Abstract
Numerous studies have been conducted on Turkish children’s magazines during the late Ottoman period, covering a wide range of disciplines such as history, language, literature, sociology, and education. However, a majority of these studies have focused on magazines written in Arabic script, with limited attention paid to those written in other scripts. Despite their significance in Turkish children’s literature and culture, periodicals written in non-Arabic scripts have received relatively little scholarly attention to date. This study aims to address this gap by focusing on Angeliaforos Çocuklar İçün (AÇİ), a children’s magazine published in Istanbul in 1872 in Turkish using the Greek alphabet by the American Board Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM). Using a discourse-historical approach, the study employs critical discourse analysis to reveal the qualities of the idealized child presented in AÇİ. The results indicate that AÇİ, which was published as a part of the missionaries’ inculturation efforts, portrays an ideal child as virtuous, well-educated, white, European, and devoutly Christian to its readers. The article contends that AÇİ can be regarded as a unique and historical instance of “inculturation” that instructs the Karamanli children, who are Turkish-speaking Orthodox Christians, on what constitutes an ideal child.
Plain language summary
In this study, a children’s magazine published in Turkish in Greek script during the last period of the Ottoman Empire is analyzed. Angeliaforos Çocuk İçün (The Messenger for Children) was published by American Protestant missionaries in Istanbul in 1872. According to this magazine, which was published for the children of Turkish-speaking Turcophones in Anatolia, known as Karamanlides in the literature, it was tried to reveal what qualities an ideal child should have. Accordingly, an ideal child should be religious, well-educated, virtuous and Westernized. In the research, critical discourse analysis and discourse-historical analysis methods were used within the framework of inculturation. The study is noteworthy in that studies on children’s magazines in the late Ottoman period are mostly limited to Turkish children’s magazines with Arabic script. It will also contribute to studies on the activities of American missionaries toward different ethnic groups such as Karamanlides in Ottoman society.
Keywords
Sen oğlum, eyer dediğim gibi validene muhabbet gösterirsen başka çocuklar sana bakıb imrenerek deyecekler: Bu ne eyi
çocukdır… (AÇİ, 1872, p.8) “My son, if you show affection to your mother” as I said, other children will look at you with admiration and say,“What a good child he is…″” (AÇİ, 1872, p.8)
Introduction
The Ottoman Empire, one of the largest and most powerful states in terms of its geographic extent during the 19th century, experienced a tumultuous and challenging period during this era. This period saw the emergence of numerous uprisings and rebellions in the Ottoman Empire, which lagged behind other significant global developments such as the French Revolution of 1789 and the Industrial Revolution. During this century, several states, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece achieved either partial autonomy or complete independence. Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Pasha, the governor of the Egyptian province, also rebelled and gained autonomy for Egypt in 1840. In addition to that, the Ottoman Empire suffered significant defeats in several wars, including the Ottoman-Russian War, also known as the 93 War (1877–1878), resulting in the signing of treaties under harsh conditions. Western countries dominated Cyprus in 1878, Algeria in 1830, and Tunisia in 1881. Further, due to its inability to repay its foreign debts, the state was compelled to establish the Duyûn-i Umumiye İdaresi [The Public Debt Administration] in 1881. Many issues that emerged during this century, such as the Straits, minority rights, and the Armenian question, continue to be significant challenges today. The Ottoman Empire often sought assistance from major powers in the face of the difficulties it encountered. These developments exposed the empire’s limitations in protecting and governing itself. Ottoman administrators introduced several significant reforms across all aspects of social life to strengthen the state, such as the abolition of the Janissary Corps in 1826, the opening of the Imperial School of Medicine (1827), the Tanzimat Edict in 1839, the Reform Edict in 1856, and the proclamation of I. Constitutional Monarchy in 1876 (Hanioğlu, 2008).
On the other hand, during this period, the elements that constituted the Ottoman Empire engaged in various activities to construct their own culture and identity. To this end, they established many new schools, published books, magazines, and newspapers, and founded civil society organizations. Additionally, foreign states in the Ottoman Empire increased their missionary activities toward non-Muslim elements within the empire in the 19th century. In fact, missionary activities that began with the French Catholic Missionaries in the 16th century gained momentum in the early 1800s, particularly with the commencement of American Protestant missionaries. These activities, mostly conducted through the American Board Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), were primarily focused on education, health, and publishing in various regions of the empire. Within the scope of these activities, ABCFM published and distributed newspapers, magazines, and numerous books (Strong, 1910; Tracy, 1842). The primary aim of ABCFM’s activities through press, publishing, and education was not only to “enlighten” the children of the targeted communities but also, as expected, to spread Protestantism among them (Karabıçak, 2011). This can be considered as an attempt to construct a Protestant Christian identity fundamentally. Indeed, this goal is explicitly stated in the constitution of ABCFM: “The object of the Board is, to propagate the gospel among unevangelized nations and communities by means of preachers, catechists, schoolmasters, and the press” (Constitutions, laws and regulations of the American Board Commisioners for Foreing Missions [ABCFM], 1839, p.6, emphasis added).
One of the most notable target communities of the ABCFM is the Karamanlides (Anzerlioğlu, 2003), also known as the Orthodox Christians who speak Turkish in Anatolia (Benlisoy, 2010). To instill the Protestant faith in the Karamanlides, they published Turkish books and magazines using Greek script.
According to the information gathered from the ABCFM archives by Kocabaşoğlu (2000), a well-known researcher in the field of American missionary activities, out of the 249 books/pamphlets published by the ABCFM between 1866 and 1897, 41 were in Turkish with Greek script. The beginning of the ABCFM’s first periodical publication initiatives within the Ottoman territories dates back to the first half of the 19th century. Their first published magazine, The Friend of Youth (1832), was a small-sized magazine consisting of four pages. This bilingual magazine, in English and Greek, was followed by periodicals such as the Greek Journal of Useful Information, Arabic Nashra, Kavkab al-Sabaah, Muqtateef, and English Harpoot News, Station Notes (Kocabaşoğlu, 2000). Avedaper (Armenian script in Turkish), Angeliaforos Çocuklar İçün (Greek script in Turkish), and Zornitza (Bulgarian) magazines (Balta, 2014), which have the same content but are published in different languages, are closely related to the subject of this research.
Research Gap
Upon reviewing the literature, it becomes evident that numerous studies have been conducted on the activities of American missionaries during the late Ottoman period (e.g., Aksu, 2017; Alan, 2015; D. E. Amasyalı, 2020, 2022; Dodge, 1972; Doğan, 2013; Doğan & Sharkey, 2011; Kennedy, 2008; Kocabaşoğlu, 2000; Sisman, 2015; Spring, 1986; Stone, 2004, 2006; Taşkın, 2017). However, the majority of these studies primarily focus on their activities in the field of education, while research on their periodical publications remains relatively scarce (e.g., see Kocabaşoğlu, 1988).
When examining the field of Turkish children’s magazines in the 19th century, which is the main focus of this study, it is evident that previous research has primarily concentrated on Arabic-script publications, with a focus on Angeliaforos Çocuklar İçün“The Messenger for Children” (AÇİ).
Many studies have been conducted on Arabic-script Turkish children’s magazines (e.g., see; Balcı, 2002, 2014; Bayram, 2005; Bozbıyık, 2019; Ghojoghi, 2019; Gurbetoğlu, 2007; Mete, 2019; Okay, 1999, 2006; Özemekçi, 2005; Şimşek, 2002; Toprakçı, 2019; Yoran, 2019; Çapar, 2020). However, research on Turkish children’s magazines that do not use the Arabic script has been limited to a few specialists in the field (e.g., see Balta, 1999, 2010, 2013a, 2013b; Irakleous, 2014a, 2014b; Kahya, 2017; Karabıçak, 2011). Despite having a history of about 150 years, non-Arabic script Turkish children’s magazines have been neglected. However, these publications are just as significant as their Arabic-script counterparts in providing insight into Turkish children’s literature, children’s culture, Ottoman historiography, and modernization.
