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Abstract

Learners’ underperformance in primary schools in informal settlements is a concern worldwide. Families living in urban informal settlements of Windhoek, Namibia face overwhelming social and economic challenges, which affect children’s academic performance. A qualitative inquiry was informed by Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory with reference to the microsystem, mesosystem, and the exosystem, which emphasizes the complex interactions between individuals and their environment. Three primary schools were selected in the informal settlements of the Khomas Region, Windhoek, Namibia and a purposive sample of participants was chosen comprising school teachers, principals, school board chairpersons, parents, and Grade 7 learners. Data were collected by semi-structured individual interviews and analyzed according to themes. Findings indicated that challenges in the microsystem (poverty and socio-economic context), mesosystem (parental engagement and peer pressure), and exosystem (school infrastructure) were the main contributory factors to poor learner performance in the selected schools. The interconnectedness between learners and their ecological systems and how these systems interact have a direct bearing on learner performance.

Plain Language Summary

Keywords

informal settlements Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems learner performance Windhoek primary schools

Introduction

Namibia is experiencing a swift and major shift from a rural-based society to one that is largely urban-based. This transition is most visible in rapid urban growth, especially in informal settlements that house most poor families in shacks on the outer perimeters of towns. An informal settlement is defined as a settlement built outside a city’s planning boundaries. These settlements may also exist within a planned area but outside the scope of city planning specifications of a particular authority (Weber & Mendelsohn, 2017). Approximately 700,000 persons (about a third of the population) in Namibia are living in shacks in the informal settlements and nearly 46% of this population has no access to proper sanitation facilities (Tjivikua, 2012). The continuous rapid growth of informal settlements in Namibia is one of the biggest developmental challenges the country has ever dealt with (Weber & Mendelsohn, 2017)). The reason why rural Namibians move to informal settlements is the quest for better job opportunities (Erkkilä et al., 2022; Pendleton et al., 2014). In addition, the expansion of informal settlement areas is attributed to former colonial policies, poor urban planning and the inability of former government authorities to meet the demands of the expanding urban population (Simiyu et al., 2019). Kamwanyah (2018) cautions that the deteriorating informal settlements in Windhoek (and elsewhere in the country) are of serious concern. Thirty years after the Namibian independence (1990), many Namibians still do not have adequate basic facilities. The situation of informal settlements in Namibia highlights the absence of a social justice mindset in formulating urban policies for the citizenry (Kamwanyah, 2018).

Learner Performance in Informal Settlements in Namibia

Learners’ academic achievement is an important educational outcome and their performance is shown by examination results. Regardless of the Government of Namibia’s commitment to the provision of Universal Primary Education (UPE) for all children of school-going age, various factors continue to hamper access to and participation in basic education. In particular, poor academic performance among learners in informal settlements in Namibia is a serious challenge where environmental factors affect children. Although these factors also impact other public primary schools, their effect is more pronounced in schools located in informal settlements.

Families living in urban informal settlements face overwhelming social and economic odds, which, if not managed, affect their children’s academic performance (Gabriel et al., 2016). Informal settlements are characterized by poverty, tenure insecurity, poor housing and home conditions, a lack of basic services, overcrowding, inadequate ablution facilities, lack of proper school infrastructure (classrooms), small, overcrowded classrooms, inadequate teaching and learning materials, and anti-social behavior (Ipinge, 2021; Nuissl & Heinrichs, 2013; UN-Habitat, 2014; Weber & Mendelsohn, 2017). Poverty is often one of the dominating characteristics of informal settlements where residents have inadequate and unstable incomes (Mitlin & Satterthwaite, 2014). Karuaihe and Wandschneider (2018) argue that although the government is doing its best in addressing poverty dynamics of informal settlements in Namibia, the types of services offered to informal settlements have remained relatively poor. Recent studies point out that poverty in informal settlements is associated with lower academic achievement among learners as compared to those from more affluent backgrounds (Duncan & Brooks-Gunn, 1997). Learners from low-income families may face numerous challenges, including limited access to educational resources, inadequate nutrition, and lack of parental involvement, which all contribute to lower academic performance (Akinsanya et al., 2011; Aming’a, 2016).

