Abstract
Silence is a common phenomenon in language learning where students stay silent, and it is potentially frustrating to instructors and not conducive to the foreign language input and output necessary for ongoing classroom-based language learning. Silence has been investigated initially in the face-to-face classroom and discussed thoroughly over the years. Most studies emphasized the role of verbal interaction in language learning, while silence exists in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts as a part of the interaction. Rare research investigates silence in face-to-face EFL learning contexts using phenomenography to understand students ways of experiencing silence. Therefore, this study aims to explore how Vietnamese undergraduates experience silence in face-to-face EFL learning using phenomenography at a Vietnamese university. Data were conducted through semi-structured interviews with 15 Vietnamese undergraduates analyzed following the phenomenographic principles to identify each conception s referential and structural aspects. Eleven categories were found following five main conceptions of silence, namely, sociocultural dimension, affective dimension, psycho-linguistic dimension, interactive dimension, and individual dimension. The findings illustrate the multilayers and complexities of students silence in face-to-face EFL context and point out new findings to discover potentially in EFL. It implies that silence can be a powerful tool for students learning, so understanding multifaceted students silence will enhance educators pedagogical practices in foreign language teaching and learning. This study also implies that educators should understand students social self and self to create a learning atmosphere for individual differences.
Plain Language Summary
In language learning, silence can be frustrating for instructors, reducing the effectiveness of language teaching and learning due to a lack of verbal interaction. Therefore, this study aims to explore how 15 Vietnamese undergraduates experience silence in face-to-face EFL learning using phenomenography at a Vietnamese university. Eleven categories were found following five main conceptions of silence, namely, sociocultural dimension, affective dimension, psycho-linguistic dimension, interactive dimension, and individual dimension through interviews. The findings illustrate the multilayers and complexities of students silence in face-to-face EFL context and point out new findings to discover potentially in EFL. This study also implies that educators should understand students social self and self to create a learning atmosphere for individual differences.
Introduction
In educational settings, silence is commonly considered problematic as students are expected to communicate with one another. Silence has long been characterized as the behavior of people who do not begin the conversation and a situation in which people are afraid to communicate or have the desire to talk but do not act on it. In educational research, silence also reflects students’ disinterest in and non-participation in instructional content and duties (Choi, 2015). It might appear as students’ difficulty or unwillingness to answer questions, ask questions, declare their understanding, aid others in understanding, and challenge others’ ideas. Nevertheless, the implications of silence can vary depending on the context, whether positive, negative, or neutral (Maher, 2021). Specifically, in language learning, silence can hold a more complex significance.
Silence can be defined differently, but it often refers to the absence of sound or the failure to speak when prompted. Bosacki (2005) describes it as a lack of vocalization, which can occur when students fail to present or express their ideas on a particular topic. Granger (2004) links classroom silence with disobedience, misconduct, and adopting a listener role to protect oneself from teachers and peers. In an academic context, silence can indicate disinterest or lack of engagement in the subject matter and associated responsibilities (Choi, 2015). However, some researchers argue that classroom silence can be seen as a psychological state and a way for students to convey their thoughts, feelings, engagement in classroom communication, and behaviors (Teng, 2009); or inner speech, a form of communication, as it reflects the learner’s cognitive and linguistic processes (Bao, 2020).
It is not surprising that educators in Vietnam place a high value on speaking, communicative skills, or verbal interaction in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms (Huynh & Adams, 2022) even though the communicative approach is a critical premise for promoting intercultural competence. As a result, scholars and educators have researched how instructors and students express themselves verbally (Bao, 2014). Language instruction and learning, however, are not always about talking; in real-life settings, speaking and silence are two distinct constructions for successful communication (Bao, 2020). In Vietnam, scholarly study on the function of silence in language learning is under-studied. This is because scholars and educators are more concerned with how students are vocally engaged in learning rather than learning via silence or using silence to learn a foreign language (Bao, 2014). Yet, verbal interaction has attracted more attention than silence, especially in EFL contexts; this is possibly because students’ speech as output is valued as the success of language learners and toward students’ advancement. However, Bao (2020) said that “the occurrence of inner speech in the learner’s system deserves to be considered as a type of production, especially when ideas or thoughts are taking shape in mind” (p. 18).
From earlier studies addressing the phenomenon of silence, this study aims to explore the ways in which Vietnamese undergraduates experience silence in face-to-face EFL learning. From the main aims above, two research questions are framed below:
What are EFL undergraduates’ different ways of understanding silence in face-to-face EFL learning?
How is the hierarchical relationship among those categories of description?