Objectives and Contributions of the Study
Given its pioneering role in the publication of Turkish children’s magazines during the Ottoman period of the 19th century, AÇİ warrants scholarly examination. This investigation focuses on the AÇİ magazine, which was published as part of the ABCFM’s publication activities for Karamanli children. The aim of this study is to identify the characteristics of the ideal child, based on the data presented in AÇİ as part of the inculturation efforts of American Protestant missionaries. The primary focus of this study is on children’s magazine publishing in Turkish during the late Ottoman period. However, considering the subject matter of the investigation, it is possible to suggest that it may offer a valuable contribution to a better understanding of topics such as late Ottoman historiography, the journey of modernization, publishing activities, and social and cultural changes, through the data presented in a historical children’s magazine published in Turkish using Greek letters during the 19th century Ottoman period. Given that research related to these topics is often limited to Arabic script sources, the significance of the data employed in this study becomes even more apparent.
Research Question
In this article, it is claimed that AÇİ publishers aim to present their own ideal understanding of childhood as a role model for Karamanli children. As Çapar (2021, p.55), who has studied children’s magazines of the Ottoman era in the 19th century, has also noted, children’s magazine writers and editors of that time “can construct the concept of childhood according to their own perceptions and present it to their readers as an acceptable form of childhood.” Considering the objectives of ABCFM, it would not be surprising to see messages related to the ideal child concept being abundant in AÇİ. This study attempts to answer the following question:
What qualities should the children that AÇİ idealizes as role models have?
The article comprises four sections, beginning with a section on theoretical background, followed by a description of the methodology employed in the study, presentation of the results or findings, and culminating in a concluding section.
Theoretical Background
Inculturation
Missionary activities are essentially the process of injecting the Gospel culture and belief into the local population. This process is more commonly referred to as inculturation in the literature. For example, in Article 52 of the decree/circular called Redemptoris Missio, published by Ioannes Paulus PP. II on December 7, 1990, it is stated that the church will encounter different cultures during its international missionary activities and become involved in the process of acculturation. This lengthy and difficult process, referred to as inculturation, is defined as “means the intimate transformation of authentic cultural values through their integration in Christianity and the insertion of Christianity in the various human cultures.” According to Ioannes (1990) Through inculturation the Church makes the Gospel incarnate in different cultures and at the same time introduces peoples, together with their cultures, into her own community. She transmits to them her own values, at the same time taking the good elements that already exist in them and renewing them from within. Through inculturation the Church, for her part, becomes a more intelligible sign of what she is, and a more effective instrument of mission.
As can be seen, the Church does not perceive the process of inculturation as an intercultural relationship between itself and the culture it encounters during its activities, as it does not feel belonging to any form of culture. According to the Church, the process of inculturation is defined as the Church becoming a part of that society and deeply influencing it through an implantation action (Güngör, 2002).
In his article discussing the concept of inculturation, Crollius (1978, p.735), one of the experts on the subject, states that terms such as adaptation, accommodation, contextualization, and indigenization have been used interchangeably with the concept of inculturation. After critically examining these terms, Crollius suggests that the concept of inculturation can be defined as follows: The inculturation of the Church is the integration of the Christian experience of a local Church into the culture of its people, in such a way that this experience not only expresses itself in elements of this culture, but becomes a force that animates, orients and innovates this culture so as to create a new unity and communion, not only within the culture in question but also as an enrichment of the Church universal.
Considering all these explanations, it can be understood that the periodical publication at the focal point of this study, AÇİ, can be evaluated as a publication within the scope of inculturation activities.
The Role and Significance of the Turkish Children’s Periodicals written in non-Arabic scripts in the Late Ottoman Period
In Turkey’s history, Turkish children’s magazines first emerged in the 19th century. The first children’s magazine published in Turkish with Arabic script was Mumayyiz (1869–1870). Following Mumayyiz, other magazines targeting Muslim Turkish children were published, such as Hazine-i Atfal, Sadaqat, Atfal, Ayîna, Arqadaş, Tarcumân-ı Haqîqat, Aila, Bahça, Çocuqlara Arqadaş, Çocuqlara Qiraat, Vasıta-i Taraqqî, Taşvîq, Çocuqlara Ta’lîm, Çocuqlara Rahbar, Çocuqlara Mahsus Gazata, and Maktap (Emiroğlu, 1992; Kür, 1991; Okay, 1999; Yaşar, 2001; Yılmaz, 2012, 2015).
In the Ottoman Empire, in addition to Arabic-script Turkish children’s magazines, there were also children’s magazines written in Turkish with Armenian and Greek scripts. In fact, such magazines began their publication life earlier than most Arabic-script children’s literature magazines in Turkish literary history. Nevertheless, they have not been mentioned much in the sources (Şişmanoğlu Şimşek, 2019). For example, the children’s magazine Avedaper, published in Armenian-script Turkish, began its publication by ABCFM in the early 1860s (American Research Institute in Turkey-Istanbul (ARIT-I), 2023; Erol, 2020; Irakleous, 2014a; Karabıçak, 2011). However, almost all sources accept Mumayyiz as the first children’s magazine in Turkish literature. The reason for this is the lack of knowledge about non-Arabic-script Turkish children’s magazines. Renowned researcher Strauss (2003, p.39), an expert in the field of linguistic contacts between the various cultural communities of the Ottoman Empire, states that this lack of knowledge is valid for all literary works, and says: In fact, these [i.e. Muslim Turks] formed just one segment of a much more larger “reading nation” consisting also of Greeks and Bulgarians, Armenians, Jews and Arabs, “Franks” and Levantines (…). In particular, literatures which do not fit the nationalist paradigm, such as that of the Turkish speaking Greek-Orthodox (Karamanlı) or the Turcophone Armenians, fall between two stools. Generally, they are not regarded either by Turkish or by Greek and Armenian scholars as part of their literary heritage, and have been studied only by specialists. However, their significance cannot be denied. (…) It had been more or less ignored by historians of literature so far—despite its pioneering character.
It is impossible not to agree with Strauss’s observation. This is because limiting studies in the multicultural society of the Ottoman Empire to only Muslim Turks and publications targeting them, and the lack of interest from researchers in communities such as Armenian-speaking Turks and Karamanlis, despite their significant importance, can be considered a shortcoming.
In conclusion, as in all publications aimed at children, it is certain that the messages intended to be conveyed to children in non-Arabic-script Turkish children’s magazines have also influenced the future of society. In this respect, children’s magazines written in Turkish with different alphabets, including Greek-script Turkish children’s magazines, hold a separate historical and sociological significance. This is because they have left profound impacts on society as well. Therefore, non-Arabic-script periodicals are particularly deserving of separate examination and study.
One of the Best Ways to Construct an Identity: Children’s Periodicals
Children are the key components of the nation’s future. In this respect, child education is of vital importance in terms of shaping the society in which the child will live. Through education, a child becomes familiar with their era, society, their place within that society, and most importantly, themselves (Erdal, 2009, p.1). Indeed, since Plato (428/427 BC-348/347 BC), intellectuals of societies have pondered child education. It is known that many great thinkers such as the Roman historian Publius Cornelius Tacitus (56–120), Saint Aurelius Augustin (354–430), Gazzali (d. 1111) have put forth views on the education of children (Aybey, 2020; Karabıçak, 2011, p. 4).
Emotions and ideas that are desired to be permanently instilled in children can be conveyed more effectively through literary works. This is because periodicals for children are highly influential in the process of identity formation. Consequently, researchers believe that features such as “identity formation, cultural transmission, mother tongue awareness, and the imparting of national and universal values” must be present in publications for children (Arıcı, 2016; Baş, 2015). A nation’s children’s literature is closely related to its vision of the future (Erdal, 2009). Thus, it should be acknowledged that children’s literature has an important role and significance for the future of a nation.
