Exploring the Complexities of Professional Identity Formation Among English Teachers at a Korean University

Abstract

This study explored the perceptions of professional identity among three English teachers from diverse academic disciplines at a Korean university. The teacher participants were chosen based on their diverse sociocultural and academic backgrounds that created a small yet diverse sample of cases. Furthermore, each of them possessed a minimum of 10 years of teaching experience. This extensive experience enabled them to engage in profound reflections regarding the development of their professional identities through the lens of these experiences. Taking a poststructuralist approach, we utilized semi-structured interviews, class observations, and course-related documents to delve into the professional identity formation process and the factors influencing their identity formation. Our findings underscore that professional identity construction is an intricate process, shaped by sociocultural and institutional dynamics. Specifically, two dominant factors emerged: the implications of “native speakerism” and the distinctions between tenure and non-tenure academic tracks. These insights contribute to a deeper understanding of professional identity complexities among English instructors in Korean higher education institutions.

Plain Language Summary

Understanding how English teachers at a Korean university see themselves as professionals and the challenges they encounter during this process

The study aims to explore how three English teachers from diverse academic and sociocultural backgrounds, working at a Korean university, perceive themselves in their professional roles as English teachers. The researchers were curious to understand the factors that influenced the focal participants’ self-perceptions as English teachers and how they navigated these factors in shaping their professional identities. To capture the complexity of teachers’ experiences and perspectives on their professional identities, the researchers conducted interviews and collected course-related documents. They also observed participants’ classes to verify the credibility of their self-described professional identities. The findings reveal that a teacher’s professional identity is shaped by a variety of factors stemming from their workplace and the broader societal context. The researchers identified two significant factors in particular: the pervasive belief that being a native English speaker is inherently superior and the distinctions between tenured and non-tenured teaching positions. While this study provides valuable insights into the complexities of teacher identity in Korean universities, it is important to note that the study focused on only three English teachers in a single university in Korea. As such, the findings may not be universally applicable. Furthermore, the self-perception of being an English teacher is a multifaceted concept, so the study may not have captured all the intricacies involved in these teachers’ professional identities.

Introduction

In response to the continued rise of globalization and the fact that English has been a key language for international communication, the Korean government revised the Korean national curriculum in 2008 to define English as an international language (J. K. Park & Kim, 2014). It placed emphasis on providing learners with more opportunities to use English in real-world contexts (J. K. Park & Kim, 2014). Accordingly, colleges and universities in Korea have begun to provide an English learning environment with authentic cross-cultural exposure and speaking opportunities for Korean English learners through the introduction of “non-native English-speaking teachers” (NNESTs) and “native English-speaking teachers” (NESTs) from English-speaking countries (M. W. Lee & Kim, 2021). The increasing presence of these NNESTs and NESTs recruited from English-speaking countries plays an important role in Korean higher education as these teachers bring their unique linguistic, cultural, and pedagogical backgrounds into the Korean English classrooms (Jeon et al., 2023; J. S. Y. Park, 2013). Against this backdrop, exploring the professional identities of English teachers hired from abroad can provide insights into the complexities of English language education in Korea within a globalized context.

English teachers’ experiences abroad involve engaging with diverse languages, cultures, and ideologies. These experiences can significantly expand English teachers’ perspectives on English education and prompt them to reevaluate their roles as English teachers from various angles (Hamza, 2010). Given that the process of identity construction is continuous, involving ongoing interpretation and reinterpretation of life experiences (Kerby, 1991), the cumulative impact of these experiences and reflections while teaching in diverse educational settings can significantly influence the development of a teacher’s beliefs, values, and attitudes regarding their professional identity (Miller, 2009).

This study explores the complex aspects of English teachers’ professional identities through a post-structuralist lens, highlighting identity as a multifaceted construct shaped by struggles across time and contexts. B. Norton (2014) argues that identity, being inherently diverse and conflicting, is a “site of struggle.” This view underlines the idea that identities are not fixed but evolve through conflicts, emphasizing their potential for transformation.

Therefore, in this context, even though the participant teachers currently work at a Korean university, they are not seen as isolated or unchanging entities whose identities are solely shaped by their experiences in Korea. Instead, our focus was on how these teachers actively engaged in struggles, reflecting on their past studies and teaching experiences across various countries. By adopting post-structuralist theory, the study gains insight into the ongoing processes of negotiation and contestation that shape these identities beyond the confines of a single geographical or cultural context. In this study, we selected three experienced English teachers from a Korean university, comprising two “NNESTs” and one “NEST.” Our choice of a smaller group of participants enables us to delve deeply into the distinctive nuances of how each teacher has shaped and evolved their professional identities.

We use the terms “NNEST” and “NEST” to highlight the diverse language backgrounds of these focal English teachers. While previous studies on English teachers have primarily focused on exploring how persistent stereotypes linked to native or non-native status influence their professional identity (Golombek & Jordan, 2005; Samimy & Brutt-Griffler, 1999), our study marks a departure from this binary perspective. Instead, we adopt a more inclusive and nuanced view that recognizes the multifaceted nature of a teacher’s identity.

To examine the professional identities of the English teachers under study, our research applies poststructuralist lens (B. Norton, 2014), viewing identity as evolving over time. The aim of the study is to uncover the unique and dynamic perceptions of professional identity held by the focal teachers, explore the factors contributing to its formation, and examine how these elements are navigated throughout the development of a teacher’s professional identity. Specifically, this study addresses the following questions:

1. What is the meaning of professional identity for a group of teachers at a Korean University?

2. What factors contribute to the professional identity of a group of teachers at a Korean University?

3. How do these teachers navigate these factors in order to develop their professional identity?

To position the current study within a broader academic discourse, understand relevant studies in the field of teachers’ professional identity, provide context for our research, and identify gaps and areas requiring further exploration, the researchers reviewed prior research within the specific context of ESL/EFL education and Korean higher education in the upcoming literature review section.