Literature Review
Silence Classification
Due to the diverse roles of silence, Bruneau (1973) classified silence into psycholinguistic, interactive, and socio-cultural categories. First, psycholinguistic silences are referred to as slow-time impositions on the temporal sequence of speech. The physical delay between the addresser and addressee while they expect one another’s contributions forms such psycholinguistic silences (Bruneau, 1973). Linguistic aspects of psycholinguistic silences include pauses and hesitations. In contrast, interactive silences can be expressed by overt facial signs, body gestures, and eye movements. Psycholinguistic silences also explain why all language is subject to interpretation (Bruneau, 1973), as even the brain needs a break before it can resume speech. When the receiver is unsure about the responses, it is constructed from a time and speech encoder to create a temporal discontinuity. Because people are taking mental time to analyze the information, this causes conscious reluctance. As a result, a hesitation is a form of silence. The receiver then runs a syntactic, semantic, and planning decision-making process to ensure that the response is proper in its context in terms of modality, meaning, and syntax. Many researchers in learning have yet to prove theories to explain this silence period. Some believe that this period will pass, and that learners’ speech will spontaneously develop (Krashen, 1982).
Second, interruptions to discourse, conversation, discussion, and argument are interactive silences. It is how communicators interact to share information or find solutions to issues. Although psycholinguistic silences are used in small-group and interpersonal communication, interactive silences last longer. Depending on how it is used, interactive silence can help build relationships and encourage trust or damage relations and hinder cooperation in everyday discourse. The primary distinction is that social convention involvement happens when each communicator is aware of the extent and mode of their engagement in communicative exchange. Interactive silences are mutually shared social conventions. Communicators adjust their turn-taking behavior, displaying an awareness of the requirements set by the other participant(s) in the discourse based on their individual and shared social and cultural background knowledge. They strongly connect to how messages are shared in communicative contexts. Many judgments, inferences, and cognitive processes take place during interactive silences. Silences during conversations tend to fit interpersonal status relationships the best. Bao (2014) suggests that it is considered a learning tool if interactive silences are exercised.
Third, sociocultural silence refers to the reality that general cultural conventions for behavior and established discourse patterns may hinder a person from expressing themselves even if they have no intention of being silent. Silence in culture is caused by regulated practices and a societal norm of silence. Silence by authority is often used to protect those in positions of power for distinct reasons, including saving time, preventing distracting activity, and preserving privacy and solitude. In cultural settings where silence is valued, sociocultural silence serves communicative roles such as respect, acceptance, power, and other social standards. This kind of silence relates to Vygotsky (1978) basis that learning is primarily social. Language, thinking, and behavior are linked to the values of their surroundings.
According to Bao (2014), Bruneau’s conceptions of silence is vital to learning. Psycholinguistic silence refers to the pause of speech to aid decoding, which works similarly in writing, where learners need time to consider and write text. Interactive silence is used to get others’ attention, contemplation, interpretation, and judgment, to supply room for thought, reactions, or admiration, and even to foster connections’ future development. This form of silence may be used as a learning aid. According to one of the foundations of learning in constructivist theory, the essential activity of generating meaning is mental: it occurs in the mind. Physical movement and hands-on experience are essential for learning, particularly for youngsters, but they are insufficient; we must give activities that engage both the intellect and the hands. As a result, this form of silence is critical for reflective thought if learning is to occur. Power, respect, acceptability, and other cultural pattern functions include sociocultural silence. It contributes to learning, which is a social activity. Learning is linked to people, instructors, classmates, and others.
Besides Bruneau (1973), Saville-Troike (1985) sets up a broad ethnographic framework to understand silence, asserting that it is more context-dependent in its interpretation. The framework of etic categories proposed by Saville-Troike (1985) through which we might see silence is described. First, institutionally determined silences may include being lower than others when someone may be in a “hierarchical or structural” membership. It can be seen at a concrete level of silence, which can be interpreted as coercive pressure that takes place in the group meetings; lower in the ranks of society have fewer chances to get a formal education and fewer chances to develop their ability to think and speak freely in a group of people. It is linked to whether students feel far away from the teachers or feel lower than the teacher’s status. Students are not shy or otherwise, but the feeling of being unfair about sharing leads to silence. The role of peers, teachers, and others is to give the feeling of being fair or creating a friendly atmosphere. Second, group-determined silences are created by groups of people who feel they need to keep a safe atmosphere for all of them in the same situation. Group-determined “situational” silences relate to when a group decision distributes one’s privilege to speak. It has also been suggested that it would be good if teachers and students decided to give themselves some “no-talk” time when they feel like they need a break from the hectic environment. Although being aware of silence can help us become more sensitive to each other and help us respect others’ needs for silence, we must not allow the presence of silence to affect our interactions with one another. Third, individually determined silence is the framework’s last category, divided unequally between interactive and non-interactive silences. Interactive silences happen when students wait for responses from their teacher during lectures. Still, non-interactive silences occur when the teacher stays and talks to themselves because of student absence which is when they do not acknowledge their teacher’s presence in the classroom. They are linked to non-participation, rage, hatred, avoidance, secrecy, and image manipulation. The third and last interactive, personally determined, or negotiated silence found by Saville-Troike is “psychological” silence, which is associated with shyness, embarrassment, anxiety, and neurosis.