One of the main components of children’s literature is children’s periodicals. Children’s periodicals play important roles in instilling various positive qualities in children from an early age, such as providing general knowledge, cultivating literary taste, developing reading habits and following periodicals (Balcı, 2014), supporting language development, achieving educational goals beyond instructional goals, and fostering identity and personality (Özbay, 2006). With features such as containing various text types and topics suitable for children, being usable outside of formal education, being open to communication with the reader, and involving a dynamic production process due to their periodic nature, children’s magazines possess distinct qualities in terms of children’s literature.
From the 19th century onward, as seen in many countries such as Russia, Austria, England, Germany, France, and Japan, education reforms and children’s magazines have also been considered as a tool to shape future generations in the Ottoman Empire (Çapar, 2020). In this regard, it would be appropriate to share the following observation by Çapar (2021, p. 56): Once the idea that children are the future of the state is adopted, the ideal child concept is created according to the conditions and ideologies of the period. (…) State institutions, curriculum and textbooks, as well as children’s magazines and newspapers play an important role in raising the ideal child. For this reason, these sources can act as intermediaries in manipulating readers. (emphasis added).
As Çapar (2021) also pointed out, in the last period of the Ottoman Empire, publishers of children’s newspapers and magazines aimed to use them to instill their perception of the ideal child concept in their readers according to their ideological perspectives. This is because, in multicultural societies like the Ottoman Empire, the role of children’s magazines in the construction of society is even greater. Indeed, late Ottoman administrators, who recognized the power of children’s magazines, like other states, effectively used this power for their political ideologies.
This study reveals that ABCFM also seeks to take advantage of the power of children’s magazines. However, the concept of an ideal childhood has varied according to the ideologies of the time (Çapar, 2021). For example, during the reign of Sultan Abdulhamid II, children’s magazines aimed to create a child identity that was loyal to the sultan, religious, and well-educated (Çapar, 2020), while during the Second Constitutional Era, it was determined that the goal was to establish a child identity that adopted militaristic nationalism, had developed patriotic feelings, and possessed modern social and national values (Alkan, 2000).
Methodology
The study being referred to utilizes a two-pronged method that involves the use of critical discourse analysis (CDA) and a discourse-historical approach (DHA). It can be argued that CDA and DHA are suitable for this study because it focuses on understanding dynamic and variable social issues such as culture and identity formation, using a historical children’s magazine as its main axis.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is a language analysis method that focuses on how language reflects and reinforces power relations within society, such as social processes, structures, and changes (Flowerdew & Richardson, 2017; Wodak & Meyer, 2009). CDA is a multidisciplinary approach that incorporates various fields, including linguistics, sociology, psychology, and political science, to examine how language is used to establish and maintain social hierarchies (Fairclough, 2017; Van Dijk, 2001). CDA’s fundamental concept of discourse allows for an investigation of a wide range of factors that can influence texts, including external forces that can impact language meaning for the reader or listener (Meyer, 2001, p.14). Additionally, discourse is considered a key factor in shaping our understanding of knowledge and meaning (Fairclough, 2017). Based on the given sentences, it can be inferred that discourse can be influenced by external factors and can have an impact on the reader or listener.
CDA is often utilized to analyze language use in various contexts, such as media, politics, and education, to uncover how language constructs social realities and reinforces existing power relations (Meyer, 2001; Van Dijk, 2001; Wodak & Meyer, 2009). This approach particularly focuses on how language is employed to exclude or marginalize specific groups and to justify or legitimize inequality (Meyer, 2001; van Dijk, 1993; Weiss & Wodak, 2003; Wodak, 2001a; Wodak & Meyer, 2009). CDA analyzes relationships among texts by utilizing the concepts of intertextuality and interdiscursivity, which are not typically pursued by other approaches (Wodak, 2001a). The status of the individual is discussed from different perspectives in this context, including how identity affects discourse and how discourse shapes individuals within a society (Norris, 2011). CDA aims to reveal ideologies and beliefs from analyzed texts (Reisigl & Wodak, 2009).
The Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA)
DHA, unlike other methods of language analysis, focuses on how language use is affected by historical and social context (Wodak, 2001b). Its main objective is to decipher the ideologies that establish, perpetuate or fight dominance in discourses in order to demystify their hegemony (Reisigl & Wodak, 2009). As a subset of CDA, DHA investigates how language use is influenced by historical occurrences, political and social conflicts, as well as prevalent social customs and power dynamics (Reisigl & Wodak, 2009). The historical context is an important consideration when analyzing texts and discourses as it helps to recreate how recontextualization works, tying texts and discourses together intertextually and across time. DHA adheres to critical theory’s socio-philosophical perspective, encompassing three linked features (Reisigl & Wodak, 2001): Firstly, text or discourse-immanent critique aims to uncover inconsistencies and quandaries in text-internal or discourse-internal systems. Secondly, socio-diagnostic critique seeks to clarify the persuasive or “manipulative” nature of discursive practices, whether overt or covert. To analyze discursive occurrences, contextual information, as well as social theories and theoretical models from various fields, are used. Finally, future-related prospective aims to enhance communication by reducing linguistic obstacles in various settings, such as hospitals and schools.
Reisigl (2017, p. 48) notes that DHA considers discourse analysis to be a multidimensional project that incorporates theory, methods, methodology, and empirically based research practices with concrete social applications. According to DHA, discourse is a social practice that is influenced by the historical, cultural, political, and economic context (discourse and discrimination/identity/history/politics, etc.; Reisigl, 2017). Jäger and Maier (2009) explain the relationship between power and language by stating that a single book or movie cannot change people’s ideas, but discourse can. Reisigl (2017, p. 49) explains how DHA deals with the manipulative nature of discourse by making practical claims of emancipation and criticizing discursively constituted power abuse, injustice, and social discrimination, as well as making epistemic claims of revelation or enlightenment.
DHA researchers draw from various sources, including written texts, oral histories, and visual artifacts, to provide a thorough understanding of how discourse is used to create social reality. Therefore, speech is used to create social identities and to either support or undermine established power structures, which DHA aims to criticize.
Discursive strategies are crucial in discovering legitimation in discourse. De Cillia et al. (1999) identified four macro-strategies of discourse to investigate how language plays a role in the discursive formation of national identity: constructive strategies, perpetuation and justification strategies, transformation strategies, and dismantling or destructive strategies (See Table 1).
De Cillia et al.’s (1999) Macro-Strategies.
Source. The researchers have systematically classified and presented De Cillia et al.’s (1999, pp. 160–161) macro-strategies in a tabular format.
This study has employed rhetorical discursive strategies, which represent a well-suited analytical tool to uncover how AÇİ employs language to construct an ideal identity. AÇİ endeavors to establish a positive “us” and a negative “other.” This model encompasses five critical terms, including “nomination,”“predication,”“argumentation,”“perspectivization, framing, or discourse representation,” and “intensification, mitigation” (Reisigl & Wodak, 2009) (See Table 2).
Reisigl and Wodak’s Discourse Strategies (Reisigl & Wodak, 2009, p. 95).
Data Collection
The data source of the study, the illustrated children’s magazine AÇİ, was first published in Istanbul in 1872 by the ABCFM (See Figure 1). It is estimated that the publication continued until the end of the 19th century according to Irakleous (2014a, 2014b), and until the early 20th century according to Eckmann (1991). Balta (2010) states that she only saw the volumes of the magazine for the years 1872 to 1895 in the library of The Mission of the American Board in Istanbul. İbar (2010), in his popular publications on Karamanlis, mention that Angeliaforos means “messenger angel,” but Prof. Dr. Evangelia Balta, who has conducted many important and extensive research on Karamanlis, stated in a personal interview that “advertiser, messenger” would be a more accurate translation for this term. (I would like to thank her for her valuable input.)