Literature Review

Teacher Professional Identity in ESL/EFL Context

Torres-Rocha (2019) argued that globalization has enabled linguistic imperialism by elevating Western English, particularly from inner-circle countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada, to the status of the “standard” in international English education. Building upon this, many ESL/EFL countries, including South Korea, China, and Japan, tend to favor recruiting NESTs from these inner-circle countries. This preference is rooted in the belief that NESTs possess a natural and intuitive command of English and serve as cultural representatives associated with the English language (Lim & Park, 2024).

This phenomenon has been criticized for perpetuating native-speakerism, which is the notion that NESTs are not only linguistic authorities but also culturally capable of creating an authentic English learning environment (Phillipson, 1992). Consequently, discussions surrounding the impact of native-speakerism on the professional identities of English teachers in ESL/EFL contexts have garnered significant research attention.

For instance, in a qualitative study, Kim (2011) analyzed the perceptions of professional identities among three NNESTs from China and Korea who aspired to become EFL teachers. The study suggested that these NNESTs had low professional self-esteem influenced by native-speakerism. They expressed concerns that their accents might hinder them from being recognized as legitimate English speakers and felt less competent in English usage compared to NESTs. Additionally, the teachers’ ethnicity played a role in how students perceived their professional identities and their preferences toward them.

In a separate study, Tsou and Chen (2019) examined the perceptions and preferences of 20 Taiwanese university students regarding NNESTs and NESTs. The results indicated that students acknowledged both NNESTs and NESTs possessed distinct strengths and weaknesses in English instruction. However, NESTs, associated with high English language proficiency and a deep understanding of the target language’s culture, tended to be preferred by students.

In ESL/EFL settings, the persistent belief that “the ideal English teacher is a native speaker” (Phillipson, 1992) has led to criticisms and efforts to address this assumption. For instance, J. Trent (2016) conducted research in Hong Kong, exploring the professional identities of both NNESTs and NESTs. Trent’s work critiqued the binary classification of NESTs and NNESTs, which he argued hindered the development of teachers’ professional identities. According to Trent, this binary distinction failed to capture the multifaceted linguistic identities of individuals and created conflicts among teachers.

Furthermore, J. Trent’s (2012) observations of NESTs working in Hong Kong’s primary and secondary schools shed light on the intricate construction of teachers’ professional identities. Despite their linguistic advantage as native English speakers, the NESTs encountered challenges because their teaching methods were deemed unsuitable for the testing requirements of local students. This situation resulted in the questioning of the NESTs’ professional identity by local teachers and their marginalization within the local academic community. This research underscored the importance of situating English teachers within specific social and institutional contexts when examining the factors that shape their professional identity.

It is evident that despite the influence of native-speakerism ideology in many EFL countries, researchers have come to recognize that assessing teachers’ professions solely based on their native/nonnative status is unreasonable and oversimplifies the multifaceted nature of their professional identities.

However, while these studies have made significant contributions, they have primarily focused on discussing the collective professional identities of NNESTs or NESTs as groups. This leaves room for further exploration into the unique professional identities of individual NNESTs and NESTs, particularly in the context of navigating social and institutional ideologies like native-speakerism in ESL/EFL settings.

English Teacher Professional Identity in Korean Higher Education

Many EFL countries are influenced by the ideology of native-speakerism. Consequently, recruitment policies in Korean schools and universities often perceive NESTs as sophisticated commanders of English (Ahn, 2019). They favor hiring these NESTs as EFL instructors over emphasizing required teaching qualifications or academic degrees (H. Lee & Jang, 2023). Therefore, while the NESTs enjoy linguistic and cultural advantages associated with their native English-speaking status, they face challenges like navigating shifting power dynamics and the conflict between imposed categories and their understandings of their professional identity as being NESTs within the Korean education environment (Howard, 2019; Schenck, 2018). Hwang and Yim’s (2019) study on the English teachers within Korean primary schools revealed the hegemonic power dynamic between NNESTs and NESTs and its influence on teachers’ professional identities. Specifically, NESTs enjoy linguistic advantages over NNESTs, but many of them lack institutional recognition since they do not possess required teaching certificates and tenured academic position in the Korean workplace, which can result in NESTs experiencing marginalization in their interactions with NNESTs and students, and potentially constraining the development of their professional identity. Although Hwang and Yim’s study focused on English teachers in Korean primary schools, the similar dilemma is also faced by NESTs in Korean higher education. For example, Kim (2011) investigated a female NEST in a Korean university and uncovered that her feeling of distance or detachment in the university was not just because of her “foreigner” identity in the Korean workplace but was also influenced by her nontenured academic position. Even though she held the title of a professor, her temporary contract, which needed to be renewed every year, led her to feel separated from local Korean professors. Drawing from these studies, the researchers pay attention to the participants’ reflections on the power dynamics since it influences their relationships and interactions with colleagues and students and how people in their workplace perceive their professional identities in the Korean higher education context.

With the high demand for English proficiency in Korean English education and the increasing presence of NESTs in Korea as EFL instructors, many Korean English teachers have chosen to study abroad to enhance their English competency and teaching abilities (M. W. Lee & Kim, 2021). NNESTs who have studied or taught abroad may face unique challenges when studying or working in different educational settings, which can influence teachers’ understanding and construction of their professional identity (M. W. Lee, 2016). Therefore, it is necessary to examine the professional identities of NNESTs in Korea with transnational experiences. Choe (2008) interviewed four NNESTs working at a Korean university to examine how they perceived their non-native status. Despite the advanced English proficiency of the four NNESTs, they experienced a sense of inferiority in comparison to NESTs due to their non-native-like pronunciation and limited familiarity with English culture. Additionally, Choe’s research uncovered an interesting phenomenon that NNESTs with transnational experiences were more likely to reconstruct their positive self-images through a process of reflection. However, Choe did not provide details on how these NNESTs acted as reflexive activists in the process of negotiating and reconstructing their self-images. Also, research on the professional identity of Korean English teachers with cross-border experience is quite limited. Therefore, in order to broaden the understanding of the complex and dynamic nature of NNESTs’ professional identity, the researchers aim to examine the conflicts and challenges faced by two Korean teachers who have cross-border studying and teaching experiences in the United States and see how they shape and develop their professional identities.

