Abstract
In the dynamic landscape of contemporary higher education, the demand for leaders well-versed in the intricacies of its challenges has become paramount. Despite the availability of leadership fellowships and retreats globally, there is a notable dearth of institution-specific leadership development programs tailored for post-secondary education leaders. This deficiency leaves a substantial number of higher education leaders ill-equipped with the fundamental competencies needed for effective leadership. This review underscores the pressing necessity to establish institution-based leadership development initiatives explicitly crafted for academic leaders and faculty members. The exploration encompasses diverse platforms and methodologies for delivering such programs, drawing insights from empirical studies that underscore the advantages of leadership development. Also, the review discusses the content of leadership development curricula. Focusing on academic leaders and faculty, these curricula cover competencies such as strategic planning, interpersonal communication, talent management, and adaptive leadership. The outcomes underscore the significance of institutions integrating leadership development efforts within their academic domains. The discussion delves into the manifold benefits of instituting leadership development programs, not only as a cost-effective alternative to external fellowship courses but as a strategic move with multifaceted advantages. These advantages encompass streamlining competitive succession planning, magnetizing and retaining talent, cultivating expansive networking opportunities, and augmenting the capacity to confront contemporary challenges in higher education. By prioritizing the nurturing of academic leaders, institutions can effectively bridge the gap between current leadership skills and the evolving demands of the higher education landscape.
Plain Language Summary
In today’s fast-changing world of higher education, having knowledgeable leaders who understand its challenges is crucial. While there are leadership programs globally, there is a lack of ones designed specifically for post-secondary education leaders. This gap leaves many leaders without the essential skills needed for effective leadership. This review highlights the urgent need for institution-specific leadership programs designed for academic leaders and faculty. It explores different ways to deliver these programs, drawing insights from real-world studies that emphasize the benefits of leadership development. The review also looks into the content of these programs, focusing on skills like strategic planning, communication, talent management, and adaptive leadership. The outcomes stress the importance of integrating leadership development into academic settings, not just as a cost-effective alternative but as a strategic move with numerous advantages. These include better succession planning, attracting and retaining talent, creating extensive networks, and enhancing the ability to face today’s challenges in higher education. By prioritizing the growth of academic leaders, institutions can bridge the gap between current skills and the evolving demands of higher education.
Introduction
Post-secondary institutions all over the world are continuously faced with new challenges as they become larger, more complex, and multi-functional (Dopson et al., 2019). The catalog of challenges increases as the fundamental activities of universities and post-secondary institutions become more complex (Drew, 2010; Hannah et al., 2008; Kri et al., 2021; Marginson, 2013; T. Scott, 2020; S. Scott et al., 2016; Toker, 2022). In recent times, the challenges facing higher education institutions worldwide include lack of funding resulting from decreased government allocation to higher education, more demands for modern facilities for cutting-edge research and teaching, and inflation, among others (Adkin, 2021; Brown, 2022; Doyle & Delaney, 2009; Garton, 2019; Gupta et al., 2016; Kennedy, 2022; Liefner, 2003), increased student enrollment (massification) (Gumport et al., 1997; Mok & Jiang, 2018; Noui, 2020), marketization (Hurt, 2012; Marginson, 2013), globalization (Cudmore, 2005; Kapoor, 2005; Lee & Stensaker, 2021; Woodard et al., 2011), and the COIVD-19 pandemic that affected in-person learning that kept institutions that were not prepared for online learning closed for several months (Dani & Rios, 2021; Hassan, 2021; Maas et al., 2020). Also, technological innovations in teaching and learning are evolving each day making it challenging for leaders to keep up to speed with the trend of innovations that will support effective teaching, learning, and cutting-edge research in their institutions (Hassan, 2021; Kakada et al., 2019; Weller, 2017; Woodard et al., 2011). Entrepreneurial skills have become increasingly relevant for academic leaders due to the paradigm shift of depending on public funding for universities and colleges which is never enough for universities to be innovative in developing income-generating programs and services that are needed in society (Dopson et al., 2019). The other dimension of challenges in higher education is industrial unrest by labor unions (Anonaba, 2015; Darko, 2021; Jamieson, 2005; Kennedy, 2022), the challenges of internationalization (Buckner, 2019; Cudmore, 2005; Knight, 2020), and global ranking (Börjesson & Cea, 2020; Cheng & Liu, 2008; Dill & Soo, 2005; Hazelkorn, 2011, 2019; Sharma et al., 2016). All these challenges and many more are what the leader needs to be prepared to face in contemporary post-secondary institutions. Leadership development will enable the leader to help the institution or department overcome the contemporary and dynamic challenges confronting higher education institutions. It is a known fact that the leadership and management of institutions/organizations have always been a major determinant factor in defining the successes and failures of institutions/organizations.
Faculty members in universities are known to be experts in their professional discipline, but not necessarily in leadership (Avolio et al., 2010; Kri et al., 2021; Nica, 2013; D. E. Scott, 2015; D. E. Scott & Scott, 2010). In addition, it has been reported by various authors in many countries, that the criteria for the appointment or election of post-secondary leaders are mostly based on research excellence which does not necessarily translate to leadership excellence (Kri et al., 2021; Söderhjelm et al., 2018). However, faculty members especially those with excellent track records in research and publications are the ones appointed to the position of leadership in higher education institutions. This therefore necessitates the need for leadership development to be an essential program that is institutionalized in post-secondary institutions to ensure that before individuals are appointed to lead, they are well prepared to confront the challenges of their job (Bolden, 2005; Velsor & McCauley, 2010).
There are several leadership retreats/fellowships that are hosted by various organizations as a one-off course or program but attending these retreats are expensive and most times, the content of the curriculum is targeted to business executives, political leaders, and general leadership concepts. Thus, it is not enough to just host a leadership development in institutions, but what will form the components/curriculum of the program and the approach to deliver the program is essential. Because of the dynamic nature of leadership in post-secondary institutions, it is usually recommended that programs should be planned to achieve the goals and visions of each institution, as well as design the program to be culturally sensitive to the context (Bush, 2010; Cebollero, 2020; Colleges and Institutes Canada, 2023; Eddy & Rao, 2009; Söderhjelm et al., 2018).