Conceptions of Silence in Face-to-Face Learning Context
Bao’s (2014) series of studies on silence aims to understand the role of silence from different perspectives of silence in language learning.
Ten Australian students were invited to take part in an interpretive case study interview in Australia about their engagement with silence in language learning. Most participants experienced silent functions and processed understanding, creating concepts or thoughts to formulate replies and articulating sounds in their heads to learn languages quietly, according to Bao (2014). Silence lets individuals think about thoughtful responses to improve their vocal performance. Their silence is caused by a range of factors, including culture, relationships, personality, mood, and others. Australian students viewed silence as inactivity, communication avoidance, and respect for authority, a survival technique used by students who fear showing their language ability to instructors and classmates. The kind of silence proven by Australian participants in this research is comparable to that of many East Asian students, including passivity, fear of judgment, respect for authority, and harmony, among other characteristics. Furthermore, the passivity of one individual influence the learning of others. Many participants consider the needs of their fellow participants while deciding whether to speak. Individuals in learning contexts who are aware of other people’s presence are experiencing social presence. Many approaches to language acquisition strongly focus on spontaneous communication and immediate interaction as evidence of effective learning. On the other hand, silence is seen as an efficient learning technique by Australian students (Bao, 2014).
As Bao (2014) suggested in his study to understand the silence from the perspective of Chinese students, seven areas of interest in silence were found in China over the years, including the nature and causes of reticence, ways to cope with students’ vernal inhibition, educators’ feelings of silence and beliefs of talk, factors influencing silence, types of silence, and multiple perspectives on silence. Although silence is acknowledged as a mode of learning, Chinese researchers tend to underestimate the value of silence just as much as they underestimate the importance of discourse. Instead of studying the transition in current means of learning, some experts hold to Chinese traditional culture to interpret silence. For successful learning, classroom environments need the use of silence processing, which involves discussion, individual views, and complex input. Most participants consider themselves to be naturally quiet students. They know that their silence serves educational aims or reflects their incapability and limitations. They see silence as a time for owning thinking, careful listening, the ability to study in silent mode, and, most importantly, respecting the personal space of others. Bao’s study revealed two significant insights. One is connected to saving face, in which students employed silence to avoid embarrassing their classmates. The second is the requirement to investigate teacher performance and approach as a source of silence or interaction. Many students had difficulty shifting from high school, where they were passive and silent learners. However, when they were expected to speak and be more vocal in university. Some causes of silence are highlighted. Because of the nature of peer connections in the classroom, silence prevails. Teachers, in addition to peers, have a crucial influence on students’ withdrawal into silence. Poor questioning skills, insufficient space for student thought, and teachers’ teaching approaches result in student silence. He argues that more research is needed to consider these factors causing students’ silence. Consideration must be given to how learning occurs inside the mind.
The research conducted by Bao (2014) explored Japanese students’ beliefs, attitudes, and experiences about using silence in the classroom, whether silence is an academic learning method or a social habit. In-depth interviews were performed with ten Japanese students, who shared their perspectives on English learning via silence and speech, peer interaction, factors influencing their decision to be silent or verbal, and preferences for the ideal time and settings for silent and verbal modes. In general, Japanese students felt that foreign languages could be studied in silence since it is a time for receiving knowledge and internalizing speech by seeing how peers react to one another’s viewpoints. Learners must practice speaking quietly and analyzing their ideas to help their classmates later. Private speech may be an extended practice in which students improve their knowledge in a non-threatening, stable atmosphere supplied by a teacher who accepts both inner space and the expression of ideas. Based on Vygotsky’s claim that learning is social, the Japanese educational system is a well-organized social construct in which discourse and silence adhere to communication conventions that have been formed and valued communally. Silence takes on a social aspect and may perform a social role since it is influenced by social contact and serves as a tool that controls mental processes.
