Abstract
This article explores the narratives of local public officials involved in leading efforts to develop climate change policies in innovative Turkish municipalities. The objective of the article is to offer insights into the leadership roles of these public officials, aiming to uncover distinct leadership features while crafting climate change policies within Turkish municipalities and to propose distinctive types of leadership they exhibited. To elucidate the dimensions of public officials’ leadership, the research employs a narrative research approach. Accordingly, leadership features identified from the literature are utilized as the analytical framework for the narratives. The results demonstrate that the interviewed public officials exhibited common leadership attributes that impact the shaping of climate change policies. This is particularly valuablein cases where the central government may not be sufficiently ambitious in taking steps forward. Additionally, the research indicates that officials’ leadership styles vary, even though they exhibit common leadership features.
Plain language summary
In this research, I look into the narratives of public officials in Turkish municipalities leading efforts to develop climate change policies. I aim to uncover the distinct leadership features exhibited by these officials, shedding light on their roles in shaping climate policies within local governments. Addressing the climate crisis requires significant transformations in human systems, and local leadership is crucial in this process. Through the study, I seek to understand the leadership roles of public officials in Turkish municipalities, acknowledging their potential impact on climate change policymaking. I employed a narrative research approach, capturing the stories of five public officials involved in pioneering climate change policymaking in Turkish municipalities. I analyzed these narratives using established criteria defining climate leadership. I found that the interviewed public officials shared common leadership attributes involving visionary thinking, taking action, and acting in a certain way; however, their leadership styles varied. I highlighted the significance of these officials in adopting a pro-environmental approach and acting within the framework of three identified key leadership features. The findings emphasize the importance of recognizing public officials, alongside well-known political leaders at the local level, for their vital role in climate change policymaking. Their consistent leadership becomes crucial when the central government lacks ambition in climate change policymaking. Acknowledging these officials’ unique advantage in assuming this responsibility can enhance climate action. However, I recognize the need for caution in generalizing case-specific findings and call for further research on political and climate leadership in different contexts to improve policymaking.
Keywords
Introduction
The climate crisis requires a deep transformation in human systems and calls for deliberate, calculated arrangements at different scales. Widely indicated, local governments are considered vital contributors to desired change to adapt to new conditions, and climate change (CC) governance holds critical importance. Accordingly, local initiatives are encouraged initiate and sustain the transformation.
Many factors are suggested as influential in making this transformation. Among them, leadership in local CC governance is identified as one of the critical factors (Benulic et al., 2022; Burch, 2010; Case et al., 2015; Dale et al., 2020; Hamin et al., 2014; Meijerink & Stiller, 2013; Pasquini et al., 2015; Romsdahl et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2009; Vignola et al., 2017). Due to the wicked nature of the CC problem, climate leadership stands out as a key determinant in transforming local governance to address CC governance including mitigation, adaptation, and mainstreaming (Meijerink & Stiller, 2013; Pasquini et al., 2015; Rogers et al., 2023).
Even though Climate Leadership (CL) is recognized as a distinct type of leadership, its roots can be traced back to the literature on Environmental (Sustainability) Leadership (EL), where it intersects with various other forms of leadership (Benulic et al., 2022). Both EL and CL have garnered attention at international,regional, and national levels (e.g., Crowley & Nakamura, 2018; Eckersley, 2016; Hurri, 2023; Oberthür & Dupont, 2021), as well as at local and individual scales (e.g., Hofstad & Vedeld, 2021; Pasquini et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2014, 2020) or as a collective form (e.g., Gram-Hanssen, 2021; Kuenkel, 2019). Through the collective and polycentric forms of leadership, the local scale has gained more attention, leaving the individual scale less explored. Moreover, the individual-scale EL/CL is generally discussed in terms of political leadership mostly referring to mayors, or within the work of organizations that promote sustainability (e.g., Biedenkopf et al., 2019; Egri & Herman, 2000; Romsdahl et al., 2019).
The prevailing focus on city-level actions, although essential, tends to overlook the influential role of individuals. As a result, recognition of individuals’ role in local governments is limited (Niu et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2014; Wurzel et al., 2019) in the literature. This gap is particularly notable for Public Officials/Administrators, who play a crucial role in the day-to-day implementation of environmental policies at the local level (Niu et al., 2018; Rogers et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2014, 2020). Addressing this gap becomes imperative in societies where the agency of Public Officials (POs) is significant especially in contexts where legislative participation is limited and civic society is still developing, as observed in some Asian countries (Wang et al., 2020).
In Turkey, which is a country with a unitary and hierarchical government structure, the central government’s approach to CC policymaking and governance is not enthusiastic (Yazar & York, 2023), if not recessive. Consequently, there is a heightened significance of initiatives and leadership at the local level. Scholarly work underscores the role of cities (Gedikli & Balaban, 2018; Peker & Ataöv, 2021) as leaders due to the central government’s passive stance. Therefore, local initiatives, including those led by municipalities, are deemed crucial because municipalities have a certain level of authority to create and enforce policies (Yazar & York, 2023). While these municipalities are acknowledged as pivotal leaders, the role of POs within these municipalities has not been thoroughly investigated in the Turkish context.
In previous research (see Erbil et al., 2022), it has been observed that specific POs in Turkish municipalities have demonstrated exemplary qualities in their CC policymaking initiatives within the local government framework. These individuals have not only become influential figures in the daily operations of local government but have also played a crucial role in initiating and facilitating transformative changes in the realm of CC policymaking.
In the current landscape, examining the role played by POs in CC governance at the local level not only represents a gap in existing literature but also an unexplored aspect within the Turkish context. From this standpoint, it is argued that certain POs in Turkish local governments had been instrumental in advancing CC policymaking while embodying leadership qualities. Building on this assertion, this article’s objective is to provide insights into the leadership roles of these POs, aiming to uncover distinct leadership features based on the theoretical backdrop and propose distinct types of leadership they exhibited while developing CC policies within Turkish municipalities. To elucidate the dimensions of POs’ leadership, the research employs a narrative research approach, a method not commonly utilized in environmental/climate leadership studies.