The first page of the first issue of AÇİ (1872, p. 1).
The magazine was published on the first day of each month as four pages from the beginning (Irakleous, 2014a, 2014b). Each volume covers a year, and each page consists of three columns. It is known that AÇİ was published in Armenian, Armenian-scripted Turkish, and Greek-scripted Turkish simultaneously. In addition to these three versions, it was also published in Bulgarian under the name Zornitsa after 1874 (Balta, 1990; İbar, 2010; Irakleous, 2014b).
It is clear that the target audience of AÇİ was the Orthodox population of Anatolia who spoke Turkish, mostly known as Karamanlides in the literature. This is because, as can be clearly understood from the articles in Anatoli gazette, a Greek-scripted Turkish newspaper, the readership of Turkish-scripted Greek newspapers in Anatolia consisted of Turkish-speaking Orthodox people (Şişmanoğlu Şimşek, 2019).
AÇİ is a publication intended for children. Indeed, in the article titled “Addressing the Editors” on page 39 of the October 1874 issue of AÇİ, it is argued that the texts in the magazine should be written in a simple and concise manner, as if speaking to a 6-year-old child (Karabıçak, 2011). Therefore, it can be inferred that the magazine aims to reach children at the primary and middle school levels at most.
The data for this study was obtained from the first volume of the AÇİ magazine, published in 1872, which was compiled by Kahya (2017) and includes sections such as introduction, analysis, text, and index. Quotations from AÇİ were utilized in this book with reference to this study.
Before proceeding, it is important to note that AÇİ’s publishing policy remained generally consistent throughout its lifespan. This can be attributed to the magazine’s unchanging purpose. Indeed, a study that lists the contents of AÇİ demonstrates that the magazine’s content remained largely the same (Irakleous, 2014b). Therefore, this study was limited to the first volume of AÇİ from 1872. However, even if other issues of AÇİ had been analyzed, it is unlikely that there would have been significant differences in the conclusions reached in this study. Details regarding data collection are presented in Table 3.
Details of the Data Collection.
Details on the topics of the data set are presented in Table 4 below. The texts classified under the “other” category include reader announcements, questions and answers directed to readers, and similar materials.
Details of the Topics.
As Table 4 indicates, AÇİ primarily has a religious-didactic nature. In AÇİ, children are advised to have good morals in line with the beliefs of the Christian religion. For this purpose, moral stories, chapters, or questions taken from the Bible are included in AÇİ. In addition, the magazine also includes various topics related to various branches of science such as history, geography, nature, biology, zoology, civilizations, traditions, foreign cities, animal and game descriptions, short information on famous people’s lives, some professions, Christian hymns, stories of some missionaries, Sabbath school lessons, etc. It can be seen that there are also series of stories to keep the readers’ interest in the magazine in each issue along with interesting images related to the topics covered (İbar, 2010; Irakleous, 2014a; Kahya, 2017).
Data Analysis
In this study, the data was analyzed according to Miles and Huberman’s (1994) model of qualitative data analysis. According to their model, the analysis process consists of three simultaneous activities: “data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing/verification” (see Figure 2).
Miles and Huberman’s components of data analysis: interactive model (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 12).
Data reduction involves selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting, and transforming field notes and transcriptions through techniques such as summarizing, coding, identifying topics, clustering, and creating memos. Data display refers to the structured and condensed presentation of information that enables action and conclusion drawing. Types of displays include texts, matrices, graphs, charts, and networks, among others. In the final step of the analysis process, the skilled researcher holds conclusions loosely while maintaining openness and skepticism, and then moves toward making conclusions. It is then necessary to evaluate the validity, reliability, and plausibility of the meanings suggested by the data. In summary, the broader field of “analysis” is composed of these interwoven strands that occur in parallel before, during, and after data collection (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
As previously mentioned, the data set of the study consists of the first volume of AÇİ. The unit of analysis was selected as an episode in accordance with Van Dijk’s (1981, p. 177–178) perspective. Van Dijk defines the term episode as a logically connected series of a discourse that is linguistically characterized as beginning and/or ending, and is distinguished further by having some type of thematic unity. He further explains that “episodes are semantic units raises the possibility that they also have psychological relevance, as units in a cognitive model of discourse processing.”
The selection of examples in the data set was based on two criteria, idealization and criticism, taking into account expert opinions that were deemed appropriate for the purpose of the research. With the idealization criterion, positive expressions such as praise, showcasing, and portrayal in a positive light of individuals, events, or situations were included; with the criticism criterion, negative expressions such as belittling, denigration, and condemnation of individuals, events, or situations were included. Linguistic markers related to these two criteria were sometimes implicitly and sometimes explicitly expressed. Examples of explicit linguistic markers include structures such as “do/do not,”“should/should not,”“it would be good to do/you should not do,”“to do is beautiful/to do is ugly,” etc. Table 5 provides further information.
Distribution of the Texts According to the Criteria.
The texts in the magazine that do not contain idealization or criticism include informative texts on various subjects such as air, stars, eagles, hummingbirds, trains, papyrus, as well as announcements about the publishing process of the magazine, competition questions and answers directed to the readers, and poetic prayers. These types of texts classified as “other texts” in the table have been excluded from the scope of the research.
Procedure and Reliability and Validity of the Research
All texts in the dataset were carefully read several times by the researcher. Texts containing elements such as idealized or disparaged situations, events, or people, either explicitly or implicitly, were identified. These texts were then divided into subgroups based on thematic similarities and re-examined collectively. Example episodes that were thought to best highlight the theme were noted from each group of texts. In order to keep the study as concise as possible, some of these were analyzed in the findings section of the study, aiming to reach a conclusion.
To ensure the objectivity of the research, the analysis results were presented to an expert with qualified publications related to the field. The expert was asked to evaluate the analysis results at every stage of the analysis process and to indicate any points of disagreement. Discussion was conducted to reach a consensus on the results.
In addition, including direct quotations from the texts in the findings section aimed to increase the validity and reliability of the research. The fact that the reliability value was calculated as 0.82 after the coding made can be expressed as an indicator of compliance.
The transliteration of direct quotations from the text was made using the modern Turkish alphabet, in accordance with the views of Turkish studies Professor Brendemoen (2016), who has studied Anatolian dialects and Karamanli Turkish. According to Brendemoen (2016), when the phonological features are not emphasized, the modern Turkish alphabet can be used for the transliteration of Karamanli Turkish because both the Turkish and Greek alphabets are not sufficient phonologically to represent Karamanli texts. Additionally, there is no reason to believe that these texts differ from contemporary Turkish due to their reflection of the Central Anatolian dialect.
Results/findings
AÇİ’s approach to identity formation and cultural transmission is highlighted by a quote from the Bible that appears just below the magazine’s title on the first page of each issue: Çocukları bana gelmeye bırakın“Let the little children to come to me.” In addition, the article titled Bana Gelin“Come to Me” explains that Christ said Çocukları koyverin ve onları bana gelmekden men etmen“Let the little children come to me and do not hinder them,” and that there is no need for any intermediary to reach Him, as one can go directly to Him. It is also emphasized that “Christ will never turn away those who come to Him,” presenting Him as a safe haven for children (p. 16).
AÇİ believes that childhood is the most suitable age for learning, and the magazine’s goal is to instill “good” things in children in a way that they will never forget, as clearly stated in the text.