Research Design

Given the exploratory nature of understanding EFL teachers’ self-perceptions and construction processes of their professional identities, a qualitative approach (Dörnyei, 2007) was deemed most appropriate. Data were mainly collected from semi-structured interviews, as they provide a basic interview framework but also allow for open-ended questioning that can capture the complexity of teachers’ experiences and perspectives on their professional identities (Galletta, 2013). Class observations of teachers’ teaching designs and interactions with students were conducted to validate the credibility of the teachers’ narrations regarding how they perceive their professional identity in the interviews. The study also employed categorical content analysis (Lieblich et al., 1998) as a method of categorizing and coding the data to identify recurring patterns or themes that contribute to the teachers’ professional identities.

Participant Selection and Background

To gain insights into the diverse experiences and perspectives of English teachers, participants were selected based on specific criteria. Participant teachers were selected from the English Humanities department at a Korean university. The researchers accessed the university website to gather basic information about academic backgrounds, work experience, and contact details of English faculty members working in the English Humanities department. The researchers specifically chose NNESTs that used to study or teach in English-speaking countries and contacted potential participants via email to explain their initial research plan. Initially there were five teachers responded positively, but some teachers rejected the request to participate because they felt uncomfortable allowing their classes to be observed. The five teachers showed their interest in this research project and agreed to have informal talks with the researchers about their teaching experience and perceptions of their professional identity. These conversations triggered the researchers to eventually select two NNESTs with substantial teaching experience, ensuring they had sufficient stories and experiences to share and reflect upon. The NEST was chosen based on his long-time staying and teaching experience in Korea. He can have a clearer understanding of his position in the local education system and culture. Finally, the researchers selected three participants with a minimum of 10 years of teaching experience, each from diverse sociocultural backgrounds, to create a small yet diverse sample.

The participants’ academic backgrounds also differ; one NNEST earned a PhD in English literature in the U.S., while the other earned a PhD in African American literature in the U.S. The NEST, who majored in English language and literature, holds only a bachelor’s degree. Despite all having studied in literature-related fields, diverse majors and academic degrees result in unique studying and teaching experiences and impact their current positions in the English Humanities department. According to institutional policies, only teachers with a doctorate degree can enter professorship. New professors are required to hold the position of an assistant professor within their first 4 years of teaching. To attain a full tenured professor position, a minimum of 10 years of teaching experience at this Korean university is necessary. Consequently, the selected participants included a Canadian teacher outside of the tenured system and two Korean teachers hired from the United States: one serving as an assistant professor and the other holding a full tenured professor position.

Specifically, Mrs. Lee was currently an assistant professor during the time of this study. Mr. Park was a fully tenured professor, and Mr. Smith was a non-tenured instructor. They are all teachers teaching English in the English department at a Korean university. Table 1 represents the three participant teachers’ background.

Table 1.

Participants’ Background.

Pseudonym	Age	Gender	Nationality	Total years of teaching	Years of teaching at Korean university	Positions in the department
Mrs. Lee	38	Female	Korean	10 Years	3 Years	Assistant professor
Mr. Park	52	Male	Korean	More than 20 years	18 Years	Tenured full professor
Mr. Smith	44	Male	Canadian	18 Years	16 Years	Instructor

Mrs. Lee’s Story

Mrs. Lee had 9 years of study-abroad experience in the United States as a PhD student majoring in English literature. From the second year of her PhD program, she started to work as a graduate lecturer teaching college student’s English writing. At the time of this study, she was an assistant professor at a Korean University in the English humanities department.

Mr. Park’s Story

Mr. Park also had 9 years of study-abroad experience in the US. He spent 2 years as an undergraduate and 6 years as a graduate student, majoring in African American literature. He returned to Korea and was hired by a Korean University as an assistant professor in 2004, when he was 32 years old. At the time of this study, he was a full tenured professor in the English humanities department.

Mr. Smith’s Story

Mr. Smith is a Canadian who came to Korea in 2004 and has been in Korea for 18 years. He received his education in Canada. His undergraduate major was English language and literature. The main reasons for him to teach in Korea were money and travel. At the time of this study, Mr. Smith worked as an instructor in the English humanities department.

The Researchers’ Role

The researchers’ motivation to undertake this study arose from some commonalities between themselves and the participants. Specifically, both of the researchers have lived and studied in an English-speaking country and have taught English in a university, much like the three participants. Therefore, the researchers became personally intrigued by exploring how professional identity is constructed among these English teachers. The researchers contacted the participants via email to request informal face-to-face meetings in order to establish trust. Because the researchers shared common study and teaching experiences in English-speaking countries with the focal participants, they were able to empathize with the participants’ experiences and create a more understanding environment. This facilitated the establishment of rapport with the teachers, enabling them to further grant permission for interviews and classroom observations. After obtaining approval, class attendance occurred once a week. Informal conversations and discussions about their studies and teaching took place after class, further fostering a connection and deeper understanding. However, the researchers did not impede the participants’ daily teaching routine or evaluate their teaching practices to preserve their natural behavior and reduce the potential for introducing bias into the study.

Data Collection and Analysis

All interviews were conducted in the participants’ offices or empty classrooms. The choice of confidential settings for individual meetings with the teachers was driven by the fact that the focal teachers were all from the English humanities department. So, it was important to avoid potential peer pressure that could have impeded participants from providing authentic and honest data. The interviews were not structured in terms of time constraints when participants were narrating their stories, allowing them the freedom to share their experiences and express their feelings without feeling rushed or constrained. Much research has shown that professional identities are not always explicitly claimed through language, but rather inferred through a person’s narrative of their daily interactions (Sfard & Prusak, 2005). In other words, individuals may not always state their identity position directly (e.g., “I am not a qualified teacher”), but multiple meanings of their professional identity can be inferred through their descriptions of their teaching experiences, decisions, and behaviors at work. Therefore, during the interviews, the participants were encouraged to talk about their typical days as teachers, including the challenges and joys they encounter in their profession. Prior to conducting the interviews, the researchers ensured that they obtained permission from each participant to record their interviews using audio tapes. Each teacher participant signed a consent form that allowing the researchers to use the transcribed materials in this project.