The gap created by how leaders are appointed in higher education and the dynamic challenges facing universities, the need to have a leadership succession plan by developing academic leaders, what the curriculum of the leadership development program for higher education leaders should be, and how to deliver the leadership development program is the main aim of this review. Thus, this review discusses the concept of leadership development, why academic leaders need leadership development, the curriculum of a leadership development program, the methods of delivery of a leadership development program, and the implication/benefits of leadership development on the leader, followers, and the institution.
Theoretical Framework
In navigating the ever-evolving landscape of higher education, the demand for effective academic leadership has never been more critical. This theoretical framework draws upon established leadership theories and educational paradigms to shed light on the imperative need for institution-based leadership development programs tailored explicitly for post-secondary academic leaders. Grounded in transformational leadership, leadership competency models, and adult learning theories, this framework provides a comprehensive lens through which to understand the multifaceted challenges faced by contemporary academic leaders. Additionally, by exploring the influence of social learning, neoliberalism, and global leadership perspectives, this framework establishes a robust foundation for advocating the design and implementation of strategic leadership development initiatives. As we delve into these theoretical constructs, the goal is not merely theoretical elucidation but a practical roadmap for institutions seeking to bridge the gap between existing leadership competencies and the dynamic demands of the modern higher education environment.
Transformational Leadership Theory
Transformational Leadership Theory is a leadership model that focuses on inspiring and motivating followers to achieve exceptional outcomes and exceed their self-interests. Coined by James V. Downton and popularized by James MacGregor Burns in the late 20th century, this theory suggests that transformational leaders stimulate intellectual and emotional growth among their followers (Bass, 1985; J. M. Burns, 1978). Transformational leadership theory provides a valuable lens for understanding the essential qualities academic leaders must possess in the face of rapid changes in higher education (Bass, 1985) argues that transformational leaders inspire and motivate followers to achieve beyond their self-interests, fostering a culture of innovation and adaptability. Academic leaders, operating in a dynamic environment, must embody transformational leadership to effectively navigate the complexities of contemporary higher education.
Leadership Competency Models
Leadership competency models are frameworks that identify and define the skills, knowledge, and attributes necessary for effective leadership in a specific context (Boyatzis, 1982; McCauley et al., 1994; Wouters & Buyens, 2006). These models serve as a guide for leadership development, performance assessment, and talent management (Wouters & Buyens, 2006). Leadership competency models, such as those proposed by McCauley et al. (1994) and Boyatzis (1982), offer a structured framework for identifying and developing the specific skills and attributes required for effective academic leadership. By aligning leadership development programs with established competency models, institutions can ensure a targeted and comprehensive approach to leadership skill enhancement.
Adult Learning Theory (Andragogy)
In the realm of designing leadership development programs for academic leaders, it is imperative to draw insights from adult learning theories, notably andragogy as conceptualized by Knowles (1984). By acknowledging the distinctive attributes of adult learners, including their self-directed nature and practical orientation, one can inform pedagogical approaches that effectively enhance the effectiveness of leadership development initiatives. Knowles’ framework suggests that adult educators should establish a cooperative and conducive learning climate, assess specific learner needs and interests, formulate tailored learning objectives, design sequential activities to meet those objectives, collaborate with learners on selecting instructional methods and resources, and continually evaluate and adjust the learning experience as needed (Knowles, 1984; Corley, 2011). Applying these principles within the context of leadership development programs ensures a tailored and impactful approach that resonates with the unique characteristics of adult learners.
Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory, as articulated by Bandura (1977), underscores the importance of observational learning, modeling, and the influence of social networks in shaping behavior. This psychological concept emphasizes that individuals acquire new behaviors and information through the process of observing and imitating others within their social environment (Bandura, 1977). In the context of academic leadership, mentorship and coaching programs can be designed to leverage social learning, providing leaders with opportunities to observe, learn, and apply effective leadership practices. The theory posits that leaders can benefit from observing the behaviors of experienced mentors or coaches, fostering a dynamic where they can replicate and adapt successful leadership strategies. This approach aligns with the key principles of social learning theory, such as observational learning, modeling, and reinforcement, creating a valuable framework for leadership development within academic settings.
Neoliberalism in Higher Education
A critical examination of neoliberalism in higher education, as discussed by Marginson (2011) and Slaughter and Leslie (1997), informs our understanding of the external pressures influencing the need for leadership development. Neoliberal policies emphasize efficiency, accountability, and competition, necessitating academic leaders equipped with the skills to navigate these market-oriented challenges (Marginson, 2011, 2013; Slaughter & Leslie, 1997, 2001). The globalized political economy, characterized by diminished government funding, heightened collaborations with business and industry, and the promotion of educational and business services, underscores the heightened relevance and urgency for academic leadership development in navigating the intensified impact of neoliberal principles on academic labor.
Leadership Succession Theory
In the context of leadership development in higher education, theories pertaining to leadership succession planning, as grounded in organizational development literature (Conger & Fulmer, 2003), emphasize the strategic significance of identifying and preparing future academic leaders. Prioritizing succession planning is imperative for academic institutions to ensure a smooth transition of leadership, fostering sustained effectiveness in addressing evolving challenges within the educational landscape (Conger & Fulmer, 2003; Kri et al., 2021). Drawing on a succession model that has historical roots in various realms, such as monarchies and major religions, this leadership theory has been employed for millennia to maintain control over countries and followers globally (Lister, 2023). Similarly, in the business world, organizations often adopt this model by promoting from within their existing leadership structure to retain control of business strategies and organizational direction (Lister, 2023). By cultivating an internal candidate for leadership roles, such as a dean or department head, academic institutions can ensure a deep understanding of the institution’s culture, educational goals, and strategic direction. This internal candidate can learn the intricacies of daily operations and engage with various stakeholders by observing and working alongside the current leader. This approach facilitates a seamless leadership transition, preventing any disruptions in academic operations that might arise if an external candidate were selected for a key leadership position.
Organizational Learning Theory
Organizational learning theory, as proposed by Argyris and Schon (1978), views institutions as learning entities. This perspective integrates the notion that organizations are continuously engaged in learning and development (Argyris & Schon, 1978; Bratianu, 2015). It emphasizes the dynamic nature of knowledge acquisition and application within academic organizations, reinforcing the critical role of leadership development. By cultivating effective leadership, institutions not only enhance their adaptability and resilience but also create an environment that aligns with the principles of organizational learning theory, promoting continuous improvement and innovation within the academic context.