There is a strong correlation between socio-economic status and educational attainment (Gabriel et al., 2016; Usaini et al., 2015). Learners from impoverished backgrounds are more likely to experience limited opportunities, including reduced access to quality schools, extra-curricular activities, and educational support systems (Maina, 2017). According to Ndiweni et al. (2014), the combination of high unemployment rates and limited access to education exacerbates the socio-economic challenges in informal settlement areas. The overall youth unemployment rate in Namibia is alarmingly high, standing at 41.17% (Statista, 2020). Moreover, the state of the economy in Namibia is also unfavorable. According to the Namibia Statistics Agency (2019), a significant portion of the workforce, specifically 57.7%, is engaged in the informal economy. These high rates of unemployment, together with rural poverty, familial difficulties, and education-related issues compel most Namibians to relocate to informal settlements.

Poverty and low socio-economic status of the residents of informal settlements often results in resource disparities between schools in low-income areas and those in more affluent neighborhoods (Weber & Mendelsohn, 2017). Schools in informal settlements may lack basic infrastructure, teaching materials, and qualified teachers, all of which can negatively impact learner performance. Verster (2018) stresses that living in informal settlements is a very serious challenge, especially for children. The environment is not conducive to learning and teaching.

Against this background, the following research question has been formulated: How do ecological systems influence learner performance in the primary schools in the informal settlements of the Khomas Region, Windhoek, Namibia? This research question was addressed as follows: using Bronfenbrenner’s theoretical framework, a qualitative inquiry using interviews were employed to gather rich data from a purposefully selected sample of principals, teachers, school board chairpersons, parents, and learners from three selected primary schools to explore how ecological factors influence learner performance in an informal settlement setting.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework applied in this study is based on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory which describes human development through the lens of the “environmental interconnections and their impact on the force directly affecting psychological growth” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 9). According to Bronfenbrenner (1979, p. 16), “human development is the product of interaction between the growing human organism and its environment.” Through the study of the ecology of human development, scientists seek to comprehend and reflect on ways that an individual relates with the interconnected systems within his/her environment. The theory represents a convergence of biological, psychological, and social sciences. An individual is understood as a developing individual within the social ambiance of his/her environment. Bronfenbrenner (1974) emphasizes the notion that human development is influenced by all the systems that play a role in lived experiences of the individual, no matter how remote the systems or environments may be.

When Bronfenbrenner first presented his theory, it consisted of four environmental systems or levels: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1979); he later introduced another level, the chronosystem, which is not dealt with in this paper (Bronfenbrenner, 1986).

The Microsystem

The microsystem, which is the smallest and most immediate environment in which an individual lives, comprises the individual’s family, school, peer group, community environment, and neighborhood. Bronfenbrenner and Evans (2000) explain that it is the microsystem that outlines the processes which influence the psychological development and behavioral changes of the individual. Variables such as family economic status, mobility, and the childhood learning environment influence the microsystem (Iruka et al., 2020).

The immediate environmental factors such as family poverty and peer group pressure are the key elements of the microsystem discussed in this study. Wilson (2012) explains that poverty is multifaceted and may include numerous physical and psychosocial stressors which will have an undesirable negative impact on educational outcomes. Poverty, in this study, includes the situation in which one does not have enough money to pay for basic needs such as food, clothing, shelter, and sanitation (Adoyo, 2015). Numerous studies show an association between poverty and learner performance (Usaini et al., 2015). Katanga (2016) argues that the poverty status of parents, whereby parents cannot provide adequate food for their children, among others, increases absenteeism in schools. Fakude (2012) draws our attention to the economic background of learners as a potential determinant of their poor academic performance. The negative association between poverty and learner performance has been substantiated mostly in informal settlements (Taukuheke, 2012). Maina (2017) argues that most parents living below the poverty line reside in informal settlements and struggle the most in terms of providing learning resources as compared to parents in urban or semi-urban settings.

Another immediate microsystem which is relevant for this study is peer pressure. Peer pressure is a phenomenon that involves peer contact and coerces individuals or their peers to do (or not to do) something against their wishes in exchange for membership of a particular social group and thus satisfies their sense of belonging (Clasen & Brown, 1985). Any child has a need to belong. Allen et al. (2021, p. 87) define a sense of belonging as ‘‘the subjective feeling of deep connection with social groups, physical places and individual and collective experiences [and it] is a fundamental human need that predicts numerous mental, physical, social, economic and behavioral outcomes’’. Any child has a subjective feeling to belong and connect with social groups, individual, and collective experiences (Allen et al., 2021). Peer pressure comes from different sources and may have positive, negative, or mixed effects on the individual that is pressured (Boruah, 2016). Allen et al. (2018) agree that a sense of belonging (to the peer group) could directly or indirectly affect learner achievement. Many learner experiences, actions, and self-identities are influenced by peers (Gentina, 2014). The desire of children in informal settlements, just like any other setting, to be socially accepted by their peers cannot be undermined (Rodhain & Aurier, 2016).