Data collection was conducted between September 2022 and August 2023. Most interviews were conducted face-to-face. However, during the winter break, the researchers maintained communication with the participants via email. All face-to-face interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed into text as the main data. Considering that all participants can effectively articulate their opinions in English and prefer English for both speaking and writing, interviews and email communications are conducted in English. For the transcription of face-to-face interviews, researchers initially employ verbatim transcriptions (Easton et al., 2000), capturing all spoken content, including filler words like “um,”“uh,” and some non-verbal cues such as pause and laughter for a detailed view of the conversations. Subsequently, cleaned transcriptions are used to enhance readability by omitting these elements while retaining the core content and meaning. Additionally, all personal information, such as real names that could identify individuals, is adjusted to prevent privacy violations. When conducting classroom observations, our focus was on specific elements of teachers’ behaviors related to their professional identity. This involved examining how teachers interacted with students, particularly their non-verbal cues—whether it was authoritative, empathetic, or collaborative. Additionally, our observations extended to non-verbal cues, such as their dressing style, which also contributes to the overall impression and professional identity projected by the teachers. This step was taken to gather information for subsequent interviews and to identify any inconsistencies between the claims made during the interviews and the actual teaching behaviors exhibited in the classroom. Claims that were inconsistent or not evidenced by the classroom observations were omitted from the analysis. Secondary data sources included departmental policy documents for understanding the re-hiring and academic requirements for the tenure process, as well as the three participants’ teaching syllabuses for understanding their teaching duties and workload.

The research was conducted through two major steps of coding: primary and higher coding. In the primary coding process, the researchers created a chronological life story of each participant based on the collected data. It was for gaining a clear understanding of the participants’ experiences over time and how the focal teachers interpreted those experiences. Then, the researchers read the raw data multiple times along with the relevant literature on language teacher identity. By doing so, the focus of the current study became clearer, and the research questions were created: What is the meaning of professional identity for a group of teachers at a Korean university? What factors contribute to their professional identities? How do they navigate these factors in order to develop their professional identity?

After coming up with the research questions, the researchers focused on specific language features, such as pronouns, verbs, and adjectives used by the participants when describing themselves in narratives. This is because the way language features are used can represent participants’ internalized aspects of the self and how they position themselves in the social, cultural, and ideological realms. These aspects are closely tied to teachers’ perceptions of their professional identity (Bourdieu, 1990; Monrouxe, 2009). To ensure the credibility of participants’ claims during the interviews, researchers examined their teaching behaviors in the classroom. Then, the researchers conducted a categorical-content analysis (Lieblich et al., 1998) to identify emerging themes in their narratives in the higher coding. During the categorical-content analysis, the researchers grouped similar responses together and identified two main factors that constitute the professional identities of the participants: the notion of native speakerism and their tenure and non-tenure track academic status. To ensure credibility, the research presented the data and data analysis for the participants to check and confirm.

Ethical Consideration

The researchers ensure that they applied for and collected ethical clearance from the appropriate institution and offices. Permission was also sought from and granted by the Department of Education. This gave the researchers permission to visit the classes and potential participants. Informed consents of potential participants were obtained before data collection. The participants were informed that participation in this project was completely voluntary and that they were free to withdraw at any time for any reason. Pseudonyms were used to substitute any identifying information.

Research Findings

The following representative data shows how three teachers view their professional identities. Two factors were found to have a significant impact on their professional identities: the notion of native speakership and the tenured-track system. Additionally, this section delves into how these teachers navigate these factors to develop their professional identities.

The Meaning of Professional Identity

Mrs. Lee: Empathetic and Authoritative Professional Teacher Identity

The researcher observed Mrs. Lee’s writing class at the Korean university. During group discussions about their writing ideas and while doing writing assignments, she consistently reminded her Korean students, “Don’t worry about English” (classroom observation, 15th March 2023). When asked about the reason for this remark, she explained, “As a non-native English speaker, I feel related to Korean students grappling with English” (interview, 18th June 2023). By reassuring her students in this way, Mrs. Lee reflects her empathetic professional identity by creating a caring learning environment.

Additionally, Mrs. Lee mentioned that as a new faculty member in her department, occasionally sharing some administrative responsibilities, she encountered situations where Korean students mistook her for an administrator. When asked if this recognition mistake made her feel uncomfortable and if it threatened her authority as a professor, she stated, “I wouldn’t worry about it as an assistant professor in Korea” (interview, December 2, 2022). Her response indicates a level of assurance in her position within the Korean workplace.

Mr. Park: Self-Assured Identity Aiming to Fight Against Labels and Discrimination

Mr. Park is a full professor teaching American literature to Korean students. In his teaching materials, he includes works like “A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings” by Gabriel Garcia Marquez to explore cultural differences and prejudice. When questioned by a Korean student about his choice of novels, Mr. Park explained his desire for students to appreciate the importance of understanding diverse cultures and respecting individuals who may differ in appearance or behavior.

In an interview, when the researcher further questioned him about his motivations, Mr. Park described his professional identity as “a regular guy just wanting to enlighten students to challenge their stereotypes towards certain groups of people” (interview, November 16, 2022). Additionally, he shared how his teaching experience in the United States influenced his professional identity, aiming to foster cultural understanding and fight against labels and stereotypes—details of which will be provided later.

During a classroom observation of Mr. Park’s interactions with students, the researcher noticed that despite being a full professor with high academic status, his demeanor in the class was approachable, and he interacted with students with ease.

Mr. Smith: Privileged, Marginalized and Confident Professional Identity

Mr. Smith, a Canadian who moved to Korea in 2004 after completing his undergraduate degree in English language and literature, has spent almost two decades living and working in Korea. Given his unique background, the researchers sought to explore Mr. Smith’s perception of his professional identity in the Korean workplace.

In an interview, Mr. Smith described feeling “privileged but marginalized” due to his status as a native English speaker and a “foreigner” in Korea (interview, 14th October 2022). He acknowledged the advantages of his native language but attributed his long tenure at a Korean university to his qualifications as an English teacher, not just his native English. Despite lacking similar academic degrees as tenured colleagues, Mr. Smith, an instructor, doesn’t see himself as less capable than tenured professors.

The Factors Contributing to Teacher Professional Identity

Native Speakerism

Both Mrs. Lee and Mr. Park, non-native English speakers who pursued studies in the United States, share the common experience of encountering the perpetuation of native-speakerism.