Incorporating these theoretical perspectives provides a robust foundation for advocating the establishment of institution-based leadership development programs tailored to the unique challenges faced by post-secondary academic leaders. This framework not only acknowledges the theoretical underpinnings of effective leadership development but also emphasizes the practical implications for addressing the evolving landscape of higher education.
The Concept of Leadership Development
Leadership development refers to the actions leaders take to enhance their capacity to influence others in achieving goals and realizing visions. It encompasses efforts to improve leadership abilities within institutions, businesses, organizations, communities, or personal life (Bolden, 2005; Cebollero, 2020; Velsor & McCauley, 2010). According to Velsor and McCauley (2010), it involves the “expansion of a person’s capacity to be effective in leadership roles and processes” (p. 2). Synthesizing various definitions, leadership development can be understood as the enhancement of an individual or group’s capability to guide, align, cultivate commitment, and influence others toward achieving organizational objectives while maintaining psychological safety in the workplace (Bolden, 2005; Bolden et al., 2009; Edmondson, 1999; Ruben et al., 2018; Velsor & McCauley, 2010).
Initial theories suggesting that great leaders are “born not made” tended to overlook the importance of leadership development (Avolio & Hannah, 2009; Bolden, 2005; Gigliotti & Ruben, 2017; Kouzes & Posner, 2012, 2019; Northouse, 2022; Price, 2011). Subsequent theories challenged this notion, asserting that leadership behaviors and competencies can be learned and developed over time through training, mentorship, and professional development programs (Avolio et al., 2010; Bolden, 2005; Gigliotti & Ruben, 2017; Kouzes & Posner, 2019; D. N. Smith & Roebuck, 2010). While qualities like self-confidence, decision-making, communication, problem-solving, emotional intelligence, care for others, strategic thinking, and self-awareness can be learned and developed, core personal characteristics may be less amenable to change and influence leadership style (Bolden, 2005).
Some argue for the cost-effectiveness of leadership development programs, while proponents of the innate theory see it as a futile investment in individuals not inherently suited for leadership (Avolio et al., 2010; Bolden, 2005; Dopson et al., 2019; Söderhjelm et al., 2018). However, it’s crucial to note that merely teaching and providing training won’t lead to significant development unless there’s genuine interest from the trainee to become better leaders. Leadership, ideally, should be by example, and the purpose of providing leadership development is to enhance leaders’ capacity to be more effective through improving their qualities, knowledge, and interpersonal skills while fostering psychological safety. While the insights in this review apply to various leaders, the focus is specifically on leadership development for academic leaders in post-secondary institutions.
Academic Leaders in Higher Education
Post-secondary academic leaders encompass both academic and administrative roles, each playing a crucial part in guiding and shaping educational institutions. Academic leaders, which include deans, department chairs, and faculty members in leadership positions, bear the primary responsibility of steering the institution’s educational mission (Birnbaum, 1988). Their duties involve fostering a culture of academic excellence, overseeing curriculum development, supporting faculty, and ensuring the quality of teaching and research (Boyko & Jones, 2010; Cleverley-Thompson, 2016; Lavigne, 2019). For instance, deans are tasked with overseeing specific academic departments, while department chairs guide faculty within their respective departments. Typically, academic leaders are drawn from the university’s own faculty or teaching staff, although appointment methods can vary across institutions and countries.
Conversely, administrative leaders, including university presidents, vice presidents, and directors, focus on the overall administration, strategic planning, and financial sustainability of the institution (Bolman & Deal, 2017; Bolman & Gallos, 2011). Their roles are pivotal in setting the institution’s vision, managing budgets, engaging with external stakeholders, and implementing strategic plans. Examples of administrative positions include university presidents providing overall leadership and vice presidents overseeing specific functions such as finance, student affairs, or enrollment management. It is noteworthy that in many cases, faculty members also occupy administrative positions. However, it is common for both academic and administrative leaders to lack prior training in their roles, making leadership development programs essential for effective leadership.
In the past, academic leaders primarily focused on coordinating teaching and research activities within the university (de Boer & Goedegebuure, 2009; Wolverton et al., 2001). However, their roles have evolved to become more intricate, diverse, and externally-oriented (Davies & Thomas, 2010; Thomas & Davies, 2009). Modern leaders now bear significant decision-making responsibilities with far-reaching impacts, as seen in Canada where they manage large casualized academic workforces (Jones, 2013). The emphasis on external engagement is linked to securing funding, requiring leaders to adopt entrepreneurial approaches and establish networks with external stakeholders, including universities, communities, industries, and business sectors (Bradley et al., 2017; Cleverley-Thompson, 2016; Preston & Floyd, 2016).
Recognizing the distinct yet interconnected roles of academic and administrative leaders, leadership development becomes crucial for both components. Tailored programs should address the unique challenges faced by leaders, providing them with the necessary skills to navigate their responsibilities (Cebollero, 2020; Kri et al., 2021; Zuber-Skerritt & Louw, 2014). Succession planning is equally vital to identify and prepare future leaders for roles in both academic and administrative spheres (Colleges and Institutes Canada, 2023; Rehbock, 2020). Post-secondary academic leaders, whether academic or administrative, play integral roles in shaping higher education institutions. A comprehensive understanding of the diverse responsibilities and challenges faced by these leaders is essential for effective leadership development (Luthans & Avolio, 2003; Velsor & McCauley, 2010). As the landscape of higher education evolves, a holistic approach to leadership that recognizes the unique contributions of academic and administrative leaders will foster resilience, innovation, and a steadfast commitment to the enduring mission of education.
The Imperative for Leadership Development in Academic Leaders
Within the knowledge-driven landscape of post-secondary institutions, the caliber of staff is characterized by high intelligence and education. Nevertheless, steering such a talented cohort poses significant challenges. Effective leadership in this milieu demands not only a profound understanding of the role but also the acquisition of skills to garner support from colleagues. It requires possessing leadership qualities essential for navigating the intricacies of the post-secondary environment (Evans, 2017; Kri et al., 2021; Velsor & McCauley, 2010).