Mesosystem

In this study we focus on the mesosystem of family engagement that connects learners’ home and school environments within the informal settlement context. This system encompasses a set of interrelations between two or more settings, in this case, the interaction between school and home (Crawford, 2020). Numerous studies show how parental involvement impacts positively on learner performance (Desforges & Abouchaar, 2018; Epstein et al., 2009; Jeynes, 2012; Kim & Sheridan, 2021; Kwatubana & Makhalemele, 2015; Lemmer, 2007; Taylor, 2023).

Parental involvement generally includes three aspects: home-based involvement; school-based involvement; and academic socialization. Home-based involvement entails parents’ involvement with learners’ homework, such as monitoring, helping with homework or providing additional resources; school-based involvement includes being part of or participating in school activities such as parent-teacher meeting attendance and academic socialization includes parents’ expectations of and faith in their children’s education (Duan et al., 2018; Hill & Rosskam, 2009; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997).

Lemmer (2007) points out that the engagement of parents in their children’s education is one of the most effective ways of advancing academic success. This view is supported by Menon (2013, p. 1) when he explains that “parents play an important role in the life of their children, they are considered to be the first teachers in the child’s life.” The involvement of parents in their children’s schoolwork contributes to their academic success (Jeynes, 2007) because learners who previously were not hard-working in school may begin to view school as valuable when parents actively endorse the value of education through involvement (Hamunyela, 2008; Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Shililifa, 2006). Negumbo (2016) explains that a good relationship between parents and the school promotes successful academic performance.

The socio-economic factors of parents can have a significant impact on parental involvement. Parents from a better socio-economic background tend to be more involved in their children’s education than those from lower social status. In their longitudinal study conducted between 2002 and 2013, Day and Dotterer (2018) reported a connection between parental involvement (i.e., home- and school-based involvement and academic socialization) and academic achievement. The World Bank Group (2021) cautions that a major factor contributing to high dropout rates in Namibia is lack of parental involvement.

Exosystem

The exosystem according to Iruka et al. (2020, p. 16) is “the social environment that indirectly influences an individual’s development through a community’s geographic locale (e.g., rural, urban), density, demography, transportation and economy.” Resources such as home and school buildings, specialized infrastructure such as libraries and laboratories, textbooks, and stationery will be the focus in this system. Indeed, school and home resources are often linked to the ability to provide adequate education to learners (Matsudaira et al., 2012). Several research studies (Beeby, 2016; Bloch, 2012; Kimani et al., 2013; Molaudzi & Adeyemo, 2023) have found that adequate provision of school facilities plays a significant role in providing quality education. Mestry and Bodalina (2015, p. 437) articulate that the “provision and utilization of appropriate educational resources is a prerequisite for high learner performance and sound educational outcomes.”

Most people living in informal settlements in the Khomas Region, Windhoek lack access to basic services such as a standard housing, electricity, running or communal water, sanitation, land, and proper modes of transport (Karuaihe & Wandschneider, 2018; Khomas Regional Council, 2015). Ipinge (2021) argues that Okahandja Park, Oshitenda, and Havana, three informal settlements located in Windhoek, the capital of Namibia, are examples of such areas characterized by challenges such as low socio-economic status of parents, high rates of illiteracy among parents, bad housing, poor school infrastructure, lack of adequate teaching and learning materials, and overcrowded classrooms. In his research on a primary school in an informal settlement of Windhoek, Xinhua (2016) observed that a cause of poor academic performance was inadequate classroom infrastructure.

Macrosystem

The fourth level in this theory is the macrosystem, which deals with the values, beliefs of the culture in which a child grows up and the policies exhibited within these systems.

Our interest in this paper is to examine how the informal settlement contexts are related to availability of learning opportunities (microsystem) and the home-school connection (mesosystem). We also examine how the social environment indirectly influences the primary school child’s performance through an informal settlement locale (exosystem).