Mrs. Lee had the experience to teach American undergraduate students English writing when she was a graduate student. In an interview, Mrs. Lee reflected on the challenges she faced when she began teaching English in an American university. She shared how her identity as a non-native English speaker negatively impacted her confidence in English in an interview.

I thought that my writing was not good enough because I’m not a native speaker. My identity back then was like: I have no confidence. I was just a person from Asia who spoke broken English while teaching English to American students. (interview, 3rd November 2022)

In this interview data, Mrs. Lee’s descriptions indicated a lack of confidence in her English proficiency as her writing was self-described as “not good enough,” and her speaking as “broken English.” She attributed her identity as a “not native English speaker” to be the reason limiting her English proficiency. Thus, one can assume that Mrs. Lee’s initial self-positioning of her professional identity as an English teacher lacking confidence was influenced by the social ideology of native speakerism, which devalues non-native speakers as less knowledgeable about English than native English speakers.

The insecurity of her English proficiency made Mrs. Lee feel disempowered as an English teacher. This is evidenced by her statement that she had authority issues when she was asked about her perceptions of American students.

I really had an authority issue back then. When I taught American students English in the beginning, I felt they were judging my English … I was worried that if I made a huge grammar mistake, they would look down on me. (interview, 3rd November 2022)

In this statement, Mrs. Lee revealed that when she started teaching English to American students, she had concerns about that her students would perceive her as a non-proficient user of English due to her grammar mistakes. As B. Norton and Toohey (2001) argue, one’s identity is a social construct, and it is often shaped by how others label and perceive them. Thus, at that time, Mrs. Lee perceived that teacher authority was closely linked to how her English proficiency was perceived by her native English speaker students. It is noteworthy to see that Mrs. Lee used the verbs “judge” and “look down” to describe her perception of the power dynamic between herself and her students, where the students held the dominant position due to their native English speaker status. This perception might have led Mrs. Lee to feel less competent or authoritative in English language instruction.

Native-speakerism, a bias favoring native speakers for their presumed language and cultural insights, affects non-native English-speaking teachers (NNESTs) beyond linguistic skills (Lim & Park, 2024). Mr. Park, teaching African American literature, faced doubts about his cultural understanding due to his Asian background, illustrating the issue’s impact on professional identity. Despite his expertise, his capability was questioned at a conference, highlighting how native-speakerism can marginalize based on race. This contrasts with Mrs. Lee’s self-doubt in teaching English, also stemming from native-speakerism. Meanwhile, Mr. Smith benefited from this bias, securing a position as an English teacher in Korea with less emphasis on academic qualifications, thanks to his native English-speaking background and the high demand for such teachers in Korean universities. In an interview questioning how Mr. Smith got the “ticket” to teach in the Korean university, he admitted that his Canadian identity gave him an advantage in the recruitment process as a university teacher in Korea.

My Canadian identity can be one of the reasons for getting this job. I wouldn’t be able to do this job back home. I would have to spend more time and money upgrading my qualifications to get an equivalent job. (interview, 14th October 2022)

Mr. Smith recognized that his Canadian identity as a “NEST” gave him an advantage in obtaining a university teaching job in Korea where there was a demand for “NESTs.” He recalled that when the department hired him for an English teaching position, they only checked if he had a bachelor’s degree and citizenship from one of the main English-speaking countries, which was necessary to obtain an E-2 visa for teaching English.

However, despite enjoying these benefits, Mr. Smith, as a NEST, experiences feelings of marginalization based on his ethnic identity, despite having lived in Korea for almost two decades. This sense of exclusion arises from not aligning with the same ethnic group as Koreans.

While teaching English-speaking classes, Mr. Smith had a group of Korean students who discussed the design of a cafeteria for international students and teachers. One group member expressed the goal of attracting foreign customers like Mr. Smith. In response, Mr. Smith jokingly said, “Hey, before you were born, I was here. Who’s the real foreigner?” (Classroom observation, October 7, 2022). In an interview, he mentioned that being labeled a “foreigner” is not an isolated incident; people perceive his appearance and simply categorize him as such (Interview, November 22, 2022). Therefore, being a Canadian native English speaker made Mr. Smith relatively easier to become an English teacher in a Korean university compared to Koreans. However, he faces challenges in being accepted as a fellow group member by Koreans due to his different ethnicity.

Tenured-Track System

The professional identities of three Korean teachers were shaped distinctly by their positions relative to the tenure-track system, reflecting varied experiences and perceptions. Mrs. Lee, who returned to Korea in 2020, had primarily developed her English teaching skills during her doctoral studies in the U.S. She faced challenges to her professional identity, notably when a student undermined her authority, perceiving her role as merely administrative due to her responsibilities alongside an American professor (interview, 10th November 2022). This incident highlighted the struggle non-native English-speaking teachers often face in asserting their professional identity and authority, especially when their roles are misconstrued as being limited to non-teaching duties.

I was co-teaching with a professor in my department. He was teaching content while I was handling very practical things. So, the student thought I didn’t have the authority to tell him what to do because I was not a professional teacher. It was an uncomfortable experience (interview, 10th November 2022)

Mrs. Lee described feeling “uncomfortable” due to a discrepancy between her professional self-perception and a student’s view of her authority. Despite seeing herself as a professional English teacher with disciplinary authority, her involvement in administrative tasks led the student to categorize her merely as an administrator. This mismatch challenged her teacher identity, as it questioned her authority to discipline, highlighting a disconnect between her perceived professional role and the student’s recognition of her authority based solely on her administrative duties.

After becoming a tenured assistant professor in Korea, Mrs. Lee continued to face situations where students mistook her for an administrator, stemming from her new role and occasional administrative duties in the department. Despite these challenges, she felt that her tenured status solidified her professional identity as an English teacher within her department. She expressed that her position inherently endowed her with authority, reflecting a secure professional identity in her workplace.

This state reflects In the Korean context, she perceived that professional identity was granted to her based on her tenured position. She clarified that in Korea, tenure typically involves a more rigorous selection process, with higher requirements for academic credentials and technical qualifications, signifying a more stable position. Thus, while the department actively recruits NESTs and Korean teachers with overseas studying and teaching experiences, not everyone can attain tenure.