The study’s overarching significance lies in unveiling the pivotal role of POs in shaping CC policymaking, not only at the local governance level but also in influencing broader policy trajectories. By recognizing and fostering the leadership qualities of POs, the research underscores their impact in navigating the challenges posed by CC policymaking and implementation in Turkish municipalities. This contribution fulfills a literature gap and proposes recommendations for leveraging the leadership potential of POs in local government settings. The article commences by providing a theoretical foundation in leadership and environmental/climate leadership, followed by a methodological overview. It proceeds to scrutinize the narratives of five POs actively involved in CC policymaking within Turkish municipalities, discussing their leadership features and proposed leadership types. The conclusion synthesizes key findings, offers recommendations, and acknowledges limitations.
Theoretical Backdrop on Leadership, Environmental, and Climate Leadership
Leadership is a critical factor in shaping the policy responses of local governments to CC (Dale et al., 2020; Qi et al., 2008; Romsdahl et al., 2019). It plays a pivotal role in empowering local governments to leverage current momentum and advancements in addressing CC, occurring at various scales and types (individual, city, state, or national). Leadership can be a barrier, enabler, or constraint of CC adaptation and policymaking in local governments (Burch, 2010; Dale et al., 2020; Hjerpe et al., 2015; Measham et al., 2011; Shi, 2019; Shi et al., 2015), especially in the absence of legislation that could structure self-organized and self-regulated governance systems (Heinen et al., 2022). Beyond CC governance, leadership influences the emergence and effective implementation of environmental policies (Evans et al., 2015) and plays a key role in the overall sustainability policy response of local governments (Gram-Hanssen, 2021; Hughes et al., 2018; Kuenkel, 2019). The study of CL is interconnected with various disciplines, but it is somewhat bounded by general leadership concepts. Therefore, an approach is taken to make connections to highlight its definitions, types, and features.
Definitions
Leadership is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that involves mobilizing people toward a common purpose and establishing contextual power relationships between leaders and followers (Nye, 2008, p. 18). This traditional definition, while foundational, is just one perspective within the “ever-evolving, never defined” (Gallagher, 2012, p. 4) concept of leadership. Various theories and traditions exist, reflecting the complexity of leadership (see Gallagher, 2012), with a notable shift from individual and institutional leadership toward a recognition of leadership as a collaborative, joint action (Gram-Hanssen, 2021; Kuenkel, 2019) influenced by socio-cultural-temporal contexts (Sancino, 2021).
Within the broader discourse on leadership, a distinctive strand, EL, has emerged, deliberatively focusing on ecological contexts. Niu et al. (2018, p. 175) specify EL at the individual level; “… as a person who is more aware of eco-centric values and personally more committed to organizational change through various innovative approaches” (Boiral et al., 2009). Redekop (2010) characterizes EL as an active concern for the natural environment. Following the trends in general leadership discussion, EL understanding has shifted from individual/institutional based to contextual/complex/collective/polycentric (Benulic et al., 2022; Hofstad et al., 2022). Reflecting this notion, EL is recognized as an emergent eco-leadership discourse. It contrasts with traditional industrial leadership which ignores ecological needs, emphasizing that EL arises from interactions and actions of individuals within an ecological system (Western, 2010; Wielkiewicz & Stelzner, 2010, p. 22).
Building upon the foundations of environmental and sustainability leadership, CL “… has carved out its research niche” (Benulic et al., 2022, p. 1019). Given the complex, uncertain, and abstract nature of the climate crisis, CL is considered essential in addressing CC, with leaders seen as “agents of change who are of central importance in CC mitigation and adaptation” (Wurzel et al., 2019, p. 1). In the context of this research, CL is defined as the decisions and actions taken by individuals, organizations, and governments to tackle CC. For more specific purposes of this research, CC leaders are described as creative, generative, and committed individuals who inspire others to take action and contribute to the institutionalization of CC policymaking and implementation at the local level.
Besides definitions, scholarly work indicates that various types of leadership associated with different characteristics exist.
Types and Features
As in the case of the leadership definition, CL types are bound to general discussion in leadership and EL. Some widely-mentioned leadership types are listed in Parker and Karlsson (2015) as structural leadership, directional leadership, instrumental, and idea-based leadership, also referred to as entrepreneurial, intellectual, or instrumental (Parker et al., 2012). Nye (2008) makes a distinction between charismatic-non-charismatic leadership and transformational-transactional leadership. In an institutional context, leadership types include structural, cognitive, entrepreneurial, and exemplary (Liefferink & Wurzel, 2017; Wurzel & Connelly, 2011; Young, 1991). Specific to CC adaptation, Meijerink and Stiller (2013) highlight that there could be different types of leadership depending on the leadership function: policy leadership, connectivity leadership, complexity leadership, and sustainability leadership. In multilevel and polycentric climate governance, Wurzel et al. (2019) identify four types of leadership: structural, entrepreneurial, cognitive, and exemplary. These leadership types are considered specific to CC governance, but they draw from existing leadership literature that spans various levels and research areas. Hofstad and Vedeld (2021) reflect on city CL as the responsible body of city government and its administration. They utilize public administration theories to identify four distinct types of city CL: transformative, transactional, pragmatic, and co-creational leadership, which indeed combine individual, organizational, and even collective aspects of the CC leadership concept.
However, the literature also indicates that a dominant actor-based conceptualization of leadership is challenged in favor of collective/interactive process leadership. There has been a shift toward an understanding of leadership “in the plural,” considering shared leadership, collective leadership, or networked leadership (Gram-Hanssen, 2021, p. 521). In brief, “[t]hese theories argue that leadership is not only exercised by those having a formal leadership position [such as mayors] but may also be exercised by like civil servants, private parties, active citizens [as non-positional leaders], and leadership often is the result of interactions between such formal and informal leaders” (Scholten et al., 2015, p. 1025).