Despite the inherent complexities of leading post-secondary institutions, some individuals ascend to leadership roles without sufficient preparation (Gigliotti & Ruben, 2017; Kri et al., 2021; Ruben et al., 2018). Ruben et al. (2018) highlighted an antiquated belief that mastery within one’s discipline or technical area was once the primary—sometimes sole—talent-set deemed necessary for leadership. This outdated approach persists in certain global universities, with leadership positions often awarded based on achieving a professorial cadre through research and publications, rather than leadership abilities (Dopson et al., 2019; Gigliotti, 2017; Gigliotti & Ruben, 2017; Söderhjelm et al., 2018). The evolving higher education landscape necessitates leaders with a skill set extending beyond academic achievements, prompting an urgent call for a paradigm shift in leadership selection criteria (Avolio et al., 2010; Gigliotti & Ruben, 2017; Ruben et al., 2018).
Effective leadership in post-secondary institutions is integral to shaping policies, workload distribution, and overall faculty dynamics (Maclean, 2016; Ramsden, 2003). Leaders significantly influence teaching and research outcomes, financial sustainability, organizational culture, and institutional reputation (DeFleur et al., 2010; Ramsden & Martin, 1996; Shahmandi et al., 2011, 2012). The dynamic academic landscape, influenced by globalization, economic trends, and neoliberalism, introduces challenges demanding leaders’ adaptability and support for staff (Davies & Thomas, 2010; Marginson, 2009; Wolverton et al., 2001). Changes include reduced funding, heightened accountability, and shifts in fee structures (Clark, 2009; Doyle & Delaney, 2009; Webber & Scott, 2008).
Leaders’ influence on academic culture and outcomes emphasizes the need for positive workplaces and a balance between accountability and productivity (Horn, 1999; Smyth, 2017; Thoroughgood et al., 2018). The incorporation of leadership theory into practice reveals a gap in integrating theories into leadership development (LD) programs (Kri et al., 2021). Leadership development emerges as crucial for effective practice, yet there is a lack of detailed guidance on program content and delivery (Bolden, 2005; Morris & Laipple, 2015; Nica, 2013). Mentoring and coaching, though recognized, face challenges, prompting further research for effective leadership development strategies (Baartman, 2011; Green & Ridenour, 2004). Thus, informed leadership development is essential for navigating the complexities of the evolving higher education landscape, and fostering authentic leadership within post-secondary institutions (Maclean, 2016; Ramsden & Martin, 1996).
Additionally, in response to the dynamic shifts within higher education, institutions are advised to be more deliberate and conscious in their approach to leadership recruitment and selection (Rehbock, 2020; Ruben et al., 2018; Schiavone, 2018; Velsor & McCauley, 2010). While top-tier leadership positions often result from external, national searches, the majority of formal leadership roles are filled by existing faculty and staff (Ruben et al., 2018). Recognizing this, institutions stand to gain a substantial return on investment by establishing their leadership development programs (Avolio et al., 2010; Kri et al., 2021; Ruben et al., 2018). The creation and support of such programs not only demonstrate the institution’s commitment to effective leadership but also foster dialog and discussion on pertinent leadership issues (Avolio et al., 2010; Gigliotti & Ruben, 2017; Ruben et al., 2018). Establishing a “leadership culture” within the broader institutional framework may outweigh the impact of any single leadership development initiative (Ruben et al., 2018). Cultivating such a culture demands sustained resources, both financial and temporal, from the highest echelons of the college or university over an extended period (Bolden, 2005; London, 2002; Ruben et al., 2018; Schiavone, 2018; Velsor & McCauley, 2010; Zulfqar et al., 2021).
The intricate tapestry of leadership experience, responsibilities, training, and hierarchical levels within higher education adds complexity to the planning of educational leadership programs. Nevertheless, some authors offer valuable insights into the essential elements that should constitute the content and curriculum of leadership development programs for higher education leaders, a discussion detailed in the following section.
Content of Leadership Development Programs for Academic Leaders
The content of a leadership development program should be tailored to the specific needs, leadership level, and institutional context of the participants (Bolden, 2005; Kri et al., 2021; Ruben et al., 2018; Schiavone, 2018; Söderhjelm et al., 2018; Velsor & McCauley, 2010; Webber & Scott, 2008). Several crucial topics are recommended for inclusion in leadership development programs for higher education leaders, encompassing but not limited to (See Table 1):
Sample Curriculum: Leadership Development for Academic Leaders in Higher Education.
Institutional Structure and Mission
The policies, goals, mission, and practices of an institution shape its structure, influencing the organizational culture, values, beliefs, and behaviors of both staff and students (Canadian Association of College & University Student Services, 2016; Ruben et al., 2018). Leaders new to an institution must familiarize themselves with its structures, chain of command, administrative processes, values, mission, and goals to effectively perform their leadership functions. A well-defined institutional structure and mission create expectations among students and staff, and failing to meet these expectations can diminish satisfaction (Canadian Association of College & University Student Services, 2016).
Institutional Challenges in Higher Education
Leaders should be equipped to address challenges such as neoliberalism, funding, marketization, globalization, internationalization, university ranking, massification, mental health issues, industrial labor union issues, and emerging disruptions like pandemics (Dopson et al., 2019; Ruben et al., 2018). The program should foster the development of effective strategies through idea sharing, discussions, and experience exchange.
Leadership Theories, Concepts, and Practices
Leaders should be well-versed in various leadership theories applicable to university/college leadership approaches. The curriculum should cover the qualities and skills of effective contemporary leadership, as well as practices that encourage willing collaboration with followers (Avolio, 2007; Filthuth, 2020; Gmelch & Buller, 2015; Northouse, 2022; Price, 2011; Rosenhead et al., 2019).
Other Higher Education Leadership Competencies
The program should also develop leaders’ competence in areas such as formal and informal leadership roles and responsibilities, finance and budgeting, law and regulation, disciplinary and institutional cultures, decision-making, leadership communication, influence on multiple publics, accreditation, organizational assessment, planning, change management, metrics, self-assessment, interpersonal skills, emotional intelligence, team building, and team management (Bolden, 2005; Cebollero, 2020; Colleges and Institutes Canada, 2023; Dopson et al., 2019; Eddy & Rao, 2009; Kri et al., 2021; Rehbock, 2020; Ruben et al., 2018; Söderhjelm et al., 2018; Velsor & McCauley, 2010; Walumbwa et al., 2008).