Mr. Park, as a full tenured professor, holds a position of authority within the English humanities department. At the time of this study, Mr. Park had been teaching Western literature in English at a Korean university for 18 years. Tenure has shaped his perceptions of his professional identity differently compared to Mrs. Lee. Mr. Park not only occupies the role of a full tenured professor but also assumes the responsibility of hiring new professors to the English humanities department. His journey started when he arrived at the university as a 32 year-old assistant professor. Given this trajectory, the researchers were interested in exploring Mr. Park’s professional identity development. During the study, Mr. Park revealed how being a tenured professor has influenced his perceptions of his professional identity.

I was a mere graduate student, but the next day I was somebody – a professor, and everyone started showing me some respect. You became arrogant; you feel like you are somebody. You want to be treated that way as somebody. If somebody does not treat you just as an important person, you became angry. (interview, 16th, November 2022)

As reflected in the data, the sudden shift in academic status from a “mere graduate student” to “professor” impacted on how Mr. Park perceived his professional identity. Arrogance is a personality trait that is not directly linked to tenure, but Mr. Park’s interpretation of his arrogance as a sign of superiority over others and attributed it to his tenured position. Mr. Park also described himself as “somebody” after being a tenured professor and expected his colleagues and students to treat him in a manner consistent with his academic status.

Upon achieving tenure in Korea, Mr. Park was often called “선배” by newer teachers, a term denoting an experienced and respected professional. This recognition marked a significant shift in his self-perception, leading him to feel like “somebody” post-tenure. Contrary to initial assumptions that tenure boosted his confidence, Mr. Park distinguished confidence from arrogance in relation to his professional identity. Joining the university at a relatively young age of 32, he was concerned about being perceived as inexperienced or unprofessional, potentially undermining his authority. He emphasized that true authority stems from the respect earned from colleagues and students through demonstrated professionalism. Mr. Park also discussed the behaviors he adopted to maintain and protect this respect, highlighting the complex dynamics between professional identity, perceived authority, and age in the academic environment.

My age was relatively younger than other professors. At that time, I wore a suit all the time. I didn’t smile. I was somehow very serious. I tried hard to establish my authority as a professional teacher because of my young age. (interview, 20th, November 2022)

In these narratives, Mr. Park highlighted the influence of his relatively younger age in constructing his perceptions of professional identity (interview, 20th, November 2022). While entering the tenured system made him feel superior to others, he was also aware that his professional identity could potentially be challenged due to his relatively younger age. By appearing serious, wearing a suit, and not smiling, Mr. Park was attempting to showcase his authoritative identity to his students and colleagues.

Differing from Mrs. Lee and Mr. Park, who have already entered the tenured track system, Mr. Smith, despite his 16 year tenure at the university, remained an instructor due to not holding the same academic degrees as his tenured colleagues. To understand his perspective on his academic position in the department, researchers asked Mr. Smith if he felt it was fair for him to remain a contract-based instructor while tenured colleagues received promotions. Mr. Smith did not express any feelings of being unfairly treated. Instead, he acknowledged that he did not hold the same academic degrees as his tenured colleagues and believed it was fair for him to remain an instructor.

However, even though Mr. Smith accepts his lack of tenure, it does influence his voice in the department. He recalled an experience in which he proposed ideas related to creating a more coherent class schedule organization for undergraduates to the department. However, his opinion was not heard, and he was not provided with a reason for the rejection. Nevertheless, Mr. Smith said that he understood that being in the lowest position within the department, his voice may not have carried as much weight.

Nobody asked me for my opinion. I can understand why they don’t ask or listen to me because I am at the bottom of the totem pole. (Interview, 22nd, November 2022)

The narrative emphasizes how the absence of a secure position influences Mr. Smith’s voice within the department. This stands in contrast to the respect gained by tenured professors like Mrs. Lee and Mr. Park. Mr. Smith describes his identity as a non-tenured instructor as being “at the bottom of the totem pole,” reflecting the hierarchical structure within academic institutions. This description underscores the marginalized position of contract instructors, like Mr. Smith, within this hierarchy.

The Way Teachers Navigate These Factors to Develop Their Professional Identity

How Mrs. Lee Developed an Empathetic and Authoritative Professional Teacher Identity

The influence of native-speakerism made Mrs. Lee feel less competent and authoritative in English language instruction, challenging her self-perception of teacher authority when a student questioned her position. Nevertheless, Mrs. Lee didn’t passively accept this predicament. She proactively sought ways to redefine her professional identity. In a later interview (interview, 10th November 2022), she realized that authority in front of American students wasn’t merely about English proficiency but also involved “performing confidence.” She highlighted that projecting a confident image is crucial in establishing teacher authority within American culture, underscoring the importance of displaying confidence as a key strategy for affirming her authority as a teacher.

I think performing confidence is really important to protect a teacher’s authority in front of American student Even though I can’t speak English like a native, but I emphasized my professionalism in managing the class and showed students that I knew what I was doing as a teacher at that time. (interview, 10th November 2022)

In this statement, Mrs. Lee clarified that establishing teacher authority in the classroom can be achieved through students’ recognition of her confidence in managing the classroom and their respect for her professionalism in class management. Thus, she displayed confidence by compensating for her perceived lack of English proficiency through the emphasis on her strong classroom management abilities.

In a subsequent email to the researchers (interview, June 18, 2023), Mrs. Lee mentioned that her interactions with other “NNESTs” from EFL countries, who used different varieties of English in the U.S., helped alleviate her concerns about her own English proficiency. However, she acknowledged the struggles and challenges she faced, particularly in relation to the insecurity of her “non-native like” English. This experience enabled her to understand the difficulty of overcoming this anxiety as a non-native English speaker and prompted her to develop a more empathetic teacher identity to her Korean students grappling with English.

How Mr. Park Developed a Self-Assured Identity Aiming to Fight Against Labels and Discrimination

Mr. Park was labeled by the member of the African American group as culturally inept to understand and teach African American literature due to his Asian background. However, he firmly believed that it was unreasonable to label his Asian identity as a cultural barrier that would hinder his understanding of African American literature. Consequently, he actively challenged the biases associated with his Asian identity by highlighting the logical flaws in the notion that being Asian would impede his comprehension of African American literature.