The theoretical backdrop on leadership types underscores the diversity inherent in such classifications. While this section introduces several types, it acknowledges the difficulty of covering all existing variations. However, this diverse array significantly influenced the present study in three key ways. Firstly, it is seen that the connection between general leadership types and CL types remains, despite the nuanced distinctions in their definitions. However, some examples exist that indicate distinct CL types (e.g., Meijerink & Stiller, 2013). Secondly, the literature review has revealed the possibility of identifying various leadership types beyond established classifications when necessary or desired. However, paramount to this study is the recognition and understanding of the value of CL originating from different scales. Accordingly, this article places particular emphasis on the importance of considering individual-level CL, given its significant impact within the broader context, specifically in the Turkish context.
Within this theoretical framework, this article deliberately avoids discussing “heroic leaders,” as termed by Nye (2008). Instead, the focus is directed toward leaders integrated within the everyday practices of local government. Furthermore, although individuals were the focal point of this investigation, the limitations of the actor-based perspective is acknowledged. Yet, as underlined by Wang et al. (2020), in particular geographies where collaborative involvement is limited in environmental policymaking, individuals in the public sector become more significant, including non-elected officials as well as selected ones (Burch, 2010; Hamin et al., 2014), which is believed to be the case for certain POs in Turkish municipalities.
The features of leadership, including CL, hold a different position than the types. The attributes of climate leaders constitute a significant focus for this research. The features indicated below, derived from the existing literature, provide the essential characteristics needed to comprehend and analyze the leadership qualities exhibited by POs, who shared their narratives and storylines in CC policymaking, in Turkish municipalities.
The CC leadership literature emphasizes three groups of features as influential: Visionary thinking, skills related to taking action, and acting in a certain way (See Table 1 in the Research Approach section). The most frequently emphasized leadership feature relates to vision. Having a clear and shared vision (Egri & Herman, 2000; Nye, 2008; Timmermans et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2020) and vision-related other features such as holding strategic thinking skills (Brown, 2005; Nye, 2008; Timmermans et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2020) are indicated as the most influential ones.
(Climate) Leadership Features.
Source. Author’s own compilation.
Another group of features supports leaders in creating an environment for change. The features like the capacity to act as a change agent in their local-government institutions (Brown, 2005) and the capability to direct followers (or other actors) in the same direction (Boiral, 2007; Nye, 2008; Parker et al., 2012; Xavier et al., 2017) could be seen as compelling aspects. In displaying leadership, individuals need to connect with others. Thus, possessing communication skills, networking, and displaying teamwork (Nye, 2008; Olsson et al., 2006; Ruppert-Winkel, 2018; Timmermans et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2020) become vital features of leaders.
Values or personal priorities play a role in leadership character, particularly for CC issue, such as embracing environmental values and demonstrating responsible behavior (Taylor, 2012; Wang et al., 2020). Moreover, personal background and individual intent to utilize and enhance knowledge are worth noting, such as being open to learning (Nye, 2008).
Research Approach
This research is designed to examine the leadership qualities of POs and underscore their pivotal role in addressing the challenges of CC policymaking and implementation within Turkish municipalities. To identify these leadership qualities, I utilized features revealed from the literature review, commonly associated with individuals labeled as leaders. These attributes, outlined in Table 1 and categorized into three main groups, formed the basis for developing interview questions and analyzing the data collected during interviews.
While essential data was obtained through interviews, the research predominantly employed a narrative approach. The narratives provided by POs were used to elucidate the context of their leadership roles in local municipalities.
Narrative research is a qualitative methodology that draws its data from narratives, which are defined as the representation of events, to explore individuals’ interpretations and descriptions of their personal experiences (Abbott, 2008; Squire, 2008). Although narrative researchers obtain narratives from various written and oral sources, they usually access personal stories by interacting with narrators through structured or semi-structured interviews or informal conversations (Ollerenshaw & Creswell, 2002; Squire, 2013). Collected narratives are evaluated through listening, recording, reading, and analyzing to comprehensively understand and explain relevant issues and develop new ideas, concepts, and theories (Carless & Douglas, 2017; Riessman, 2013; Squire et al., 2019).
The research employs the narrative research approach for two primary reasons. Firstly: prior research (see Erbil et al., 2022) suggests that sound CC policymaking started with making CC related plans at the local level in Turkey. Furthermore, these successful municipalities in CC policymaking have influential political leaders (mayors) as well as POs who played a crucial role, sometimes orchestrating the process. These invisible leaders hint at a story behind their actions, prompting the need to listen and learn from their narratives. Moreover, in Turkey, CC policy development in municipalities was not mature enough to thoroughly examine the longitudinal developments of specific programs in these local governments. The number and scope of these programs were limited. Therefore, a qualitative examination of these development processes was necessary, and narratives played a crucial role in deeply understanding this somewhat hidden process. Secondly, the choice is influenced by Case et al. (2015), who emphasize the importance of narratives in EL and its growing relevance in governance. They particularly stress the oversight of EL narratives in scholarly work, especially in non-western contexts. Consequently, the research adopts a narrative research approach to achieve its objectives and contribute to addressing a literature gap.
Upon deciding that the narrative approach is suitable for this investigation, the research process started with the selection of POs (See Figure 1). I concentrated on the municipalities that initiated CC-related plans, and with an emphasis on those considered early (leaders) in this initiative. Initially, document research was employed to identify appropriate POs. However, the systematic selection was ultimately accomplished through the Covenant of Mayors (CoM) network’s member list.
Selection process of interviewed public officials.
The decision to use the CoM member list was not arbitrary. In Turkey, except the first CC-related plan implemented by a municipality, all subsequent CC-related plans/programs were initiated under the guidance of the CoM network. Therefore, utilizing the CoM member list ensured the inclusion of every municipality with a CC-related plan. This approach involved examining the CoM network’s member list to ascertain which municipalities had taken action in CC planmaking, focusing on the period between 2010 and 2017. As of April 2022, I identified 16 municipalities that became network members and completed a CC-related plan during this timeframe.