Methodology

The methodology used in this paper was a qualitative research approach. The selection of this approach enabled the chief researcher to collect rich data that contributed to a deeper understanding of poor learner performance in three selected primary schools in the informal settlements of Okahandja Park, Oshitenda, and Havana in the Khomas Region of Windhoek, Namibia. The Khomas Region occupies 4.5% of the land area of Namibia. The region has ten constituencies and 121 schools of which 64 are primary, 15 combined and 31 secondary schools with a total population of 88,429 learners. The influx of people from rural areas to urban areas has created a demand for good-quality housing in the Khomas Region of Windhoek. As a result, many informal settlements were established which led to higher demand for primary schools (Weber & Mendelsohn, 2017).

The three informal settlement schools were purposefully selected from a large population because they have unique characteristics and hold specific information desired in the study (Bertram & Christiansen, 2015). The criterion for selection of the three schools was that they should be primary schools in the informal settlement areas of Okahandja Park, Oshitenda, and Havana respectively in the Khomas Region of Windhoek, Namibia.

The population of the study consisted of principals, teachers, school board members, parents, and learners from the three selected primary schools. A purposeful sample was selected from the population consisting of 24 participants: six teachers (two per school), three primary school principals, three school board chairpersons, three parents (one per school), and nine Grade 7 learners (three per school). Further, learners were selected in the following sequences: one best performer (grade average above 80%), one average (grade average of 50%), and one below average (grade average of 40% and below). Three principals (2 males and 1 female) with 10 to 14 years management experience were selected—management experience refers to the years of experience as a principal excluding the years of teaching experience as a classroom teacher. Three female and three male teachers with a teaching experience between 6 and 24 years also participated in the study. In each school, these teachers were recommended by the principals and were chosen based on their familiarity with the education provided in informal settlement areas and their understanding of Grade 7 classroom. Further two female and one male school board chairperson with an average of 5 years’ experience on the school board took part. School board chairpersons represented the interests of the parents and the community and were appropriately positioned to deal with major governance issues at their respective schools. Three parents, one from each selected primary school, were purposively selected; each parent had a child who was part of the sampled learners in the targeted schools. Parents comprised of two mothers and one father, all self-employed. Learners’ age ranged from 12 to 14.

The main tool for data collection was semi-structured individual face-face interviews. Individual face-face interviews provided in-depth and rich information (Nieuwenhuis, 2020) with regard to how various factors influenced primary school learners’ academic performance in selected informal settlement areas in the Khomas Region of Windhoek, Namibia. Each interview lasted approximately 45 min and learners’ mother tongue was used as a medium of communication. Interview questions were tested and revised prior to ensure comprehension by interview participants, and a pilot investigation was conducted involving two teachers and two Grade 7 learners from a non-participating school (Collins, 2003; Presser et al., 2004). Questions were open-ended to allow the participants to respond without restriction and provide enough information (Nieuwenhuis, 2020).

Each interview was audio recorded and detailed notes were kept. The interviews were coded using thematic analysis. Inductive coding was used to better understand how ecological contexts were described using data presented by the participants. The researchers followed six steps during data analysis:

Transcription of data (all data collected by electronic means were transcribed by the principal researcher). Collected data were transcribed verbatim to ensure that no information was lost prior to data analysis. Data were translated to English by the principal researcher.

Familiarization (data reading, checking, and re-checking);

Coding (analyzing statements and categorizing them into themes);

Sorting and assembling all the relevant codes and excerpts into themes;

Reviewing of each theme to determine if each theme was clear and valid;

Refining, combining or separating themes. This resulted in four major themes that arose from the data;

Analyzing data and ensuring that it was changed into interpretable, rich and convincing excerpts (Best & Kahn, 2006; Braun & Clarke, 2006; Nieuwenhuis, 2020; Nowell et al., 2017).

Trustworthiness and Credibility

To ensure trustworthiness, we used crystallization to strengthen this study’s credibility. This is the combination of multiple means of data construction to enhance the richness, depth, and complexity of the data. The researchers sought to see and portray different experiences of participants: in the case of this study, the multiple influences of ecological systems on learner performance in informal settlement primary schools in Namibia. Member checking also known as participant validation was employed to ensure the trustworthiness of the study (Liamputtong, 2016). Participants were invited to confirm their responses and allowed to include additional data which they deemed necessary.