If that case works (Asian cannot understand African American literature), then, men cannot understand women’s writing and vice versa; Heterosexuals cannot understand homosexual writing and vice versa. Koreans cannot understand Chinese writings and vice versa. It doesn’t make sense. (interview, 19th October 2022)

In this statement, Mr. Park challenged the argument that individuals from one cultural group cannot understand or appreciate the literature of another cultural group. He used examples of other types of differences, such as gender, sexual orientation, and language, to highlight the paradox of such a claim. Mr. Park suggested that these differences should not be seen as insurmountable barriers to understanding or appreciating literature from other cultures. In a following interview, he further mentioned that there existed historical and cultural similarities between Koreans and African Americans, contrary to what the African American scholar had previously stated.

African Americans and Koreans share a similar history of being subjected to unfair treatment. African Americans were imported from the continent of Africa into America and sold by force. Korea was colonized by Japan for almost half a century. Despite this, they never gave up fighting for their freedom and equality, which is reflected in their literature. (interview, 16th November 2022)

This statement reflects Mr. Park’s observation that both African Americans and Koreans have experienced historical injustices and have actively fought for their freedom and equality. By tracing their shared history of oppression and colonization, Mr. Park addresses the complexity of culture and opposes simplistic and reductionist notions that rely on inclusion and exclusion.

Mr. Park expressed that his experience of combatting discrimination as an Asian while teaching African American literature in the US underscored the importance of comprehending intricate cultural dynamics. This experience adds a personal touch to emphasize the injustice of prejudging individuals based on their ethnic backgrounds. It serves as a driving force for him to concentrate on challenging societal attitudes towards racial and cultural differences (Interview, 16th November 2022).

After returning to Korea and becoming a tenured professor at a relatively young age, Mr. Park initially felt both arrogant and insecure about his authority as a teacher due to his youth. Teacher identities, however, are dynamic and adaptable. Over time, Mr. Park’s self-perception evolved. In an interview, his language use highlighted this change. Initially, he referred to himself as “I” when discussing his role and status, but shifted to “you” when addressing feelings of arrogance and anger, indicating a distancing from these negative traits. This linguistic shift reflects his journey away from an “arrogant” and “angry” professor persona towards a more mature and self-aware professional identity. His evolution showcases the complex nature of teacher identities and the potential for growth and change in professional self-perception. The reasons for shift of his self-perception of his professional identity was further explained in the following statement.

I met many smart people who were smarter than me … I read more about different viewpoints and perceptions in literature … As I encountered more people and read more, I began to recognize that perhaps I was just a regular guy. It’s like an enlightenment. (Interview, 16th, November 2022)

In the narrative, his encounter with smarter people and exposure to various ideologies in literary works allowed him to reexamine his previous perceptions of his professional identity. A study by Marín et al. (2018) noted that self-reflection helped teachers develop a deeper understanding of their professional identity, as well as their responsibilities as educators. In line with this argument, the data revealed that Mr. Park’s self-recognition transitioned from being seen as “somebody” to being perceived as a “regular guy,” indicating that his professional Identity was evolving. His reflection and self-awareness played a significant role in this identity development process.

How Mr. Smith Developed a Confident Professional Identity

With a clear understanding of this, he acknowledged that he was “privileged” (interview, 14th October 2022), Mr. Smith used his Canadian identity privilege to create a learning environment that deviated from traditional Korean teaching approaches.

Some older Koreans tend to be 꼰대, meaning they are strict in telling younger people what to do. Some Koreans are sensitive to this kind of approach. As a Canadian teacher, I do not want to take on 꼰대 identity to teach, and students do not expect me to. Thus, I see a niche to create a more relaxed and self-responsible classroom atmosphere. (interview, 19th October 2022)

Mr. Smith, identifying as a Canadian teacher, sought to distinguish his teaching approach from the rigid, hierarchical methods often associated with senior Korean educators, labeled “꼰대” His aim was to create a more relaxed and autonomous classroom environment, as evidenced during a classroom observation on October 25th, 2022, where he encouraged students to form their own groups and select their debate topics. This empowerment strategy not only fostered a relaxed and self-reliant atmosphere but also bridged the gap between him and his students, drawing their interest in Western culture and practices, such as adopting informal greetings like “Hey, man!” seen in media. Unlike Mr. Park, Mr. Smith’s Canadian identity and teaching style were accepted without resistance in Korea.

However, Mr. Smith faced challenges in being fully accepted as part of the Korean community despite his efforts to integrate, including achieving intermediate Korean language proficiency. His attempts to connect by speaking Korean were often seen more as entertainment than genuine engagement, highlighting a persistent view of him as a foreigner despite 18 years in Korea (interview, 19th October 2022). This reflects a deeper societal challenge of altering perceptions based on racial and cultural identity, indicating that Mr. Smith had to navigate and ultimately accept the limitations of influencing others’ mindsets regarding his identity.

What is also worth noting is that Mr. Smith continues to work as an instructor, viewing his role as equally professional to that of tenured teachers, but without interest in pursuing a tenured professorship:

My goal was never to become a tenured professor. I’m not an ambitious person. I just enjoy teaching. There are already too many ambitious people out there. Academics are a game. I don’t want to play the game … many teachers are more interested in the status than the sincere pursuit of knowledge and teaching. (interview, 28th, October 2022)

Mr. Smith expressed disinterest in “playing the game” to advance in academia, reflecting his skepticism towards the value of tenured professorships and questioning if they truly represent a genuine commitment to knowledge and teaching. This skepticism has led him to question his fit within the tenure track system. Despite lacking a doctoral degree or tenured position, Smith maintains his professional identity as a competent teacher, valuing experience over formal education. He argues that a teacher with 20 years of experience can be more effective than a newly minted PhD professor, critiquing the academic study of education as a “soft science” lacking practical ethical tools for classroom application (interview, 15th March 2023).