Bizim de çocukluğumuz ve çocukluğumuzda olan umudlarımız ve arzulerimiz hatrımıza gelib sizin sevincinizi değil eksiltmek, illa artırmak isteriz. Bu sebebden işte bu tasvirli Angelioforos’u da çıkarıyoruz. O, her ay eyi hikâyeler, güzel suretler ve nasihatlar ile dolu size gelecekdir deyu umarız ve çok seviniriz ki bu tarz ile Hristos’un “Kuzularımı güt.” deyu etdiği emri de icra edebiliyoruz. Sizin hepinizin -İoannıs’in, Anastas’ın, İakovos’un, Stefanos’ın, Mariam’ın, Evfımia’nın, Sofia’nın ve daha yüzlerce oğlanların ve kızların önümüzde bu Çocuklar Angelioforos’unu okuduğunu hayal ile görüb sürü ile önümizde toplanmışsınız gibi öyle sizinle söyleşiyoruz.” deyu zannederiz. Bu kadar çocuklarıönümizde toplanmış gibi hayal etdiğimizde yüreğimizde ne böyük arzular hasıl olur? Ne kadar havesle isteriz ki size eyi şeyler öyredelim. Hem öyle hoş bir tarz ile öyredelim ki asla unutmayasınız. İısus, ol eyi çoban, heman hep bu kuzuları toplasın ve onları kendi ağılında saklasın ki onlardan hiçbirisi zai olmaya (pp. 1–2).
We are reminded of our childhood and the hopes and desires we had as children, and we want to increase your happiness rather than diminish it. This is why we publish this illustrated Angelioforos every month, filled with good stories, beautiful images, and advice, with the hope that we can fulfill Christ’s command to “Feed my lambs.” We imagine that all of you—Ioannis, Anastasios, Iakovos, Stefanos, Mariam, Evfimia, Sofia, and hundreds more boys and girls—are gathered in front of us reading this Children’s Angelioforos, and we are conversing with you. When we imagine all these children gathered in front of us, what great desires arise in our hearts? How we long to teach you good things, and to teach them in such a pleasant way that you will never forget. May Jesus, the Good Shepherd, gather all these lambs and keep them in His fold so that none of them may be lost (pp.1–2).
Therefore, it would not be wrong to suggest that the magazine writers and editors perceive the “good things” they want to teach children as the qualities that an ideal child should possess.
The research suggests that the magazine encourages children not only to be good and devout Christians, but also to become virtuous, well-educated individuals. Additionally, it is implied that the ideal individual is Western and white through the magazine’s content (See Figure 3). Below are some quotes from the magazine that illustrate these qualities.
Qualities of the ideal identity in AÇİ.
A Good Christian
In the religious-didactic messages of AÇİ, God, Christ [Jesus], and the Holy Scripture appear as the most important elements. It is stated that God is the father, Christ is the savior, and angels are the protectors (p. 14). The journal emphasizes that the only true belief is the voice of Christ and the sole means of salvation is Jesus (p. 20, 27).
According to AÇİ, one should give their heart to God (p. 2). To become a true Christian, it is necessary to love Christ and express gratitude to Him. In order to do this, one should share the Christian faith with others (p. 24). AÇİ also discusses matters such as believing in Christ without doubt and with sincerity, adhering to His warnings, being devoted to Him, performing deeds that He would love, and striving to resemble Christ in one’s actions and demeanor. To become a good Christian, one should endeavor to pray and worship (pp. 1–2). It is necessary to always remember the words of the Holy Scripture, sometimes referred to as the Divine Book, and strive to live in accordance with them (p. 23). This is because, as the text suggests, the Divine Book provides guidance to individuals, leading them toward the right path. A critical examination of the discourses in AÇİ reveals that its readers are directed toward becoming devout Christians. To achieve this, the publication frequently includes discourses emphasizing the importance of genuinely adhering to Christian beliefs and teachings: Lakin insan kısmı ne kadar kazansa, ne kadar çok zengin olsa yine elinde bulunan ile ħoşnud olmayıb daha başka şeylere arzu eder. Ancak Hristos’a olan muhabbet ölmez. Canın hep arzulerini doldurur. Çok ademler, ism ile Hristian olanların bile çoğu, bunu bilmezler. Para ve itibar kazanmak içün çalışırlar, yorulurlar. Vakaa da kazanırlar. Lakin ihtiyacları tükenmez. Yine canları ac kalır. Yazık! Sefiller! Niçün añlamayorlar ki Allah, dostları olmadıkca; Hristos, kendi muhabbeti ile onları teselli etmedikce başka her şey nafiledir. Susuz olursan kum sana ne faide eder? Yaħod ac olduğun halde taşın sana bir ħayrı olur mı? Bunun gibi daħi insan Allah’ın muhabbetinden mahrum kaldığı halde dünia ve mevcud olan şeyler kâr etmez (p. 16). However, no matter how much wealth people accumulate, and no matter how rich they become, they are never content with what they have and always desire more. Yet, love for Christ never dies. It fulfills all the desires of the soul. Many people, even those who are Christians in name, are unaware of this. They strive and tire themselves to earn money and gain prestige. Indeed, they succeed in doing so. However, their needs are never exhausted, and their souls remain hungry. Alas! Miserable ones! Why don’t they understand that without God as their friend, and without Christ comforting them with His love, everything else is in vain? If you are thirsty, what benefit will sand bring you? Or, if you are hungry, will a stone be of any use to you? Similarly, when a person is deprived of God’s love, the world and all its existing things are of no avail (p. 16).
In the episode above, a constructive strategy is employed to claim that life becomes meaningless when one is distant from God. Therefore, as true Christians, one must strive to become friends with God. Otherwise, using an argumentation strategy, it is stated that nothing in the world will benefit those who are not genuinely Christian. The topoi in this context is that people’s needs will never be satisfied. Through the nomination strategy, people are divided into “us” and “them.”“Us” refers to the true Christians (Protestants are implied), while “them” denotes those who are not genuinely Christian, that is, the irreligious, Muslims, Jews, and so-called Christians (referred to as “Christians in name” in the text). So-called Christians encompass all Christian denominations and sects other than Protestants (Kocabaşoğlu, 2000, p.23).
“Hristos’a inanır mısın?” deyu sana soracak olursam ihtimaldır ki “Evvet, inanırım.” deyeceksin. Lakin lazımdır ki imanın yaħod inanmanın manasını eyi anlayasın. Bir türlü iman vardır ki insanı kurtarır. Bir türlü de vardır ki asla kurtarmaz. Sen inanır mısın ki Hristos vardır; hem o, insanların kurtarıcısıdır? İnanırsın, öyle değil mi? Pekala, amma şeytan da öyle inanır. Lakin ħelas olmaz. Gerçekden Hristos’a inanmak, onu kurtarıcı deyu kabul edib onun emrine ve tenbihlerine tekmil itaat etmekle olur (p. 2). If I were to ask you, “Do you believe in Christ?” you would probably say, “Yes, I do.” However, it is essential that you understand the true meaning of faith or belief. There is one kind of faith that saves a person, and another kind that never does. Do you believe that Christ exists and that He is the savior of humanity? You do, right? Well, even the devil believes that, but it does not lead to salvation. Truly believing in Christ means accepting Him as the savior and obeying His commands and admonitions completely (p. 2).
In this episode, it is stated that there are two types of faith. Using an argumentation strategy, one of these types is asserted to be ineffective. The topoi here is that the devil, despite believing in Christ, will not attain salvation. According to this episode, which employs a constructive strategy, genuinely believing in Christ is realized by paying attention to His commands and warnings. Since it is assumed in the episode that the reader believes in Christ, it can be said that the predication strategy is also employed.