Ethics

The researchers followed all ethical standards required to conduct research. Ethical application was completed and accepted by the university Ethics Research Committee (David & Resnik, 2015). Written consent was obtained from all participants once they had agreed to participate in the study. Minor children gave written assent. Further, participants were informed that they could withdraw from the study any time they wanted to and that participation in the study was voluntary. Confidentiality of the participants was ensured by using individual coding numbers.

Findings

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological lens limited to the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem was used to interpret the findings. In line with the Bronfenbrenner’s ecological framework, a discussion of the themes elucidating the links between aspects of the informal settlement’s ecological system and learner performance is provided in the sections below. The main themes that emerged in this study, using Bronfenbrenner’s ecological lens, were: poverty and socio-economic context, parental engagement and peer pressure, and challenges of school infrastructure.

Influence of the Microsystem on Learner Performance

Principals, teachers, and learners concur that poverty in the family is one of the factors that contributes to poor learner performance in informal settlements.

Principal A said:

Another influencing factor which led to poor performance is hunger. Parents are poor and unemployed. There is no food to eat at home, no money to buy food and children are going to bed on empty stomach.

Principal B concurred:

Poverty is also one of the contributing factors to learners’ poor academic performance because in some households there is no electricity, so learners had to use candles when studying or doing homework, also learners are always hungry.

Teachers and learners share the same view as principal A and B that poverty affects learner performance. Teacher G explained:

Poverty is the main problem to learners’ performance because it affects learners negatively. Some learners drop out of school because their parents or guardians cannot afford school uniforms, textbooks and stationery.

Teacher H said:

Poverty affects learners’ performance because if parents are poor, they find it difficult to even put food on the table, so children are going to bed on empty stomach and when going to school without eating anything, they are not concentrating.

Learner Q said:

Most of our parents are staying in the informal settlements and they are unemployed, they struggle to get jobs, therefore they do not have money to buy textbooks, exercise books and other school needs for their children, so they are poor.

Learner X added:

Poverty is the biggest problem in our community because our parents are not earning enough money. They cannot afford to buy enough food for children to eat, so the food that is available at home is not enough for everyone, so as a result some go to bed hungry and when attending classes they cannot concentrate.

Three groups of participants, principals, teachers, and learners repeatedly mentioned poverty as the contributing factor to learners’ poor academic performance. This is due to unemployed parents residing in informal settlements. Parents do not earn salaries and they cannot afford to buy or provide food for their children. The findings of this study are consistent with those of The World Bank Group (2021) which reports that Namibia is one of the most unequal countries in the world, with a very slow pace of poverty reduction. The problem pertaining to the reduction of poverty rate is more pronounced in informal settlements. The Shack Dwellers Federation in Namibia estimates that more than 500,000 people live in shacks erected in informal settlements. These shacks have no access to electricity, potable water or toilet facilities (The World Bank Group, 2021). Endjala and Botes (2020) concur that poverty is predominant in the informal settlements of Namibia where poor people live.

The socio-economic situation of residents in the Khomas Region was unfavorable. In their study entitled “Livelihood Coping Strategies in an Informal Settlement of Windhoek, Namibia,”Endjala and Botes (2020) make alarming observations that the majority (75%) of the participants involved in their study were unemployed, while 25% were employed. This shows the predicament in which residents in informal settlements find themselves. The World Bank Group (2021) reports that the poorest groups in Namibia consist mainly of female-headed households, the least educated, the economically inactive, children, and the elderly.

School board chairpersons, parents, and learners concur that peer pressure was another immediate environmental factor negatively influencing academic performance of Grade 7 learners in the informal settlements of the selected region. School Board chairperson L stated:

Why some learners do not perform academically is due to peer pressure, why I said so is because learners tend to listen more to their peers than to their parents and teachers.

Parents in the selected schools share the same sentiment with the school board chairperson. Parent N said:

Peer pressure can affect learners negatively in their schoolwork, … they have bad influencing friends that encourage them to abscond classes or to stay away from school.

Learner Q said:

Peer pressure made you do things which you in reality do not wanted to do, just because you would like to be friends with certain people you have to do what they want even if it is bad, otherwise you are not going to be part of the group.

Parent O explained:

Peer pressure is one of the factors that influence learners’ academic performance … [learners] do what others do, because they would like to be and feel they belong to the same group.