To reach responsible and relevant POs involved in the initiation and sustaining process, I contacted each of the 16 municipalities via email and telephone. Ultimately, I obtained the names of only five POs. In the remaining 11 municipalities, the failure to obtain a PO’s name stemmed from two reasons: either I could not locate a responsible PO capable of narrating the story of this pioneering action, or in some municipalities, the CC planmaking process was predominantly initiated by external sources, leading to its inability to sustain within the municipality’s settings. Particularly, the degree of involvement of consultant firms in the planmaking process affects this situation. While the number of POs selected did not encompass all 16 municipalities with CC-related plans, the chosen 5 POs are considered sufficient to represent major characteristics. This adequacy is based on the recognition of these POs and their municipalities, which extend beyond local government circles to include academic circles with an interest in CC policymaking.
In the course of this process, an application was submitted to the university’s Social and Human Sciences Human Research Ethics Committee to facilitate interviews with POs. Subsequently, necessary research permissions were obtained from the board. Permission was presented to the POs before the survey and interviews. The interviewees were thoroughly briefed on their rights and responsibilities and received detailed information about the project’s context. Additionally, they were informed about how their statements and ideas would be used in the research. Consent was obtained from them through the surveys and for a second time at the outset of the interviews.
In collaboration with Mehmet Eroğlu, a mini-survey in May 2022 provided context for upcoming interviews with POs, and helping us identify potential topics. Administered via email, the survey responses were reviewed and noted in preparation for the interviews. Subsequently, in June and July 2022, we conducted one-hour to one-and-a-half-hour interviews with each PO through using an online conference system. Additionally, six months after the initial interviews, we posed follow-up questions to the POs, receiving their responses in either written or oral form . All interviews were recorded, transcribed, and digitally stored.
The transcribed narrations were carefully reviewed twice. The first reading aimed to grasp the overall context and details, while the second focused on assessing their relevance to leadership features. The data analysis utilized leadership features derived from a literature review (see Table 1). Each PO’s narrative was scrutinized, with relevant sections categorized into three leadership feature groups: “visionary thinking,”“taking action,” and “acting in a certain way.” The examination focused on whether POs exhibited leadership characteristics within these groups. Sections that did not align with these features were further explored for signs of other unique characteristics. The Foreword and Epilogue sections, which discuss POs and their leadership, were shaped by these distinct parts. Lastly, to ensure ethical considerations, each interviewee was assigned a codename when referencing their narration in the article, despite the POs expressing a willingness to share their names. The section “Narratives of Prominent Public Officials and Analysis for Leadership Features and Types” provides an analysis of the interviewees’ narrations and the conclusion draws implications of these findings in CL literature and CC policymaking.
Narratives of Prominent Public Officials and Analysis for Leadership Features and Types
The Context of Climate Change Policymaking in Turkey
Turkey has a long history of addressing CC through legislation and government institutions. The 1983 Environment Law marked the country’s initial steps in addressing environmental concerns (Official Gazette of the Republic of Turkey [Official Gazette-TR], 1983). The government established various government units and developed strategies, actions, and adaptation plans in the 2000s and 2010s (T.R. Ministry of Environment and Urbanization [TR-MOEU], 2010, 2012a, 2012b). Turkey also committed to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by becoming a party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 2004 and the Kyoto Protocol in 2009 (Official Gazette-TR, 2003, 2009). In recent years, the national government has placed increased emphasis on the CC issue by renaming the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization to the Ministry of Environment, Urbanization, and Climate Change, and by establishing CC units within municipalities (Official Gazette-TR, 2021, 2022).
Despite these efforts, Turkey has seen a significant increase in GHG emissions. Between 1990 and 2021, the country’s total GHG emissions increased by 157%, from 219.5 Mton to 564.4 (TUİK, 2023), whereas the world total increased by 67% (IEA-EDGAR-CO2, 2022). Moreover, the current administration’s actions contrast with its climate-sensitive narratives, as it postponed ratification of the Paris Agreement until 2021, invested in mega projects expected to increase GHG emissions, and lacks concrete plans to eliminate fossil fuel consumption. As a result, Turkey is expected to be increasingly affected by the consequences of the CC in the future (Chandio et al., 2020; Erlat et al., 2022; Türkeş et al., 2019).
The hierarchical administrative system, with the central government as the primary decision-maker in Turkey, is a vital factor to consider when examining the context of CC issue. Turkey has traditionally been centralized, and attempts to decentralize the country in the early 2000s were short-lived, and with re-centralization resurging with the transition to a presidential system in 2018 (Orhan, 2019). This political hierarchy, coupled with the current administration’s lack of prioritization of the CC issue (Balaban, 2017, 2019; Eroglu & Erbil, 2021; Mazlum, 2017; Şahin, 2016; Turhan & Gündoğan, 2019; Turhan et al., 2016), makes it challenging for local-governments to secure political and financial support for CC initiatives from the central government (Balaban, 2017; Erbil et al., 2022; Eroglu & Erbil, 2021; Turhan et al., 2016).
As a result, CC activities at the local level are often undertaken as independent initiatives, highlighting the significance of CL in municipalities in driving such efforts. Thus, the emergence of CC leaders in the Turkish local-governments within this atmosphere is not surprising. Well-known mayors and municipalities emerged that engaged in CC policymaking. However, besides mayors, some POs were influential in this process. I introduce five of them and their narratives.
Foreword About the Public Officials
The first public official, Daphne is a city planner with extensive training and certifications. She led early CC policy initiation and successfully sustained and institutionalized these efforts in a district municipality over two decades. She served as a city planner in two local-governments, and was appointed as the head of the Environmental Protection and Control Department (EPCD) in one of them, where she led the municipality to participate in early CC policy and planmaking processes.