The sample curriculum of the leadership development program presented in Table 1 is not exhaustive. It should remain flexible for periodic reviews, adapting to emerging leadership issues, institutional requirement, individual need, or leadership position need. Leadership development necessitates a conscious, intentional effort by both the leader and the institution. Institutions that prioritize recruiting top-notch leaders tend to have individuals who have continually developed themselves for leadership roles. While the recruitment processes at times may not reflect an effective approach, leaders appointed without prior preparation should proactively engage in leadership development programs to enhance their capacity for effective leadership in the post-secondary environment. Some of the content of the sample curriculum in Table 1 could be demonstrated practically and not necessarily taught in a formal setting. This could be through mentorship, delegation, coaching among others. The following section discusses various approaches, platforms, and methods leaders can utilize to develop their competencies and effectively lead in contemporary higher education settings.
Methods and Platforms for Leadership Development for Academic Leaders
The methods and platforms for leadership development for academic leaders have been widely explored, with various approaches recommended in the literature (Avolio et al., 2010; Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Brazer & Bauer, 2013; Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Franken et al., 2015; Gigliotti & Ruben, 2017; Kri et al., 2021; Ramsden, 2003; Ruben et al., 2018; D. E. Scott & Scott, 2012; Sulzberger, 2003; Zepeda, 2019). While sending leaders or university staff for external leadership development courses can be costly, scholars recommend that institutions establish their own leadership development programs to mitigate expenses associated with international courses (Avolio et al., 2010; Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Bolden, 2005; Eddy & Rao, 2009; Gigliotti & Ruben, 2017; Kri et al., 2021; Ruben et al., 2018; Steele et al., 2020). Importantly, the leadership development program for leaders is not a singular event; instead, it is an ongoing process wherein both leaders and other staff continually enhance their leadership capacities (Bush, 2010; Cebollero, 2020; Eddy & Rao, 2009; Kri et al., 2021; Steele et al., 2020; Webber & Scott, 2008).
Several effective approaches and methods have been recommended for institutional leadership development programs, drawing from insights in the literature (Avolio et al., 2010; Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Bolden, 2005; Cebollero, 2020; Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Kri et al., 2021; Ruben et al., 2018; State Education Resource Center, 2022; Sulzberger, 2003; Zepeda, 2019; Zuber-Skerritt & Louw, 2014).
The following approaches are recommended in this review:
Recognize Every Staff Member of the Institution as a Leader and Provide Basic Leadership Training for All
The level of influence a leader has on the staff to accomplish organizational goals, because the leader has effectively communicated visions and goals to the staff, is very essential (Kouzes & Posner, 2019; Northouse, 2019, 2022). In universities/colleges, transformational leadership theory, authentic leadership theory, and shared leadership are common (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Holcombe et al., 2021; Kouzes & Posner, 2012, 2019; Messier, 2017). Shared leadership style which involves the involvement of almost all faculty members in an academic leadership role, targeted at achieving the overall goals of the institution (Holcombe et al., 2021; Kukenberger & D’Innocenzo, 2020; Lee-Davies, 2013; Stensaker & Vabø, 2013). Thus, every staff member is expected to be trained in various leadership qualities and skills to lead others. The academic staff influences students and colleagues apart from the leadership influence of Heads of Departments, deans, and Vice-Chancellors. Training all staff to be leaders instills a sense of responsibility and equips them for future leadership roles in the institution (Holcombe et al., 2021; Messier, 2017; Shanahan, 2019; Stensaker & Vabø, 2013). The level of leadership of each staff member provides an opportunity to gain experience and improve on it before they assume a top leadership position in the college/university (DeBoy, 2015; Holcombe et al., 2021; Messier, 2017).
Delegation
Delegation is a crucial process wherein individuals are granted the authority to act on behalf of others (Ali et al., 2021). It serves as a method employed by inexperienced leaders to gain opportunities for leading others. The foundational principles of autonomy and academic freedom in higher education are rooted in the idea that leaders, in their roles, delegate authority (Kezar & Holcombe, 2017). Despite this delegation of authority, there is often a lack of clear accountability structures, particularly within the realm of leadership development methods (Ali et al., 2021; Kezar & Holcombe, 2017). This entrusted authority involves tasks such as delivering speeches or presentations for the department or institution, composing appointment letters, or addressing issues with staff members who have committed offenses. Delegation stands out as one of the key approaches employed in leadership development programs within higher education (Ali et al., 2021; Dopson et al., 2019). It is important to note that delegation in leadership development is not a solo endeavor; instead, it involves supervision by experienced leaders who guide and support inexperienced leaders on their development journey (Ali et al., 2021).
Mentorship
Mentorship is a dynamic relationship involving two individuals, where the more experienced, knowledgeable, and well-connected person imparts their accumulated wisdom to a less experienced counterpart in a specific field; the senior participant is referred to as the mentor, and the junior participant as the mentee (Oshinkale, 2019). In various organizations, individuals gain multifaceted insights through interactions with peers possessing diverse backgrounds, expertise, and leadership roles (Hayes & Allinson, 1998). A significant outcome of organizational connections is the establishment of a platform for mentorship, fostering personal and professional learning and growth (Bidwell, 2022; Bland et al., 2012; Hayes & Allinson, 1998; Lankau & Scandura, 2002). Typically, mentors are seniors in both age and profession, although exceptions exist. With the contemporary trend of younger individuals assuming leadership roles, and the fact that some inexperienced leaders possess technological expertise that can be shared with their more experienced counterparts, the learning process in mentorship relationships can be bidirectional (Bidwell, 2022). It is noteworthy that an individual may have multiple mentors, a practice contingent upon the specific leadership development needs of the individual.
