being left out of the school system? This could be a starting point.
Finally, as an implication for research, we believe it is important for the scientific community to systematize terms such as migrant teacher (Author, 2024, under review), immigrant teacher, among others, because the large amount of terminology used to refer to the same group makes it difficult to retrieve sources and slows down the review of studies. We understand that research on this topic is of interest from different areas and perspectives, but an agreement is needed to facilitate the retrieval of sources. Congresses on the subject can be a good space for this discussion.
Limitations
We observed in the literature a great number of terms used to refer to immigrant teachers (e.g., foreign trained teacher, internationally educated/trained teachers, overseas trained teacher and global teacher, among others), a fact that has already been reported upon (Ferrada & Flores-Fernández, 2024, under review), because it hinders information searches.
Other limitations are related to the databases. Firstly, the authors’ access to resources that require subscription, which leaves out of reach studies published in other paid databases to which they did not have access. On the other hand, the databases may have cultural and language biases, which could exclude studies relevant to the topic.
Lastly, the heterogeneity of the documents analyzed in terms of scope, purpose and design could make it difficult to generalize the findings.
Future Directions
In view of the gaps in this study, we consider it necessary to point out some directions. Hand in hand with the expansion of initiatives is the generation of lines that allow us to know the reception, benefits and implications that these have for immigrant teachers. The call is to question, among others, which initiatives are the most effective in attracting and retaining immigrant teachers in the school system? Is peer mentor support effective for immigrant teachers? Is an immigrant peer mentor more effective than a local peer mentor? Do immigrant teachers need to spend one or more years at university to access a position or do they need other types of support? In the face of shortages, how do you attract and at the same time fill these positions in teachers’ home countries? How many teachers worldwide have benefited from access, retention and professional development initiatives? How many immigrant teachers are left without access to these initiatives and why?
Conclusion
Although some administrative and educational measures seemed to promote access to reinsertion for migrant teachers, studies reporting on this still seem to be scarce and leave us with several outstanding issues. In this scoping review we have detected some research gaps that need to be addressed. Broadening the view of the novice teacher as someone who, regardless of his or her experience, is inserted or reinserted into the educational system as someone new, could benefit immigrant teachers, giving them the possibility to participate in initiatives where they are mentored or induced, or to open spaces of discussion for reforms of existing teaching policies. Likewise, observing the professional development of these teachers should inform us whether these teachers benefit from this type of initiatives, and whether it effectively helps them in their retention in school, once they are inserted. It may even shed light on whether they need any particular type of professional development that is different from that of local teachers.
On the other hand, the lack of studies that report on initiatives in countries of recent immigration, countries whose language is not a majority, would be a great contribution to research, to understand the cultural differences and the changes or improvements they make for the integration of professionals who find themselves in shortage. Creating partnerships with researchers who have a larger knowledge base on the subject may be a good strategy. Also, joint efforts are needed to provide databases of teachers at the international level, in order to facilitate access to this information to expand the number of quantitative studies that seem to be very few and that could complement the qualitative knowledge base in this area. In this sense, the call is to nation states and international organizations to populate their databases and share them with the academic world.
Given the shortage of teachers in the world, it is important to have more initiatives that facilitate their insertion, and give them more access guarantees, retention and less bureaucratic obstacles, as this may cause the exclusion of suitable teachers and highly qualified staff. The effective integration of migrant teachers would address the teacher shortage crisis affecting many education systems worldwide. But not only that, it would also enrich the educational environment with diverse pedagogical and cultural approaches, promoting a more inclusive education, preparing students to interact in intercultural and globalized societies. Therefore, it is important to design support programs that enable the effective integration and adaptation of migrant teachers to new educational environments, eliminating barriers that hinder their incorporation.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by ANID/Fondecyt Inicación num. 11240958 and the Center for Migration Studies at Universidad de Santiago de Chile.
Data Availability Statement
Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.