Participants in this study agreed that peer pressure affects learner academic performance. These findings concur with Peltzer et al.’s (2017) findings that most school-going learners (adolescents) in Namibia reveal high prevalence of lifestyle-related health risk behaviors which may include substance abuse and physical inactivity that predispose them to mental ill-health such as anxiety, depression, and suicide attempts, which are detrimental to their learning. The low socio-economic status in informal settlements in Namibia contribute to negative emotional factors among learners which have a negative impact on their mental health and learning (Boruah, 2016; Peltzer et al., 2017). Other factors which put negative pressure on learners in informal settlements, in particular to bunk classes, include high repetition and dropout rates (The World Bank Group, 2021). Frequent repetition leads to over-aged enrolment and subsequently to dropout. The situation is dire in informal settlements. Bronfenbrenner (1979) posits that the transaction of the child with the family environment (e.g., social belonging/socio economic status, the peers and how the associate with the immediate environment and the school) is imperative in assessing the child’s ecology.

Influence of the Mesosystem on Learner Performance

Learners whose parents are involved in their education experience high academic performance as compared to those whose parents are not or less involved (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). Lack of parental involvement was mentioned as a contributing factor to poor learner academic performance in the informal settlements of Namibia. Teacher D said:

You give homework to learners and inform them that their parents must sign after completion, but the books come back not signed and homework not done.

Learner V reiterated:

My parents do not help me at all. I do the homework all by myself, … they [parents] usually do not ask me about my schoolwork. Sometimes they [parents] are never home when I need them the most.

Teacher F responded:

Parents are not involved due to the fact that they are illiterate, they are not educated, there are communication difficulties as they could not express themselves in English, which is the medium of instruction.

Principal A had this to say about the situation of learners in informal settlements:

Some learners leave without parents or an elder, either the parents are at the village while some learners are orphans, they are heading houses by themselves.

Teacher I added:

Parents are not involved at all, most parents do not turn up for parent meetings, parent evenings for them to be told the short falls of their children’s performance and how to assist them.

The communication between parents and school (including attending parents’ meetings, helping learners with homework, and support for learning at home) is considered a predominant theme within the level of the mesosystem. Participants in this study concur that parental involvement in the education of learners is very low or absent and this has a negative impact on learner performance. There are several reasons that may be attributable to this finding.

Socio-economic status significantly affects the relationship between parental involvement and learner performance (Byun et al., 2012). In a recent study Endjala and Botes (2020) found that three-quarters of the population in Namibia reside in single-headed households which are vulnerable and had no partner to take co-responsibility in the household. Lack of parental involvement is even worse in the informal settlements. The Namibia Statistics Agency (2019) reports that informal settlements in Namibia have high youth unemployment rates with one out of every two young people under the age of 35 years in search of a job. The Khomas Region had an average unemployment rate of 31.5% in 2018 (Namibia Statistics Agency, 2019, p. 61). Endjala and Botes (2020) agree that most people living in the informal settlements are unemployed. Carolan and Wasserman (2015) confirm that parents with low socio-economic status practise low levels of academic socialization with their children. Conger and Donnellan (2007) found that parents with high socio-economic status had better communication with their children.

Unemployment and low socio-economic status are positively related to high illiteracy rates. The poorest households and female-headed households which are predominant in informal settlements comprise of the least educated (Namibia Statistics Agency, 2019), the economically inactive, children, and the elderly (The World Bank Group, 2021).

Influence of Exosystem on Learner Performance

Key home and school infrastructure, access to electricity, computer rooms, libraries, and laboratories are some exosystemic factors cited by participants as challenges in the informal settlements of Namibia. Poor home infrastructure was mentioned as a factor which contributes to poor learner academic performance. Parent N said the following:

The majority of our learners are living in the informal settlements where the houses are corrugated iron houses. The house consists only of one room that serves as a sleeping, living and kitchen. There is no space to do homework, to sit and study. Some of the houses are surrounded by shebeens where people are drunk and make lot of noise.

Learner V explained:

Some of our fellow learners’ place of living is not conducive because there is no space where learners could sit and do their homework, the house is small and consist only of one room.

Teacher F explained:

Libraries are needed in our communities especially in the informal settlements because as learners do not have enough space at home to do their homework, libraries are the perfect place where learners can go and do their homework as well as to study for their tests and examination.

Teacher E said:

The other challenge is learners not doing their homework, you give homework it comes back not completed and when asked why they came up with excuses that due to lack of electricity at home they could not write the homework.