Coaching
Coaching is a personalized and collaborative process designed to support individuals in achieving specific personal or professional goals (Johnson, 2022). In a coaching relationship, a coach works with a client (coachee) to identify their objectives, challenges, and areas for improvement (Johnson, 2022; Pelham, 2016). The coach then facilitates the client’s self-discovery, helping them explore different perspectives, set goals, and develop action plans (Johnson, 2022; Ladegard & Gjerde, 2014). Coaching involves active listening, powerful questioning, and feedback to enhance the client’s self-awareness, skills, and performance (Grant, 2013; Johnson, 2022). It is a forward-focused and solution-oriented approach aimed at unlocking an individual’s potential and promoting growth and development (Clutterbuck & Megginson, 2005; Ladegard & Gjerde, 2014). Coaching can be applied in various contexts, including leadership development, career advancement, and personal well-being (Ladegard & Gjerde, 2014; Mattar et al., 2018; Nadeem & Garvey, 2020).
In the realm of leadership development, coaching is a structured and collaborative process designed to elevate the leadership skills, effectiveness, and overall performance of individuals occupying leadership roles (Le Comte & McClelland, 2017; Mattar et al., 2018; Theeboom et al., 2014). This specialized coaching approach is tailored to address the unique challenges and opportunities encountered by leaders within their organizational context. The primary objective is to empower leaders to achieve professional objectives, enhance decision-making capabilities, and cultivate a positive and impactful leadership style (Clutterbuck & Megginson, 2005; Haan & Burger, 2014; Nadeem & Garvey, 2020).
The coaching process in leadership development typically involves a partnership between a trained coach and a leader, often referred to as the coachee (American College Health Association, 2020; Grant, 2012; Ladegard & Gjerde, 2014). The coach collaborates with the leader to identify areas for improvement, establish clear and measurable goals, and develop strategies for personal and professional growth. This process encompasses various key elements, including encouraging self-reflection, setting SMART goals, providing constructive feedback on current behaviors, and designing targeted development plans to enhance specific leadership skills (Clutterbuck & Megginson, 2005; Ladegard & Gjerde, 2014).
Moreover, the coaching approach emphasizes accountability by holding leaders responsible for acting and making tangible progress toward their goals. The coach offers ongoing support, encouragement, and guidance throughout the leadership development journey. Leadership development coaching aims to foster self-awareness, adaptability, and effectiveness in leaders, enabling them to navigate complex organizational challenges and inspire their teams to achieve collective goals. Coaching and mentoring have been reported as the most commonly used method in leadership development (Bland et al., 2012; Ladegard & Gjerde, 2014; Nadeem & Garvey, 2020; Sorcinelli & Yun, 2007).
Teaching
Teaching, as a method of leadership development, involves skillfully addressing the diverse needs, experiences, and emotions of individuals. It encompasses a variety of interventions, such as posing insightful questions, actively listening, providing relevant information, explaining complex phenomena, demonstrating specific leadership skills or processes, evaluating comprehension and capacity, and facilitating engaging learning activities (Antonacopoulou & Bento, 2003; Curtin, 2002; M. K. Smith, 2020; Turner et al., 2018). These activities may include interactive discussions, undertaking leadership assignments, participating in simulations, and practical exercises (Antonacopoulou & Bento, 2003; Curtin, 2002; Turner et al., 2018). The overarching goal of teaching in the context of leadership development is to guide individuals in acquiring specific leadership knowledge and skills, fostering a deeper understanding that goes beyond the conventional approaches (Antonacopoulou & Bento, 2003; Curtin, 2002; M. K. Smith, 2020).
The teaching process is adaptable and can take on different forms tailored to leadership development contexts. This adaptability is evident in face-to-face teaching, where direct interactions occur in a physical setting (Antonacopoulou & Bento, 2003). Alternatively, online learning platforms can be utilized for leadership education, and blended learning methods may combine both traditional and online approaches (Bates, 2022; Hautala et al., 2021; Zepeda, 2019). Moreover, practical leadership experiences, akin to practicum opportunities, provide hands-on learning, enabling individuals to apply theoretical leadership knowledge in real-world scenarios (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; State Education Resource Center, 2022; Zepeda, 2019). Thus, teaching emerges as a dynamic and personalized method within leadership development, catering to the unique needs and learning styles of aspiring leaders. It serves as a versatile conduit for knowledge transfer and skill development, shaping individuals to surpass their existing understanding and capabilities in the realm of leadership.
Counseling
Counseling is a pivotal method in leadership development that involves the proactive seeking of guidance and support to effectively navigate the social, personal, or psychological challenges inherent in leadership roles (Barreto, 2012). Leaders frequently grapple with multifaceted issues such as managing criticism, cultivating a positive media image, overcoming stage fright, coping with burnout, and addressing conflicts within the organizational context (Cardo, 2007; Edmunds et al., 2008; Halliman, 2016; Souba, 2007). While formal training equips leaders with foundational knowledge, the necessity for counseling becomes apparent when confronted with nuanced and intricate challenges (Edmunds et al., 2008; Halliman, 2016). New leaders, especially, encounter situations demanding difficult decisions (Edmunds et al., 2008). Seeking counseling from seasoned leaders who have successfully navigated similar circumstances becomes an invaluable resource (Cardo, 2007). This practice not only provides leaders with the insights needed to address immediate challenges but also empowers them to independently handle future situations and extend support to their peers (Barreto, 2012). Additionally, leaders benefit significantly from establishing mentorship relationships, where mentors serve as a reliable source of counseling during difficult times (Clutterbuck, 2004; Keyes, 2007).
The integration of counseling into leadership development is instrumental in minimizing errors in decision-making (Allen et al., 2004; Commodore et al., 2016). By actively seeking guidance, leaders enhance their decision-making capabilities and gain a more profound understanding of how to address the complexities inherent in their roles (Barreto, 2012). Counseling, as the instrument that empowers training and forges the development of leaders, functions not only as a discipline and praxis but also as a professional practice. It goes beyond addressing immediate challenges; counseling increases consciousness and optimizes the management and synergy of human energy (Barreto, 2012). In essence, counseling emerges as an indispensable component of leadership development, fostering a supportive environment conducive to continuous growth and effective leadership.