As a contract instructor, Smith is aware his influence is limited within the academic hierarchy, yet he values honesty and self-respect over conformity, stating, “I am socially smart … but I don’t like being a sycophant” (interview, 22nd, November 2022), highlighting his refusal to compromise his integrity despite potential professional costs. His willingness to leave the position, supported by his initial motive to work in Korea for university fee payments, underscores his commitment to authenticity over career advancement.

Discussion

This study uses a poststructuralist approach to examine the dynamic perceptions of professional identities among three English teachers within the English Humanities department at a Korean university. It asserts that B. Norton’s (2014) view suggests that the formation of professional identities is an ongoing process of negotiation and renegotiation, involving struggle and negotiation rather than being a smooth and straightforward progression. Additionally, by tracing the participants’ English teaching trajectories, the researchers also identify the factors that influence their professional identities and how these teachers navigate these factors to develop their professional identities.

The findings suggest that perceptions of the meaning of professional identity vary among English teachers, aligning with Beijaard et al.’s (2004) notion that professional identity is complex and multifaceted. For instance, Mrs. Lee exemplifies empathy in her teaching approach with Korean students, linking her professional identity to the authority of her assistant professor role. Mr. Park champions cultural and ethnic diversity in his teaching identity, with a self-assured professional stance independent of external validation. Conversely, Mr. Smith sees his teaching identity as both privileged and marginalized, maintaining a confident professional identity that transcends the need for formal academic qualifications.

Two main factors contributing to the professional identities of the participants were explored in this study. The first factor was the sociocultural ideology surrounding native speakership in the field of English teaching. This study’s findings align with many other studies that have demonstrated the negative impact of the “native speaker fallacy,” where the ideal English teacher is assumed to be a native speaker, leading to discrimination against NNESTs (Phillipson, 1992). However, this study further uncovered that the “native speaker fallacy” not only negatively impacts the linguistic confidence of NNESTs in their professional identity but also raises doubts about the legitimacy of their understanding of culturally related aspects. This was reflected in the questioning of Mr. Park’s teaching legitimacy as an Asian teacher teaching African American literature. In addition, the finding supports the claim that NESTs may experience certain privileges in the EFL context while facing potential marginalization (Hwang & Yim, 2019; Kim, 2011). This was evident in Mr. Smith’s experience despite his 18 years of living in Korea and learning Korean to connect with students; he was still perceived as a “foreigner” in the classroom. However, it’s interesting to see Mr. Smith engaged in pedagogical marginalization himself, distancing his NEST identity from the local Korean teacher identity in class to gain popularity. This reveals the potential for native speakers to be perceived as better English teachers not just linguistically, but also culturally and pedagogically (Holliday, 2015). The complexity of their experiences highlights the intricate dynamics involved in negotiating professional identity under the influence of Native Speakerism.

This study finds the tenured position to be a key factor in shaping teachers’ professional identities within academia’s hierarchical structure. The distinction in selection policies and the institutional respect for tenured teachers provide them with stability, security, and enhanced professional status, echoing Hwang and Yim’s (2019) findings on the academic status conferred by tenure. Unique to this study is the emphasis on individual agency—attitudes toward the tenure system—highlighting how personal views influence perceptions of tenure and professional identity.

For Mrs. Lee, tenure brought authority and recognition within a Korean university, showcasing the system’s benefits. Conversely, Mr. Park experienced arrogance and insecurity in his roles, illustrating the need for support for newly tenured faculty to adapt to their enhanced roles successfully. Mr. Smith’s skepticism towards tenure and his view of his role in Korea as temporary led to his marginalization, yet his professional confidence remained unaffected, emphasizing the importance of valuing the insights of experienced, non-tenured teachers.

This research transcends simple binaries of privilege or inequality among “NESTs” (Native English-Speaking Teachers) and “NNESTs” (Non-Native English-Speaking Teachers), revealing that native speaker status, along with tenure, may not straightforwardly impact teachers’ professional identities, suggesting a more nuanced understanding of tenure’s role in academia.

The study also highlights that teachers actively shape and evolve their professional identities, aligning with the poststructuralist view that identities are neither fixed nor static but are continually being constructed and modified (B. Norton, 2014). This dynamic process, however, is not without its challenges. As Beijaard et al. (2004) note, teachers must navigate through various challenges, adapting to diverse, sometimes conflicting perspectives, expectations, and roles, which can make the development of their professional identities complex and non-linear.

This research offers detailed insights into how English teachers, as reflective and autonomous individuals, navigate the constraints of cultural and societal expectations. For example, Mrs. Lee, despite her struggles with English language confidence, strategically focused on her strengths in classroom management to uphold a confident professional image, using her language challenges to foster an empathetic identity towards her students. Mr. Park, faced with racial discrimination in the U.S., resisted being typecast due to his Asian identity and pursued his commitment to teaching African American literature to promote cultural understanding.

On the other hand, Mr. Smith’s efforts to overcome the foreigner label illustrate the limits of individual agency in changing broader societal perceptions and labels. This indicates that, while teachers can exercise agency in shaping their identities, systemic and social boundaries still play a significant role in defining the scope of this agency, underlining the complex interplay between personal agency and structural constraints in the development of professional identity.

Conclusion

The study has provided valuable insights into the dynamic construction and development of professional identities among English teachers in a Korean university. It reveals that the three focal English teachers, each with varying experiences and academic backgrounds, hold different perceptions of their professional identity. Their identity formation involved a series of struggles. The main factors influencing their professional identity construction, as discovered in this study, are native speakerism and the tenured track system. However, they navigated these two factors differently, leading to the development of distinct professional identities.

However, the researchers acknowledge the limitation of having a small number of participants, so it is important to note that the findings may not be representative of all English teachers in the country. A more comprehensive longitudinal study with a larger sample size could shed further light on the experiences of professional identities among English teachers in Korean universities. Additionally, since the focal teachers in the study did not have any co-teaching experience in Korea, future research could investigate how the impact of collaboration on the professional identity construction and development among English teachers in Korea. Although the study has its limitations, it explores how teachers construct their professional identities and their ability to utilize different strategies to overcome challenges in different workplaces. Policymakers and educators should take these findings into account when developing professional development programs to facilitate teacher growth.