The absence of or inadequate infrastructure in informal settlements of Namibia was one of the exosystemic problems raised by participants. These social environments indirectly influence learner performance in an informal settlement setting. Adequacy of school resources varies from settlement to settlement, but most participants in the three schools were concerned about infrastructure provision, either at school level or at home. Poor housing constructed of corrugated iron and lack of electricity were challenges (Ipinge, 2021; The World Bank Group, 2021; Weber & Mendelsohn, 2017). Karuaihe and Wandschneider (2018) concur that the majority of the population living in the informal settlements of Windhoek has limited access to public municipal services. The informal settlements are limited by no electricity, potable water, or toilet facilities. The problem is exacerbated by the lack of building-ready land on which people can build their own houses (Weber & Mendelsohn, 2017, p. 74).

One of the exosystemic factors cited by participants as a challenge in schools located in informal settlements is poor school infrastructure which has resulted in overcrowding. Principal C had the following to say about school infrastructure:

Learners are too many in a class and it is very difficult for the teacher to pay attention to all of them at the same time and as a result, he/she could not reach all of them, especially those who are slow in progress will not catch up. When there are more learners in the class as it supposed to be, the more noise they will make and then they will not concentrate on the lesson and as a result their performance will be affected in a negative way.

Learner W agreed:

Learners are a lot in the class and the teacher would not be able to pay attention to each and every learner, especially the poor performers. As the time is limited the teachers cannot give extra attention to those who needed it the most.

According to Ipinge (2021), many schools in informal settlement areas have poor school infrastructure; buildings are dilapidated, dangerous and unfit for human habitation. Xinhua (2016) found that primary schools in the informal settlement of Windhoek comprised of tents, which served as classrooms, in which teaching and learning had to take place. Lack or inadequate school infrastructure results in overcrowding (Van Wyk, 2008). West and Meier (2020) contend that school infrastructure has a great impact on the quality of education learners receive and is one of the most influential factors affecting academic performance in classrooms. Larger classes have frequent disturbances, as teachers find it difficult to control and manage the learners. Teachers find it difficult to give learners individual attention (Ipinge, 2021).

Poor school resource provision is another factor that contributes to poor learner performance in informal settlements of Namibia. Learner T said:

The textbooks in our school are not enough, learners are sharing textbooks which makes it very difficult to do homework at home because if one learner goes with the book today, tomorrow will be another learner with whom you share the book, as a result it delays us to be able to complete our work on time.

School board chairperson K said:

Inadequate teaching and learning materials such as textbooks will affect learners’ performance in the sense that the Government is responsible for supplying textbooks to schools, but they (government) failed to supply textbooks to schools even though schools make an order.

Teacher H commented:

The challenges I experience in my teaching is lack of basic educational equipment such as pens, pencils and exercise books. Stationeries such as pens and exercise books are a challenge, as you may find learners sitting without writing because they do not have a pen or a book to write in, although the school informed parents to buy stationeries for their children’s some are not able.

Another major factor contributing to poor performance of Grade 7 learners in the selected schools noted by the participants was lack of teaching and learning aids, textbooks, stationery, and education technology. The above statements of teacher F and teacher H, school board chairperson K and learner T are supported by Aikens and Barbarin (2008) that schools located in low economic status communities are often under-resourced and this may affect the teaching and learning process. The absence of educational aids in the informal settlements areas has a negative impact on academic performance of the majority of learners residing in these areas. Amarin and Al-Saleh (2020) agree that learners taught without educational aids perform poorly as compared to those taught with educational aids. Mcllrath and Lyons (2012) argues that learner performance is influenced by the quality and quantity of teaching materials such as textbooks, audiovisual aids, maps, posters, dictionaries, and any other available electronic instructional aids, such as radio, tape recorders, television, and video recorders.

Discussion

A number of researches have focused on various factors that influence learners’ academic achievement in informal settlements. However, these studies do not consider the multi-influential role these factors can collectively play in the academic performance of learners in informal settlement areas. The central concept of this article accentuates the interconnectedness between learners and their ecological systems and how this interaction shapes an individual’s development collectively including academic performance.

In line with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological framework, we argue that ecological systems such as socio-economic status of parents, school, and peer groups, systems which involve the interaction between a child’s family and school and the broader societal and institutional factors collectively have an impact on academic performance of learners. There is a complex interaction between an individual and his/her environment. Woolfolk (2007) argues that a learner lives within a microsystem, inside a mesosystem, embedded in an exosystem, all of which are a part of the macrosystem. There is an interconnection and overlap of the microsystemic, macrosystemic, mesosystemic, and the exosystemic factors.