Leadership Development Meetings/Retreats
Leadership development through meetings and retreats is a strategic approach wherein leaders schedule deliberate sessions to discuss pertinent leadership topics. These sessions may involve watching videos on specific leadership subjects, utilizing platforms such as YouTube, or revisiting archived videos from previous meetings (J. Burns et al., 2022; Cebollero, 2020). This method facilitates asynchronous learning, allowing individuals at various levels of leadership within the department or faculty to engage with the same topic at their own pace (J. Burns et al., 2022).
In these leadership development meetings, participants have the opportunity to seek answers to questions and address concerns with input from their peers, fostering a collaborative learning environment (J. Burns et al., 2022; Cebollero, 2020). These meetings can be scheduled at regular intervals, whether weekly, monthly, or quarterly, providing a consistent platform for ongoing leadership development (J. Burns et al., 2022). Additionally, leaders may opt for a more immersive experience by organizing leadership retreats during summer holidays. These retreats offer a comprehensive learning environment, allowing for in-depth exploration of leadership principles and providing an opportunity for the assessment of collective achievements over the preceding years (J. Burns et al., 2022; Cebollero, 2020).
Personal Learning
Personal learning stands out as a crucial method in the realm of leadership development, emphasizing the intentional and planned nature of a leader’s commitment to growth (Health Prince Edward Island, 2018; Johns & Moser, 1989; Turner et al., 2018). It transcends impromptu or occasional events, constituting a continuous process that demands proactive engagement from leaders (J. Burns et al., 2022; Turner et al., 2018). A fundamental aspect of personal learning involves self-reflection, where leaders assess their performance and conscientiously identify areas for improvement (J. Burns et al., 2022; Turner et al., 2018). One challenge faced by leaders is the tendency to be surrounded by individuals who offer praise without providing honest assessments of their performance. To overcome this, leaders must cultivate an environment of psychological safety that encourages followers to provide candid feedback (J. Burns et al., 2022; Turner et al., 2018).
Engaging in a personal leadership development program encompasses various activities. Leaders can immerse themselves in reading leadership literature, including books, biographies of past leaders, leadership journals, and magazines (J. Burns et al., 2022; Health Prince Edward Island, 2018). Additionally, they can explore online leadership videos, attend seminars and conferences, join professional associations, and actively participate in associated events (Turner et al., 2018). Actively leading groups is another avenue for personal development (J. Burns et al., 2022). Furthermore, leaders, both seasoned and new, have the option to enroll in leadership courses at post-secondary institutions, formally attaining certification as leadership experts. In essence, personal learning serves as a dynamic and multifaceted approach to leadership development, fostering a commitment to ongoing improvement and excellence in leadership (Corley, 2011).
Leadership Fellowship
Leadership fellowship for higher education academic leaders is a distinctive approach to leadership development. Tailored for a select group of emerging leaders, which may include students, this program provides a rare opportunity to engage in high-impact management roles within nonprofit and public sector organizations. The duration of these fellowships varies. Participants in the leadership fellowship for academic leaders receive comprehensive education encompassing both leadership theories and practical applications. This unique program is designed to empower emerging academic leaders with the knowledge and skills necessary for effective leadership in higher education (Steele et al., 2020). While many participants receive competitive salaries during their fellowship, it’s worth noting that a few may not receive financial compensation.
In the realm of higher education, the leadership fellowship serves as an invaluable method for developing leaders who can navigate the complex challenges of academic management. By offering practical experiences alongside theoretical knowledge, this program equips emerging academic leaders with the tools needed to excel in their roles. The leadership fellowship thus becomes a pivotal avenue for fostering leadership excellence within the academic realm. However, it is important to note that there are few of such fellowship programs designed specifically for higher education leaders (Cikaliuk, 2011; Colleges and Institutes Canada, 2023; Steele et al., 2020).
Leadership Training
Leadership development often begins with targeted training programs designed for new and emerging leaders. This training can take various forms, including workshops, summer retreats, seminars, panel discussions, and practicum experiences. However, studies highlight the potential costliness of such leadership development approaches, prompting suggestions for institutions to establish in-house or in-country training centers dedicated to leadership development activities for their staff and those of other organizations (Avolio et al., 2010; Bolden, 2005; Dopson et al., 2019; Ruben et al., 2018).
While many institutions offer leadership training, not all direct their focus specifically on the unique challenges of university and college leadership (Cebollero, 2020; Kri et al., 2021; Rehbock, 2020). To address this, universities and colleges can adopt diverse approaches within their leadership development programs to accommodate the varied needs of participants. Recognizing the diversity in how people learn, it is crucial to employ different methodologies to suit the unique requirements of the participants. Continuous formative assessment throughout the leadership development program becomes imperative to ensure that the program’s objectives are met (State Education Resource Center, 2022; Zepeda, 2019). Thus, leadership training serves as one of the foundational methods for developing leaders, with institutions encouraged to explore diverse approaches tailored to the context of university and college leadership. Continuous evaluation ensures the effectiveness of the program, paving the way for the subsequent discussion on the impact of leadership development.
In conclusion, the methods and platforms discussed in this review contribute to the holistic development of academic leaders in higher education. Recognizing the diverse needs of leaders and employing a combination of these approaches can create a robust leadership development program. It is imperative for institutions to adapt these methods to the unique context of university and college leadership, fostering continuous improvement and excellence in leadership within the academic realm. The quest for effective leadership development is an ongoing journey, and embracing a multipronged approach ensures a dynamic and responsive leadership landscape in the ever-evolving higher education sector. The next section discusses the implication of leadership development for academic leaders.
The Implications of Leadership Development for Academic Leaders
One of the most frequently reported methods of leadership development (LD) is mentoring or coaching (Kri et al., 2021). While leadership development holds significant importance across various organizational levels, it is often cited as expensive, time-consuming, and challenging to establish and sustain (Baartman, 2011; Commodore et al., 2016; DeZure et al., 2014; Green & Ridenour, 2004; Kri et al., 2021). However, the long-term benefits of internal development, coaching, and promotion outweigh the costs of external hiring, making leadership development a worthwhile investment (Avolio et al., 2010; Centre for Creative Leadership, 2020; Kri et al., 2021).