Yasmin is the second PO I contacted. Yasmin is educated as a civil engineer with a focus on transportation and holds a Ph.D. degree in this field. She worked as a full-time PO in a metropolitan municipality to serve in different departments and was appointed to the EPCD as the head, where she played a key role in completing the first CC related plan in a Turkish local-government. After leaving this appointment due to a change of a mayor, she served as the head of EPCD in another metropolitan municipality. Now she consults with municipalities and focuses on her academic career.
Iris, the third public official, has a city planning background and significant connections to a Transnational Municipality Network (TMN). Leveraging her previous role as head of the Survey and Projects Department, she took a proactive role in CC policymaking as the head of the EPCD. During her service, the metropolitan municipality became the first in Turkey to establish a CC adaptation plan. Currently, she utilizes her TMN ties to work toward improving the quality of life in cities within the same municipality.
Another PO, Rose, has a business administration degree at both the undergraduate and master’s levels. She has served as head of different departments within the local-government in her over-20-year career. According to Rose, her appointment to the EPCD was by chance. However, she enjoyed being in this position where, with the initiation of the mayor of the time, the first CC policymaking steps were taken. Despite interruptions due to changes in mayors, she remained committed to CC policymaking efforts.
The last PO, Daisy, is an environmental engineer and the youngest among the other participants. She has been working in a progressive district municipality on environmental initiatives. Although she was committed to the development of CC related policy and plan, the first steps were taken by the other POs in the same department but in different offices. When those officials retired, she became the head of the EPCD. Her commitment to environmental policymaking and a stable political environment contributed to her influential position as the head of EPCD.
Presenting and Analyzing Narratives of Public Officials for Leadership Features and Types
As presented in section two, the literature indicated that the notion of leadership exhibited different types and is attached to various features. The identified features derived from the literature were categorized into three groups (see Table 1) to guide the interviews and analysis of the narrations. This categorization was validated by the narrations as well, since. Because the interviews with the POs indicated that there is a similar path that they and their municipalities follow. First, these officials and/or their municipalities set a vision toward CC related policymaking. Second, taking action toward this vision, and third, acting in a certain way. The previous research also indicates a similar context and emphasizes the vitality of an appropriate leadership style (Vignola et al., 2017). To illuminate the process, the narrations of the interviewed POs were shared and analyzed under three sub-headings: visionary thinking, taking action toward change, and acting in a certain way. The analysis included an examination of narrations within the framework of identified features under each sub-heading. Additionally, relevant statements from POs were then presented through either direct citation or rephrasing.
Visionary Thinking
According to the leadership literature, vision and visionary way of thinking are of the utmost importance and most frequently emphasized features. These features include: Having a clear and shared vision (Burch, 2010; Egri & Herman, 2000; Nye, 2008; Timmermans et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2020), innovation (Burch, 2010; Qi et al., 2008; Timmermans et al., 2014), original thinking (Brown, 2005; Timmermans et al., 2014), inspiring motivation (Wang et al., 2020), holding strategic thinking (Brown, 2005; Nye, 2008; Timmermans et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2020), and diversity of ideas (Olsson et al., 2006; See Table 1). POs interviewed also expressed the importance of having a vision of the CC issue. The first point they made on this issue was that there should be a vision that does not stay within the boundaries of the current system. Setting a vision requires thinking outside of the extant system. Rose pointed out this way of thinking: There are mandatory duties in the municipalities; if you do not do them, you will be held accountable and questioned. And there are some issues that your horizon determined […] Until now, work on CC has been entirely from this (second) perspective.
Iris states that CC policymaking was voluntary, and POs “…didn’t have any CC related duties.” And adds that “all municipalities that have taken steps so far have actually made a difference with the steps taken by mayors or administrators in our position.” However, all of the POs indicated that CC is a long-term project and requires a vision for 20–50 years. The mayor will not see the results of any plan that they make today in the 5-year election period, but they have to persuade voters to support these long-term projects. As a result, political leaders do not prioritize the CC issue.
Therefore, four POs interviewed declared that no one asked them to take initiative on the issue. The starting point for each was different, but all of them took a step to embrace and share a vision toward initiating policy regarding the CC issue. As Iris denotes, “no one ever said” to them what to do. Daphne noted that they “…hardly convinced the mayor” and explained how her municipality signed a goodwill agreement as the start of their first CC related action. Iris explains this path as a process and effort coupled with progressive goals. Thus, while these four POs were inspiring motivation in their institution, they also exhibited strategic thinking skills by integrating diverse ideas and solutions, reconceptualizing issues, and being innovative. Yasmin, who holds the most entrepreneurial approach, gives an example of this type of strategic thinking: All municipalities are working on public transport. All municipalities are working on wastewater treatment. However realizing that the CC action plan is a big umbrella and adding all of those projects under that big umbrella has enabled us to turn the rudder toward the EU’s goals.
Supporting this point, Rose paid attention to the institutional structure in which most of the CC related works are under the responsibility of different municipality departments. Or, as in Iris’ experience, the CC vision was strategically integrated with the concept of healthy cities. Daisy points to the reconceptualization of urban agricultural activities to support the CC vision. On the other hand, Daphne found opportunities to serve CC policymaking within the current legal framework, often encouraged district-based decisions (e.g., plan decisions), and, when possible, brought these decisions to the city council for signature.
They are all aware that the vision toward CC policymaking should be coupled with strategic thinking, which requires holistic, integrated, and innovative approaches to create opportunities. Overall, having visionary thinking sets these POs apart and gives them a goal to keep going.
Taking Action Toward Change
After setting a vision, it is vital to take actions that make a difference. Therefore, POs, deliberatively or not, took action to make a change. In the literature, these types of transformative activities that support leaders in creating an environment for change are associated with certain features such as acting as a change agent (Brown, 2005), bending the road towards desired direction (Nye, 2008), seeing and using opportunities (Nye, 2008; Olsson et al., 2006), supporting institutionalization and embedding (Burch, 2010; Dale et al., 2020; Pasquini et al., 2015), being a role model (Wang et al., 2020), directing other actors (Boiral, 2007; Nye, 2008; Parker et al., 2012; Xavier et al., 2017; See Table 1). Interviewed POs illustrated similar features in taking steps toward the adopted vision.