High rates of poverty which result from unemployment lead to poor education which conflate the socio-economic challenges the settlement faces (Ndiweni et al., 2014). Parents’ low socio-economic status in the context of poverty has a negative impact on learner performance, evidenced by their school absenteeism, low concentration, and inability to access educational resources (Gabriel et al., 2016; Human Sciences Research Council, 2005; Katanga, 2016). Poor physical infrastructure such as inadequate housing and lack of basic services has a negative impact not only on learner performance, but also on learner behavior. All these factors are interconnected, and one ecological factor will lead to a negative effect on the other, which becomes a vicious circle which needs to be broken (Butler & Oluoch-Kosura, 2006; Tallis et al., 2011). Weber and Mendelsohn (2017) note that an integrated approach needs to be adopted to break a cycle of challenges facing people in informal settlements including education for primary school learners.

Implications

This study concurs with the notion that learners’ ecological systems matter for good academic performance in any school environment. This study provides insights from diverse people (teachers, principals, school board members, parents, and learners) about the impact on education of socio-economic status of parents, parent-learner relationships, teacher-parent partnerships, peer pressure and inadequate infrastructure, and resourcing in the school environment.

Improving education in informal settlement areas is crucial for promoting social equity and providing opportunities for learners living in these marginalized areas. Government is expected to address socio-economic challenges such as poverty, malnutrition, and health issues. The study also proposes that government should consider an integrated approach when they address challenges in informal settlements. The social programs geared to improving the livelihood of people of Namibia, especially those in informal settlements, which include equitable spending on health and education, provision of municipal basic services and redress of inequalities (such as skewed allocation of land) created by past governments should be integrated. There is a need for government to foster strong partnerships among schools, parents, local communities, and non-governmental organizations. Government must also ensure that schools in informal settlement areas have access to adequate learning resources such as textbooks, teaching materials, and technology tools. This can include providing digital devices, internet connectivity, and educational software to facilitate digital learning and enhance learners’ access to information.

Enhancing school infrastructure is also key to improving education for learners in informal settlements. Government is expected to improve the physical infrastructure of schools in informal settlements by constructing adequate safe classrooms, libraries, laboratories, and sanitation facilities. Upgrading facilities will create a conducive learning environment and improve learner engagement.

Limitations

The study focused on the impact of ecological factors on the academic performance of primary school learners in three selected schools in the informal settlements of the Khomas Region of Windhoek, Namibia. One of the main limitations of this study is its limited generalizability. The researchers have involved a small sample size, which means that the findings of this study cannot be easily generalized to a larger population of learners in other informal settlements of Namibia.

Conclusion

This study provided information about Bronfenbrenner’s ecological factors that had an impact on learner performance in the informal settlement areas of Okahandja Park, Oshitenda, and Havana in the Khomas Region of Windhoek, Nambia. The study concluded that the microsystem (poverty and socio-economic context), mesosystem (parental engagement and peer pressure), and exosystem (school infrastructure) were the main contributory factors in poor learner performance in the selected primary schools in the informal settlements.

Despite the wide range of programs the government of Namibia has designed to address challenges facing people residing in informal settlements, the systems are still fragmented and may continue to exacerbate significant gaps and overlaps which result in inefficiencies. The study has uncovered areas that policy makers should address to improve learner performance in the informal settlement schools in Namibia.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

None

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Approval

An ethics statement (including the committee approval number) for animal and human studies—The researchers followed all ethical standards required to conduct research. Ethical application was completed and accepted by the University of South Africa’s Ethics Research Committee

ORCID iD

Johannes Seroto

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

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The Influence of Ecological Systems on Primary School Learner Performance in Informal Settlements in Namibia

Abstract

Plain Language Summary

Keywords

Introduction

Learner Performance in Informal Settlements in Namibia

Theoretical Framework

The Microsystem

Mesosystem

Exosystem

Macrosystem

Methodology

Trustworthiness and Credibility

Ethics

Findings

Influence of the Microsystem on Learner Performance

Influence of the Mesosystem on Learner Performance

Influence of Exosystem on Learner Performance

Discussion

Implications

Limitations

Conclusion

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

Ethical Approval

ORCID iD

Data Availability Statement

References