Eyi bil ki Kitab-ıŞerif yazıhanenin üstüne yahod bir dolaba komaya, koynunda saklamaya yahod salt fikirde tutmaya değil, illa pek ziade sevgülü bir şey gibi yüreğe tab etmeye ve bahasız bir hazne gibi kalbde hıfzetmeye layık bir kitabdır. Fikrimi sana nasıl anladayım? “Kitab-ıŞerif’i oku!” desem belki yanlış anlarsın. Bu “oku” söz ile çok kimseler Kitab’ı açıb içinde yazılan kelamların fikrini eyi anlamayarak yahod onların teesirini duymayarak heman tez tez üstünden geçmek anlarlar. “Kitab-ıŞerif’den haneler yahod bablar ezber etmelisin.” desem yine korkarım ki yanlış anlarsın. Zira bazılar kitabdan uzun sözler ezber edib onları defa defa söylerler ise de bunu bir adet icra eder gibi etdikleri içün ol kelamlardan faide görmezler. Benim arzum şudır ki sen Allah’ın kelamını göyde olan pederinden sana gönderilmiş bir mektub gibi kabul edib ve muhabbetle kucaklayarak böyük arzu ile okuyub manasını anlayasın. Teesirini duyasın. Hem onun emrlerini ve tenbihlerini icra etmeye gün güne ziade gayret edesin (p. 44). Know well that the Holy Scripture is not a book to be placed on top of a library shelf or in a cupboard, hidden in one’s pocket, or merely held in thought; rather, it is a book deserving to be engraved in the heart like a highly cherished item and preserved in the heart like a priceless treasure. How can I make you understand my thought? If I say, “Read the Holy Scripture!” perhaps you might misunderstand. Many people, when hearing the word “read,” open the Book and quickly skim through the written words without truly comprehending their meaning or feeling their impact. If I say, “You should memorize chapters or sections from the Holy Scripture,” again, I am afraid you might misunderstand. For some people memorize lengthy passages from the Book and repeat them numerous times, but they do not benefit from these words because they recite them as if performing a routine. My desire is that you accept God’s Word as a letter sent to you from your heavenly Father and embrace it with love, read it with great enthusiasm, and understand its meaning. Feel its impact. And day by day, strive increasingly to implement its commands and admonitions (p. 44).
In this passage, the subject of believing in the Holy Scripture and striving to act according to its commands and warnings is addressed. The episode assumes that the reader may misunderstand the teachings about reading the Holy Scripture and memorizing passages from it, employing the predication strategy. By asserting that the truly acceptable approach is to accept the Holy Scripture as a letter sent from the heavenly Father and to focus on reading and understanding it with great enthusiasm, the constructive strategy is also utilized.
A Virtuous Person
According to the AÇİ, parents should renew their children’s hearts with Ruh al-Quds and seek of Allah’s grace to protect them from bad habits and behaviors (p. 17). The values that children should include being virtuous and doing good to others (pp. 1–2, p.30). In addition to that, they should not be selfish when playing games (p. 3), do useful things (p. 4), do good deeds sincerely and not boast about them (p. 44), be selfless (p. 6), truthful (p. 14), stay away from bad habits like smoking, drinking, and gambling (pp. 13–14, 18–19), be hardworking (pp. 29–30), brave, patient, and virtuous (p. 18), contented (p. 22), and not waste their time (p. 16).
An analytical examination of AÇİ’s discourse reveals that its readers are directed toward becoming individuals with virtues such as being charitable, patient, brave, selfless, truthful, and hardworking. For example, in the text Kapuya Mukayet Ol“Watch the gate,” which follows the constructive strategy, our emotions and thoughts are likened to a house, and bad habits and addictions are compared to thieves. Therefore, one must try to restrain their bad desires and adopt good qualities: Her birimizin birer evi, yani fikrimiz ve yüreğimiz var. Fena mülhazalar ve arzular daħi ħırsız gibi gelib fikrimize ve yüreğimize girmeye kasdederler. Onlardan bazılarını tarif edeceğim. (…) İşte, biri geliyor! Ona övke derler. Ben onu tanırım. Sen de bilir misin? Bak, onun ne eyri çehresi var! Nasıl hıybetli bakıyor! Bu azgın canavar içeri girib çok zararlar vermesin deyu yüreğimizin kapusunu kapayalım. (…) Aman! Ne dersin! İşte evvelkilerden külliyen farklı olan biri daha… Latif yüzlü ve gülümsüyerek geliyor. Zahiren hüri melek gibi görüniyor. Buna muhabbet derler. Eğer bu, evimize gelib temekkün etmeye tenezzül ederse, ah, bizi ne kadar mutlu edecekdir! Öyle ise çağıralım. Buyur, ya muhabbet! İşte kapularımız sana açıkdır (p. 27). We each have a house, that is, our mind and heart. Evil thoughts and desires try to enter our minds and hearts like thieves. I will describe some of them. (…) Look, someone is coming! They call it anger. I know him. Do you know him? Look, what an evil-looking face he has! How fiercely he looks! Let’s close the doors of our hearts so that this monster doesn’t come in and cause much damage. (…) Oh, what do you say! Here’s another one who is completely different from the previous ones…He comes smiling with a gentle face. Apparently, he looks like an angel. They call this one love. If this love deigns to come and rest in our house, oh, how happy it will make us! So let’s call him. Come, love! Our doors are open to you (p. 27).
In this episode, the predication strategy is used to compare anger to an ugly and fierce monster, and love to a beautiful angel.
AÇİ mostly deals with values that children should acquire from a religious perspective. The reason for doing or not doing certain actions is often based on a religious argument: Hristos’un sevdiği şeyleri sevmeyen çocuk, Hristos’dan ayrılmış olur. “Hristos’un sevdiği şeyler nedir?” deyu süal edeceksiniz. Hristos’un sevdiği şeylerdir hazimlik, alçak gönüllülük, itaat, sabr, iman, muhabbet, merhamet ve başka faziletler. Bunun zıddıövke, kibirlik, itaatsızlık, düşmanlık, hayınlık, kızganclık ve başka bunun gibi bed huyları olanlar ise Hristos’a makbul olamayıb ondan ayrılmış sayılırlar (p. 44). A child who does not love the things that Christ loves is separated from Christ. “What are the things that Christ loves?” you will ask. They are modesty, humility, obedience, patience, faith, love, compassion, and other virtues. The opposite of this is anger, arrogance, disobedience, enmity, treachery, envy, and other bad habits. Those who have these bad habits cannot be accepted by Christ and are considered to be separated from him (p. 44). Velhasıl Allah ister ki sen muhabbetli ve akıllı bir evlad olub validenin yuküni ħafifledesin. Hristos Efendimiz bu tarz çocukları sever. (…) Sen oğlum, eyer dediğim gibi validene muhabbet gösterirsen başka çocuklar sana bakıb imrenerek deyecekler “Bu ne eyi çocukdır, anasını ne kadar seveyor.” Senin ibretin o vakıt onlara çok teesir edecek. “Bu çocuk niçün böyledir? Bizim ile gelib oynamakdan ise evde oturub anasına yardım etmeyi niçün daha eyi sayar?” deyu sorub da sen Hristos’u sevib ona ħızmet etmek istediğin içün böyle edeyorsın deyu duyarlarsa onlara bir ışık gibi olub onların eyi ve dindar olmasına sebeb olursın (p. 8). In short, may Allah will that you become a loving and intelligent child and ease the burden of your mother. Lord Jesus loves such children. (…) My son, if you show affection to your mother as I said, other children will look at you with admiration and say, “What a good child he is, how much he loves his mother.” Your behaviour will have a great impact on them at that time. They will ask, “Why is this child like this? Why does he prefer to stay home and help his mother instead of playing with us?” And if they hear that you love Jesus and want to serve him, they will see you as a light and become good and devout because of you (p. 8).
In these episodes, where perpetuation and justification strategies are used, it is emphasized that those who do not love what Christ loves will distance themselves from him. With the predication strategy, it is assumed that children have a desire to learn what Christ loves and dislikes and to put them into practice.
However, it has also been considered a virtuous behavior to act according to the teachings of tradition by listening to the words of the elders.