On the road toward change, taking initiative upholds considerable importance. Among the interviewees, Yasmin believes in taking action to start the CC planmaking process and states: So is there a need for a regulation or a law for the municipality to make this plan? … we came here as the municipal administration … to serve the people of this city … Does it have to be regulated? No.
Iris adds, “…there was no one who said, ‘You better do this, and you better do that’…”. Having executive experience in the Survey and Projects Department in the municipality and a TMN, Iris saw CC related policymaking as another project that needed to be initiated by the municipality. As with Yasmin and Iris, Daphne emphasizes the importance of initiating change. Daphne thinks that a leader in CC policymaking should boldly take the initiative to create a work environment and build a team. Although Daphne states that only mayors as political leaders can carry these features, she accepts that POs can also do this, as she declares “I believe that I have started a transformation in the municipality.”
Besides taking initiative, POs reflect three distinctive features for transformation: seeing and utilizing opportunity windows, convincing key actors and supporters to take action, and opening the way for institutionalization and embedding. These features paved the way for CC policymaking and implementation at the municipal level, even though the central government was ignorant or reluctant to exhibit ambition.
The starting point of CC policymaking in Turkish municipalities is not the same but similar: a political leader, a PO, or a directorate in the municipality brought the subject and possibility to initiate CC related, primarily international, collaborations on plan/policymaking (See Erbil et al., 2022). Subsequently, the political leader or one of the POs voluntarily took responsibility/action for pursuing the path and urging the people/institutions to change for the institutionalization of the CC perspective. Therefore, besides setting a vision, being able to see an opportunity window and taking the most benefit from it becomes another vital point.
Two POs, Yasmin and Daphne, used the opportunity windows directed to their municipality from external sources. While Yasmin was head of the EPCD in her municipality, she had the opportunity to hear the experiences/practices of other local-governments at international meetings for various subjects, including CC. During one such meeting, she encountered the French Development Agency, which expressed interest in investing in an infrastructure project in her city. Recognizing that there was no immediate need for infrastructure investments, Yasmin saw an opportunity to propose a CC action plan instead. To bend the road toward change, her strategic thinking not only paved the way for opportunistic vision-setting but also for initiation-setting.
Daphne had an opportunity when an internationally affiliated national agency, REC, approached them to sign a goodwill pledge by the Mayor. Recognizing the potential, Daphne persuaded the mayor to sign the pledge, leading to various other opportunities. Similar to Yasmin and Daphne, Iris and Rose also seized opportunities. For Rose, becoming a member of COM and preparing a CC related plan was a project from the Foreign Relations Department, and with the mayor’s political support and the municipality’s technical assistance, she took steps forward. In Iris’s case, inspiration came from another TMN, prompting her to initiate an integrated approach to enhance the city’s quality of life, including the CC issue. Lastly, Daisy utilized the progress made during the former mayor’s tenure to focus her efforts on enhancing CC policymaking and implementation.
Each of the POs sees themselves as mediators and collaborators in the process, rather than leaders. They stress that the mayor’s leadership is crucial for initiating and sustaining visions and practices. Nevertheless, their narratives indicate that the POs themselves were the ones who brought these visions and initiatives to the forefront. In the case of four of them, they had to initially convince the mayor to support their ideas. However, Daisy benefited from her Municipality’s pre-existing strategy, which had already institutionalized the CC issue into its agenda.
This point brings us to probably the most influential aspect of change: institutionalization. The experiences of the POs interviewed show that CC related plans and practices have stopped or their speed/effectiveness has changed with the leading individuals’ dismissal or change of their place of duty. The CC issue must be permanently internalized and embedded into the system to shift it towards a CC inclusive vision. Therefore, institutionalization is a critical aspect in the long run.
The significance of institutionalization is clearly demonstrated through Rose’s experience. When she was head of the EPCD, Rose convinced the mayor to sign COM’s agreement and initiate the CC policymaking process based on the municipality’s Foreign Relations Department’s suggestion. However, her political tenure was insufficient, and she was assigned to another department. The project, which was supposed to be completed within 2 years, was shelved and forgotten. When she was reassigned to the EPCD, she encountered difficulty in meeting COM’s requirements as she had to restart the process. Since the CC issue was not institutionalized or embedded within that municipality’s system, it was depended on her leadership. So, Rose today states: I know I may not be in this position tomorrow for various reasons. But every day, I ask myself the question: What are the steps that need to be taken today to sustain this task?
Yasmin and Iris had similar experiences. Yasmin left the municipality, and Iris was transferred to another department within it. Despite their departure from the EPCD, both mentioned that the municipality’s remaining teams continued to work on CC related tasks. Yasmin, however, expressed that the municipality missed some project/financial support opportunities since they didn’t quite know what to do.
The municipalities of Daphne and Daisy stand out as the most successful among the five presented. Both have embedded CC issues into various aspects through strategic plans, zoning notes, and building codes, with dedicated teams/task groups working specifically on CC related matters. Daisy’s municipality has a longstanding history of environmental/CC policymaking institutionalized under the former mayor’s leadership. On the other hand, Daphne took the lead in her municipality and successfully maintained CC policymaking and implementation for over 15 years with 3 different mayors, crediting supportive mayors and the overall municipal atmosphere as contributing factors to her success.
All of the POs are firm believers in institutionalization. Their approach and tenure in their duties are critical in driving change. The narratives highlight that if there is no multi-term elected mayor as the leader, the success of institutionalization largely depends on the efforts of the POs.
Acting in a Certain Way
The narratives showed that there is a certain way of acting on the path, starting from vision-setting to arriving at a system change which is supported by features associated with “how to act” (See Table 1).