Leadership development profoundly impacts different facets of an institution, including the enhancement of leadership competency, the cultivation of the next generation of leaders, fostering a positive work environment for staff, ensuring high retention rates, meeting institutional goals, and identifying potential future leaders. In an empirical study estimating the return on leadership development investment, Avolio et al. (2010) reported a substantial 200% return on investment. Although there is a scarcity of studies specifically estimating the cost-effectiveness of leadership development, numerous studies emphasize the critical importance of competent leaders in universities and colleges (Avolio et al., 2010; Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Avolio & Hannah, 2009; González, 2010; Hernandez et al., 2011; Kouzes & Posner, 2012; Luthans & Avolio, 2003; Söderhjelm et al., 2018). Leadership development for academic leaders contributes significantly to strategic leadership, methods of leading people, faculties, departments, students, organizations, and communities. Furthermore, leadership development enhances leaders’ emotional intelligence, fostering self-awareness about emotions and appropriate reactions in different emotional states (Lindebaum & Cartwright, 2011).
Feedback from leaders who attended leadership development indicates sustained improvement in crucial leadership skills, such as communication, organizational influence, self-awareness, and change implementation, even years after the development program (Centre for Creative Leadership, 2020; Steele et al., 2020). Additionally, organizations benefit from leadership development in critical areas related to strategy execution, including cross-boundary collaboration, organizational management, and openness to diverse views. The positive impact of leadership development extends beyond individual leaders to the entire institution (Avolio et al., 2010; Centre for Creative Leadership, 2020; Lindebaum & Cartwright, 2011). While most studies have focused on organizations other than universities and colleges, except one study that evaluated the impact leadership development fellowship among deans in United States and Canada (Steele et al., 2020) the findings of other studies outside the higher education sector are implied to be applicable until more empirical studies assesses the specific impact of leadership development on university and college leaders. The Centre for Creative Leadership (2020) emphasizes that leadership development builds the capacity to reduce costs, drive new lines of revenue, and improve customer satisfaction.
Leadership development not only increases employee engagement and satisfaction, but also enhances the institution’s ability to address talent pipeline gaps and mitigate the challenges and costs associated with staff turnover (Centre for Creative Leadership, 2020; Eddy & Rao, 2009; Kri et al., 2021; Megheirkouni, 2016). Leaders equipped with enhanced leadership skills are better positioned to attract, hire, and inspire high-performing employees, ultimately contributing to the overall success of the institution (Blaik Hourani & Stringer, 2015; Dopson et al., 2019; Gmelch, 2013; Lindebaum & Cartwright, 2011; Wang & Sedivy-Benton, 2016).
Conclusion
This review delves into leadership development (LD) in higher education, emphasizing the necessity of providing LD for academic leaders, and scrutinizes the content and impact of LD initiatives. The primary goal of leadership development is to enhance leaders’ capacity to fulfill their responsibilities effectively and foster the growth of emerging leaders in higher education (Dopson et al., 2019; Findsen, 2022; Velsor & McCauley, 2010).
The benefits of leadership development extend across leaders, institutions, and staff, encompassing competitive succession planning, talent attraction, talent retention, expanded networking, and enhanced capabilities to confront contemporary challenges in higher education. Leadership development is an ongoing, continuous process, and even the highest-ranking leaders in an institution should have a method of evaluating their leadership which could be through mentors, coaches, or advisors/counselors, staff, students and personal reflections (J. Burns et al., 2022; Turner et al., 2018). Establishing leadership development goals for a leader is imperative to stay abreast of the dynamic academic landscape characterized by rapid changes and challenges.
Recommendations
In light of the trends identified in this review on leadership development in higher education, several recommendations emerge to enhance the efficacy of leadership development programs:
Integrate Leadership Development Into Organizational Culture
To promote effective leadership, it is essential to weave leadership development seamlessly into the fabric of the institution’s culture. This involves recognizing leadership training as a fundamental component of ongoing professional development. By normalizing leadership-focused programs, institutions create an environment where leaders at all levels are encouraged to enhance their skills continuously.
Tailor Programs to Academic Needs
Acknowledging the unique challenges faced by academic leaders, it is crucial to design leadership development initiatives that specifically address these concerns. Programs should emphasize areas such as strategic leadership and effective communication within the academic context, ensuring that the training is relevant and applicable.
Encourage Continuous Learning
Leadership development is not a one-time event; it requires a commitment to continuous learning. Leaders should be encouraged to engage in ongoing self-reflection, seeking honest assessments of their performance. Actively pursuing diverse learning avenues, such as workshops, seminars, and online resources, ensures that leaders stay informed about evolving leadership practices.
Holistic Leadership Development
To foster a well-rounded leadership community, institutions should implement comprehensive leadership development initiatives. Targeting faculty members at various career stages ensures that leadership skills are cultivated across the entire academic community, promoting a collaborative and supportive environment.
Establish In-house Training Centers
Creating in-house training centers provides a cost-effective and institution-specific alternative to external leadership programs. Tailored programs that align with the unique needs and goals of the institution can be developed, making leadership development more accessible and relevant.
Promote Mentorship and Counseling
Recognizing the value of guidance, institutions should encourage leaders to seek support from experienced mentors. Additionally, counseling should be recognized as a valuable tool for personal and professional development. This creates a support system that empowers leaders to navigate challenges more effectively.
Leadership Fellowship Programs
Offering leadership fellowship programs provides emerging leaders, including students, with hands-on management experience. These programs allow participants to gain practical insights into high-impact management positions, contributing to the development of a skilled leadership pipeline.
Diversify Learning Platforms
Utilizing various learning platforms, including meetings, retreats, and online resources, ensures that leadership development is dynamic and caters to diverse preferences among leaders. Flexibility in learning approaches allows leaders to choose methods that resonate with their individual learning styles.
Monitor Return on Investment (ROI)
To justify the resources allocated to leadership development, institutions should actively assess the impact and effectiveness of their programs. Monitoring the return on investment provides valuable insights into the tangible benefits derived from leadership development initiatives.
Create a Psychologically Safe Environment
Fostering a psychologically safe environment is essential for effective leadership development. Leaders should feel comfortable engaging in honest self-assessment without fear of judgment. Developing emotional intelligence among leaders contributes to a culture of psychological safety, enhancing overall leadership effectiveness.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The writing of this manuscript was made possible by the generous support of the Killam Doctoral Award and the Insight Grant funding awarded by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) (435-2021-0411).
Data Availability Statement
Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.