Çok defa rast gelmişim ki birkaççocuk oynadıkları vakıt içlerinden birisinin ayağı yaħod eli ya başı biraz incinmede o çocuk, çapucak ħırslanarak kendisini değil maħsus, illa bilmeyerek inciden çocuğun arkasından koşub ona vurur yaħod fena sözler söyler. Böyle şeyler ayıbdır, hem yakışmaz. Başka arkadaşlar ile oynayan çocuk oyunda rast gelen bazıħafif kazalara övkelenmeyerek sabretmelidir (p. 3). I have often come across a situation where a few children are playing and if one of them accidentally hurts their foot, hand or head, that child quickly gets angry and runs after the other child who caused the injury, hitting them or saying bad things. Such things are wrong and inappropriate. A child playing with other friends should be patient and not get angry at minor accidents that occur during the game (p. 3).
In this episode where the perpetuation and justification strategies are applied, it is emphasized that children who are accidentally harmed during the game should be understanding toward their friends. The author, who is implied to be a mature person, preferred to enhance the impact of the discourse with the perspectivation strategy.
A Well-Educated Person
Various wild or domestic animals such as snakes, wild cats, hoopoes, tigers, eagles, and carrier pigeons, technological knowledge such as railways and steam trains, various important structures around the world (such as the famous “Église de la Madeleine” church in Paris), interesting plants like redwoods, scientific topics such as what weather is and how wind forms are also provided in the magazine. It can be said that the magazine aims to create well-educated individuals with a high level of general culture by including scientific information. This is because children who are not interested in learning useful information are criticized in AÇİ (p. 38), and those who read AÇİ are claimed to be eager for knowledge and devout (p. 26).
The importance of learning useful knowledge is emphasized in AÇİ. However, it becomes clear that the useful knowledge intended in the magazine is actually religious knowledge: Bu hususda sana bir sözüm daha var. Yani bir başka pek lazımlı ilmi, Kitab-ıŞerif’in ilmini, de öyrenmeye gayret edesin deyu sana nasihat vereceğim. Başka ilmler öyrenmek eyi ve faideli ise bu ilmi edinmek onlardan bin kat ziade faideli ve lazımlıdır. Allah’ın ilmi sana kılağuz olsun, oğlum. Bu ilm insan ilminden çok üstündir (p. 44). I have another word to tell you about this matter. I advise you to try to learn another very important knowledge, the knowledge of the Holy Book. If learning other sciences is good and useful, acquiring this knowledge is a thousand times more beneficial and necessary than all of them. May God’s knowledge be your guide, my son. This knowledge is far superior to human knowledge (p. 44).
In this episode, where constructive strategy is used, although learning human sciences is useful, it is stated that religious sciences are much more necessary. The effects of these statements are tried to be increased with perspectivation strategy.
A Western, White, and Christian Identity
Based on the findings above, it can be understood that the AÇİ aims to create a devout, virtuous, and well-educated Christian child. However, a closer examination of the AÇİ is beneficial in shedding light on the periodical’s thoughts on the ideal identity. The periodical presents an ideal identity that is associated with Western (European or American), white, and Christian attributes. It can be argued that the portrayed identity consists of individuals who are religious, virtuous, and well-educated, and that these qualities are intrinsically linked to Western and white characteristics.
For example, in an article titled Gurbete Giden Babalar“Fathers Going Abroad,” the first immigrants coming to America are praised and appreciated. In the article, by using the perpetuation and justification strategy, it is stated that the first immigrants from Europe to America, despite the risk of being killed by the locals described as savages, accepted this migration solely due to their strong religiosity, and therefore, they deserve respect.
Bu gemi ile yolculuk edenler bundan 250 sene evvel dinleri içün çekdikleri kovalayış sebebinden İngilterra’yı brakıb işte ol yabanilerin memleketinde sakin olmaya gideyorlar. Bu sebebden onlar “gurbete giden babalar” denildiler. Kendi dinlerinden vazgeçmeden ise dostları ve akrabalarını brakıb öyle hayin bir ehalinin arasında sakin olmayı daha eyi saymışlardır. (…) Oraya giden ilk ademlerin dindarlığı ne kadar kavi idi! (pp. 34–35).
The passengers on this ship, who were exiled for their religious beliefs 250 years ago, left England and are now going to settle in this foreign land. For this reason, they were referred to as the “fathers who went abroad.” Rather than abandoning their own religion, they considered it better to leave their friends and relatives and settle calmly among a treacherous people. (…) The piety of the first settlers who went there was remarkably strong (pp. 34–35).
In this text, the strategy of nomination has been used to indirectly encourage people to follow the example of those called gurbete giden babalar“fathers going abroad.”
In another text, it is worth noting that the natives are referred to as idolatrous, ignorant, illiterate, uncivilized and savage, while the white Europeans are described as civilized people who can read and write.
Bu kimseler putperest ve çok cahil olub onların arasında asla kitab yoğ idi. Beyaz adamlar (Evropalılar) ilk defa oraya gitdiklerinde onların okuyub yazmakla biribirilerinin efkârını anladıklarını yabaniler gördiler ise mücüzat yahod böyücilik zannetdiler. (…) Bu muhacirler Amerikanın vahşi milletlerine İncil’i vaz etdiler ve bunlardan çoklar gerçekliği kabul etdiler. Hristian olanlar kendi yaramaz ve zalim adetlerini terk edib dindar kimseler oldular (p. 31). These people were pagan and very ignorant, and there were no books among them. When the white men (Europeans) first went there and the natives saw them reading and writing, understanding each other’s thoughts, they thought it was a miracle or witchcraft. (…) These immigrants spread the Bible to the indigenous nations of America, and many of them accepted the belief in the Bible. The Christians abandoned their wicked and cruel customs and became devout individuals (p. 31).
In this passage, the readers are implicitly suggested through the destructive strategy that having a European, white, and Christian identity is a superior position. In the passage, the nomination strategy is used to indicate that the natives can only become civilized and decent people through the influence of Western, white, and devout Christians.
In an article about a mild cholera outbreak in Istanbul during the summer months, it is mentioned that an elderly woman fainted on a bridge, people were afraid to approach and help her, and she was thrown into a boat haphazardly. In the morning, European workers passing by felt sorry for the woman and provided the necessary assistance for her recovery. In the end, the article compares these two types of attitudes:
Koleradan tutulmış zannetdikleri içün korkularından karıyıöyle merhametsizlik ile ölmek tehlikesine brakan ademlerin hareketi, gemide tehlikede olan ademleri kurdaran kişinin hareketinden ne kadar uzakdır! Hristos’un ruhu ile insanların zat-ı tabiyatı arasında olan ferk işte budır. Siz bu iki tarz hareketin kangısını makbul tutarsınız ve onların kangısı gibi etmek istersiniz? Sizin ile beraber oturub kalkan, sizin ile birlikde gezip oynayan yaşdaşlarınız ve arkadaşlarınızın hem bu dünyada hem de aħretde ebeden mutlu olmasına can u dilden ve fedakârane gayret edib çalışmazsanız yokarda zikrolunan iki cins ademlerin hangısı gibi, yani kendi rahatlarını seven korkak ademler gibi mi, yoħsa tehlikede olanlara yardım eden cesur adem gibi mi olmuş olursunuz? (p. 8).
Believing that they were infected with cholera, the actions of people who abandoned the woman to the risk of death with such mercilessness due to their fear are far from the actions of the person who saves people in danger on the ship! This is the difference between the spirit of Christ and human nature. Which of these two types of actions do you find acceptable, and which would you like to be like? If you don’t strive wholeheartedly and selflessly to make your peers and friends who sit and walk together with you, who play and have fun together, eternally happy in both this world and the hereafter, which of the two types of people mentioned above will you be like, that is, like cowardly people who love their own comfort, or like brave people who help those in danger? (p. 8).