The narrations reveal that POs engage in continuous communication on various platforms for different purposes. They communicate with external and internal individuals/institutions to learn from them, seek political/technical/financial support, persuade others to collaborate, form teams, and participate in networks. Building strong communication with the mayor and maintaining contact with TMNs, professional institutions, academics, and other POs from central and local governments are among their top priorities.
All of these actions align with leadership features highlighted in the literature. They include possessing communication skills (Nye, 2008; Olsson et al., 2006; Ruppert-Winkel, 2018; Timmermans et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2020), the ability building teamwork or collaboration (Burch, 2010; Timmermans et al., 2014), facilitating networking (Ruppert-Winkel, 2018; Timmermans et al., 2014), moving across different levels (Olsson et al., 2006), addressing and dealing with complexity (Xavier et al., 2017), and displaying ambition (Timmermans et al., 2014).
Iris pointed out, “[i]ndeed, climate change is a project that touches everything and everyone” since, as Rose indicates, most of the work to be done is the responsibility of different departments/units of the municipality. Therefore, it is vital to communicate with others. Rose emphasizes the importance of internal collaboration: “[If] they are not involved, you are blocked somewhere.” Iris states: “It was necessary to correspond with institutions … [and] … other units in the municipalities.” She particularly emphasizes the importance of university-municipality collaboration to reach scientific knowledge, find solutions, and convince the political community.
The POs took advantage of opportunity windows to broaden the scope and implementation of CC policies. They integrated various related issues into CC policies, adopting a holistic approach. As Iris puts it, “CC is not only a subject of the environment; it is a factor that affects everything about people and the city.” Therefore, recognizing the complexity of environmental issues and the need to address different scales are also strategically important. To achieve a comprehensive approach, Yasmin proposed using CC as an “umbrella subject” encompassing multiple projects, such as solid-waste disposal and management, producing CNG from solid-waste for running public buses, reforestation, water treatment, tram projects (Yasmin), the “zero waste” campaign (according to Rose), urban renewal and green building codes (suggested by Daphne), and urban agricultural activities (initiated by Daisy). This approach not only facilitates positive and crucial interrelations between different scales and actors, but it also supports the embedding of CC policy in different issues and departments as Dale et al. (2020) indicate.
In all these actions, the interviewed POs displayed ambition and passion for the subject, which positively impacted the process. Their initiative, vision, persuasion, negotiation, and tireless efforts were evident in their narratives. Personal attitudes and characteristics, including ambition, also played a role in the process.
Epilogue on Public Officials’ Leadership
A common presiding point revealed from the narratives is that all POs embrace environmental values, commit to pursuing sustainability, and demonstrate responsible behavior. Indeed these features correspond with Gallagher’s (2012) environmental leadership definition. Based on the path taken by POs and the personal characteristics observed during the interviews, it becomes evident that they exhibited various types of leadership in the CC policymaking process. These leadership styles mentioned here show a similarity to what Wang et al. (2020) refer to as “pro-environmental leadership.” To be more specific, by utilizing Hofstad and Vedeld’s (2021) CC leadership types, we can observe that Daphne, Yasmin, Iris, and Rose primarily displayed transactional leadership, along with some elements of pragmatic and co-creational leadership strategies. On the other hand, Daisy demonstrated mostly pragmatic and co-creational leadership strategies. Although there is a possibility of connecting the types of POs’ leadership to the aforementioned leadership types, it is more precise to suggest distinct types for each PO, as they accurately represent their unique and individual approaches.
Daphne has presented
Yasmin, although no longer in a PO position, demonstrated
Iris, currently holding a different position in the municipality, exhibited successful CC mitigation and adaptation plan organization during her time as head of the EPCD, and demonstrated
Rose demonstrates considered and
As the youngest PO, Daisy exhibits
Overall, interviewed POs have shown some form of leadership in CC policymaking within their institutions. Despite their diverse personalities and situations, they share common characteristics, environmental values, and a sense of responsibility. They all emphasize the importance of political leadership in creating a supportive and enabling environment for showcasing their abilities as POs. While they may not identify themselves as leaders, they display a kind of leadership that deserves recognition under the given circumstances. The leadership features they demonstrate align with those described in the literature. The POs demonstrate resemblances to leadership types that have been identified in previous research, particularly the pro-environmental leadership style as termed by Wang et al. (2020). However, it is important to note that, apart from entrepreneurial leadership, the leadership types discussed in this study were derived from the narratives provided by the POs themselves.
Concluding Remarks
The interviewed POs highlighted that CC related policymaking in certain Turkish municipalities did not occur solely based on central government regulations or actions taken in polycentric governance. Whether PLs or POs, it was mostly individuals who took the initiative and sustained the process. This research focused on understanding the influence of POs on the CC related policymaking process and exploring their exhibited leadership features and types. The narratives of the POs provided valuable insights into the CC related policymaking process in these pioneering municipalities, considered leaders in CC related policy and action. While not exhaustive, these narratives offer valuable information to draw CC related policymaking recommendations, especially in countries where the central government plays a dominant role. Therefore, the insights gained from this research serve a dual purpose: offering inferences for CL and inferences for CC related policymaking.
Inferences for Climate Leadership
In Turkish local-governments, which are pioneers in CC related policy, having a mayor or PO who manages the process plays a crucial role in the initiation, execution, implementation, and enhancement of the process. This research substantiates that POs should be recognized and encouraged more to take action in local-governments as suggested by Romsdahl et al. (2019, p. 738) along with PLs (Pasquini et al., 2015). Based on prior research, it is evident that PLs have the capacity to drive rapid change and create political opportunities, whereas, administrative leaders are essential in fostering proactive change and sustaining the model (Pasquini et al., 2015; Qi et al., 2008). In line with the research’s definition (See the end of Definition section), interviewed POs were regarded as CC leaders. In this study, CC leaders are characterized as creative, generative, and committed individuals who inspire others to take action and contribute to the institutionalization of climate change policymaking and implementation at the local level. The narratives presented here indicate that POs do play a role as CC leaders, although the extent and context of this role are heavily influenced by the mayor and their support and interest in the local government. This highlights that CL is bounded by these contextual elements, and the multilevel and polycentric nature of CC governance may also facilitate the leadership of POs at the local level, alongside other leaders in the process. Therefore, the system should encourage POs to take on more responsibilities and showcase their abilities as future climate leaders.