In this episode, where the constructive strategy praises helping those in need, and the destructive strategy criticizes the local people in Istanbul, people are divided into two groups through the nomination strategy: Europeans and the local people. It is effectively emphasized through the interrogative mood that one should be like Europeans, like brave men who help those in need. Although it is known through external world knowledge that the majority of the local population are Muslims, the mitigation strategy is employed by not directly addressing this situation in the text.
In another article, it is mentioned that the Tatar made a prayer machine: Öyle derler ki Tatarlar dua etmek makinaları yaparlar, yani yuvarlak bir sandık yapıb içine bin tane kadar yazılmış dualar korlar ve öyle inanırlar ki makinanın her döndiği vakıt bin dua kılınmış olur. Ne faidesiz şeydir bu. Lakin biz Allah’ın önünde duygusız dua edersek tıbkı o makinayı kullanmaya beñzer bir şey etmiş oluruz. Rabbimiz bizim ağzımızdan çıkan sözlere bakmaz, illa bizim yüreğimize bakar (p. 4). It is said that the Tatars make prayer machines, that is, they make a round box and put about a thousand written prayers inside, and they believe that every time the machine turns, a thousand prayers are recited. What a useless thing this is. But if we pray emotionlessly in front of God, we would be doing something similar to using that machine. Our Lord does not look at the words coming out of our mouths, but rather at our hearts (p. 4).
In this episode, where the destructive strategy is applied, the Tatars are criticized with the expression Ne faydasız bir şeydir bu“What a useless thing this is.” With the nomination strategy, the thought “we (i.e., true Christians) should pray to God sincerely, unlike the Tatars” is expressed.
Conclusion
This study focuses on the idealized child concept in AÇİ, one of the periodic publications issued by ABCFM. The aim of the study is to identify the qualities that readers/listeners of AÇİ are expected to possess, based on the messages conveyed in the publication. The research indicates that AÇİ aims to create an individual with Western values and ideals, who is white, well-educated, and a pious Christian. The magazine expresses, directly or indirectly, through various events, that Europeans such as Americans, British, and Germans are civilized and cultured nations, whereas those who are not white and/or not true Christians (Protestants), such as Tatars and Native Americans, are crude, savage, merciless, ignorant, and uncultured. Aksu (2010), who has also studied the idealized child image in AÇİ, notes that ABCFM has tried to create a new Christian model with qualities such as being pious, honest, gentle, abstaining from alcohol, observing the Sabbath (not working on Sundays), keeping one’s physical environment clean, modern, and functional, treating one’s spouse and children well, attempting to spread Protestantism, and emphasizing the importance of reading and education. The researcher also notes that ABCFM aims to create an identity that adopts the American way of life and believes that it is a beautiful country that one can dream of through its missionary activities. These findings are consistent with the results of this research.
During the late Ottoman period, it can be observed that Turkish-language children’s magazines written in Arabic script aimed to instill a loyal Ottoman identity in the imperial family, administrators, and their families by adhering to traditional religious and moral values while following modern scientific developments (Yılmaz, 2015). Similarly, one of the most emphasized qualities in AÇİ is to be virtuous. While some of the universal values identified in AÇİ focus on improving individual qualities, others focus more on qualities related to social order. It can also be noted that these values are consistent with universal values. AÇİ, which generally gives plenty of room to religious and moral messages, also has the characteristic of a science/culture magazine. This is because readers of the time were more interested in such information (Karabıçak, 2011).
One of the fundamental approaches of the educational policy of the period was to protect the state from the harms of the West, especially missionary activities (Fortna, 1997). According to Fortna (2000, p. 375), an academic expert on education, culture, and childhood during the late Ottoman period, one of the primary aims of the educational understanding of the time was “to improve the moral qualities of the empire’s youth by reasserting indigenous values—namely, Islamic morality.” It can be comfortably asserted that AÇİ, like other Turkish-language publications written in Arabic script of the time, followed a publication style that was in line with the general educational policies of the period. However, since it was a publication conducted as part of the missionary inculturation activities, the most significant difference between AÇİ and Turkish-language publications written in Arabic script lies in the religion to which they belong. While Turkish-language publications written in Arabic script adhered to the Islamic religion, since AÇİ aimed at its target audience, Christianity was the religion that was naturally given priority.
Although AÇİ was a publication produced by Protestant missionaries for Karamanli children, who were part of an Orthodox community, the magazine never explicitly mentioned sectarian differences. In religious messages, the term “Christian,” which is a more comprehensive term than Protestant or Orthodox, was often used. However, it is occasionally seen that they categorized Christians as ger true Christians and so-called Christians. Here, true Christians should refer to Protestants, while so-called Christians should refer to other Christian sects and orders outside of Protestantism. Nevertheless, this distinction was rarely made to avoid creating negative biases among the readership. Therefore, it can be said that this approach was intelligent for the Karamanli community, as they did not consider themselves as Turks, Greeks, Orthodox, Catholics, or Protestants in the ultimate sense. In fact, Ioakim Valavanis’s book Mikrasyatika, published in Athens in 1891, included information on Karamanli’s national consciousness, indicating their self-perception as follows: If you ask a Karamanli Christian today, ‘what are you?’ he or she will not hesitate to answer, ‘I am a Christian.’ If you then ask, ‘But aren’t Armenians, Franks, and Russians also Christians?’ the Karamanli will respond, ‘I don’t know. They also believe in Jesus, but I am a Christian.’ If you further ask, ‘Are you not Greek?’ and insist, the answer will be, ‘No, I am nothing. I told you, I am a Christian’. (Balta, 1990, p.20; English translation is provided by the researcher).
According to the research by Balta (1990), a significant researcher on Karamanli texts, it is understood that Karamanlis did not consider themselves as Greeks, and they could not explain their religious differences from other Christians such as Armenians, Franks, and Russians. Instead, they identified themselves merely as Christians. During the period of 1743-1718, only the Christian reference was seen in the preface of the books printed in Greek-script Turkish, while after 1718, especially since the activities of the Bible Society began in Anatolia in 1826, the terms Christian Orthodox and Anatolian Christians were used. In the books printed for Karamanlis by Orthodox Christians, it was aimed to turn their national consciousness toward Orthodoxy, and to keep them away from Protestant influence.
In conclusion, Somel (2007), a 19th century Ottoman education historian, stated that historical and geographical information conveyed through textbooks in schools indirectly played a significant role in the formation of national consciousness in individuals. In other words, the activities that societies are exposed to through press, publication, and education play an important role in their identity formation. In the late 19th century, in the multicultural society of the Ottoman Empire, the importance of these activities was even more significant.
AÇİ, which differs from its counterparts in terms of its target audience, is an important source for shedding light on the functions of children’s literature in the late 19th century Ottoman society, such as cultural transfer, value transfer, and identity formation. During this period, Armenian and Greek-script children’s magazines were also published for many years to address the non-Muslim community in society. Many of these publications were issued by the ABCFM as part of their missionary activities. However, studies on children’s magazines of the 19th century have generally been limited to Turkish-language publications written in Arabic script. To understand the period with a holistic perspective, it is necessary to focus on Turkish-language children’s magazines written in non-Arabic scripts as well. Future studies could also investigate how influential AÇİ was in the formation of the identities of Turkish-speaking Orthodox Christians in Anatolia.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
Besides special thanks go to the distinguished Dr. Evangelia Balta, Dr. Ali Çapar, Dr. Şehnaz Şişmanoğlu Şimşek, Dr. Stefo Benlisoy, Dr. Mustafa Gündüz and Dr. Selim Hilmi Özkan for their contributions.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Yildiz Technical University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit under project number 6016.
Ethical Approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the author.
Data Availability Statement
The data sets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The datasets also were derived from the following public domain: Kahya, H. (2017). Karamanlica resimli bir çocuk dergisi: Angeliaforos Çocuklar Içün (1872) [A Karamanli illustrated child magazine: Angeliaforos çocuklar Içün (1872)]. Grafiker.