The environmental/climate leadership literature emphasizes three essential actions related to leadership features, with three being particularly significant for CL in Turkey: introducing a CC vision, convincing key actors, and facilitating institutionalization.
Developing or having a clear vision of CC is essential for taking the initial step, as without this initiation, progress would not be possible. POs took the lead in the process by convincing critical actors in decision-making processes about the urgency and importance of the CC issue. Additionally, ensuring the establishment of an organizational structure capable of sustaining CC related activities after their departure or retirement was an important responsibility undertaken by POs.
In this research, the POs demonstrated leadership features and types that align with those presented in the literature. However, the type of leadership they exhibited was somewhat unique, reflecting their individual personalities and circumstances. Among the interviewed POs, committed, entrepreneurial, progressive, and pro-environmental leadership types were observed to be influential in the pioneering municipalities.
Neverthless, the situation has changed since 2010 in terms of CC and CC related policy in Turkey. Since the severe effects of CC are already widely known, the need to introduce the CC issue in local governance has decreased, but the importance of taking action has increased. Thus, many local governments have already initiated CC related policies, and the central government has revised its organizational structure to address CC concerns. If we leave aside the discussion of how effective these actions are, we need to realize that a different leadership style is necessary now than it was 15 years ago. This research highlights an example of such leadership, proposing that the future of CL lies in relay-racer-leadership. This type of leadership follows the trailblazers’ footsteps while acting differently to drive progress. Rather than setting a vision for the present, relay-racer-leadership involves developing a vision for profound transformation and implementing it on a broad scale. This leadership style is not only applicable to POs in local governments in Turkey but also to POs in other localities worldwide that have made strides in CC policymaking.
Inferences for Climate Change Policymaking
The literature indicates that coming from different levels, leadership can play a role in CC policymaking, especially when legislation is lacking to structure a self-organized, self-regulated governance system (Heinen et al., 2022). The results of this study indicate that in certain Turkish local governments, POs demonstrated leadership, positively contributing to CC policymaking. The research also provides an example supporting existing literature that local governments can make a difference, even in countries where the central government holds more power and local governments have limited authority in CC policymaking. These pioneering local governments in Turkey have not only served as models for others but have also influenced the central government to produce policies in response to CC concerns.
The pioneering local governments that achieved influential CC policymaking demonstrated success by establishing a stable, holistic, and visionary perspective on CC policies, combined with effective institutionalization for long-term impact. This research underlines the importance of stability and continuity, not only in the overall strategy but also in the duty places/roles of administrators, whether they are mayors or POs, who play a leading role in this process. Pasquini et al. (2015), drawing from the CC adaptation experiences of two South African municipalities, emphasize the significance of political and institutional stability within local governments. They propose that appointing and retaining expert personnel in CC offices should be made mandatory to effectively mainstream CC adaptation policies, ensuring that POs remain in their positions regardless of political changes, thereby promoting institutional stability (pp. 68–69). As a policy recommendation, this research supports the idea that successful POs should remain in their positions to support institutionalization and sustainability.
In the same vein, a patient and persistent governance approach, building step by step like laying bricks, proved to be impactful. The research highlighted that merely creating a plan without a solid foundation cannot lead to the successful realization of the entire CC related policymaking and implementation. It is crucial to position CC policy as the overarching framework to address complex environmental issues and fragmented policies. This means that institutionalization, combined with embedding, is fundamental (Dale et al., 2020, p. 876).
This research indicates that POs who can demonstrate leadership roles can have a significant impact on CC policymaking in pioneering Turkish municipalities. Due to the complex and challenging nature of the CC problem, effectively addressing it demands leadership from various sectors and levels of governance (Ostrom, 2010; Torney, 2019). In these complex interactions, climate leaders can emerge at all levels, and leadership is not confined to specific actors or institutions (Benulic et al., 2022; Torney, 2019). The evidence from this research shows that POs can play an influential role within their level and context, making the recognition of POs’ leadership qualities valuable for this reason.
In conclusion, this research has shed light on the leadership exhibited by POs in pioneering CC policymaking in Turkish municipalities. While it is reasonable to consider extending these insights to other regions, it is essential to acknowledge the limitations of generalizing findings from case-specific studies. Additionally, since the emergence of POs as climate leaders in Turkey is tied to the passive stance of the central government on comprehensive CC measures, the policymaking outcomes in this research largely reflect the dynamics of such governmental environments.
By exploring the leadership features of POs in Turkish municipalities, this research has contributed to both the leadership literature and the enhancement of CC related policymaking. However, further studies are necessary to make a more significant contribution to the existing body of literature and foster more effective policymaking. Research that examines the intersection of political leadership and CL across diverse institutional settings and various geographical contexts can provide a comprehensive understanding of the complexities involved in CC related policymaking. Advancing this knowledge ultimately facilitates the development of more informed and nuanced strategies for addressing the challenges posed by CC.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the interviewees for their time and valuable insights. I am grateful to Ph.D. student Mehmet Eroğlu for his involvement in this research: he assisted with the interviews, wrote the interview transcripts, and contributed preliminary information to the sections on the “narration method” and “climate change context in Turkey.”
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work supported by Istanbul Technical University (Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri Birimi-BAP) / Grant No: SHD-2022-43880.
Ethical Approval
The involvement of human subjects in the research was approved by the ITU-Social And Human Sciences Human Research Ethics Committee under project number 263.
Data Availability Statement
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available to protect the interviewers’ anonymity and ethical concerns. However, they could be available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.