Bao (2014)’s research continues to look at Korean students” beliefs of silence. Eight people were interviewed about their opinions, attitudes, and experiences with the silent function in second language acquisition. Many of them recognize the importance of the silent mode in learning. They think students may get languages not just via conversation but also through exposure to other people’s conversations. Depending on one’s learning style and disposition, silence may be beneficial or detrimental. They saw silence as language monitoring to prevent rushing into performance. Students emphasized the significance of inner speech and silent observation because they preferred to absorb information in their thoughts and picture what the words would sound like to produce adequate output. Another role of silence is to foster communication skills, which is a difficult period when it takes a long time to absorb information, gain knowledge, or remember language. Words are preserved in their thoughts much more than spoken indeed. Most participants wanted to break the silence and become more outspoken; some considered that silence impeded the Korean educational system. Participants requested greater learner autonomy in a dynamic classroom atmosphere that encouraged effective speaking and thinking skills. Rather than just receiving information from the instructor, participants expressed a desire for a classroom in which they shared responsibility with the teacher for setting up a more conversational environment. These results counter the held idea of “silent” East Asian students; the Korean students in this research are portrayed as looking to be more verbally engaged in their university lectures. Bao stresses the concerns expressed by earlier writers against stereotyping Korean and other Asian students.
Lecturers’ understanding of students’ silence is critical to proving a meaningful and interactive learning community. Therefore, when lecturers know and understand the student’s level of silence in the classroom, they can interact with them to enhance meaningful communication and interactions between the students and the lecturer. Lecturers should not regard students’ silence as a negative phenomenon; instead, silence is a social presence part. There are many opposing viewpoints about classroom silence, particularly among lecturers and students. Lecturers value verbal communication over silence, leading them to believe that silence has little value in the classroom. According to Jaworski and Sachdev (1998) research, instructors’, and students’ perspectives conflict. While students consider silence a favorable phenomenon and behavior, teachers see it as a signal of possible academic failure. Harumi (2011)’s study on physical classroom stillness with EFL Japanese EFL learners’ voices Students, however, feel that their thoughts are better expressed in writing. In contrast, teachers believe direct communication is essential for successful instruction. Many EFL lecturers report that students usually need extended periods of silence to take notes and prepare for the next section in a discussion or class lecture. Furthermore, Japanese students also mention that they are expected to be physically still in the classroom by other students and lecturers (Harumi, 2011). She described the root of friction in second-language classroom learning between lecturers and students.
Although Vietnam has a long tradition of respecting silence, there has recently been a push for increased verbalization in the classroom. Using interviews with 10 Vietnamese students, Bao (2014) discovered that silence helped participants absorb target language patterns. They regarded silence as a purposeful and beneficial language learning tool rather than a forced, passive response. The statistics reveal a link between productive silence and high-quality speaking. Bao argues that silence and speech help these individuals; silence has a social nature, and it is the responsibility of teachers and students to use silence as a learning resource. Bao’s recommendations for future silence studies include four areas for future silence research: perspective comparison between teachers and learners on silence; silence in face-to-face and online settings; and research on silent engagement in materials development, task design with verbal and nonverbal options, and silent learning assessment. In two of his recommendations, the present research addresses the issue of silence.
Previous studies address the phenomenon of silence in EFL learning using phenomenological, thematic, and content analysis to understand silence. However, rare research uses phenomenography to analyze students’ conceptions of silence. Therefore, this study provides further empirical evidence to add to the existing body knowledge of silence in the EFL context.
Methodology
Phenomenography
Phenomenography examines “qualitatively different ways in which people experience, conceptualize, perceive, and understand various aspects of and phenomena in the world around them” (Marton, 1986) rather than relying on objective measures or standardized evaluations, this strategy emphasizes understanding how individuals feel and interpret their surroundings. The various ways of experiencing are represented in phenomenography research as categories of description (Marton & Booth, 1997) with two aspects: referential and structural. The referential aspect concerns the object’s identity and how it interacts with other objects. In contrast, the structural aspect is concerned with the object’s qualities and how they are organized.
Each description category highlights a distinct characteristic of the researched phenomenon’s experience that is logically related to one another and discusses their similarities and differences (Bruce et al., 2004). Combining these categories results in a structure known as the “outcome space,” which reflects the many ways and interactions through which the researcher understands and experiences the phenomena at the collective level (Åkerlind, 2012).
Participant Selection and the Procedure
The study was conducted at a Vietnamese university and was approved by its human research ethics committee. Snowball sampling was used to identify cases of interest by selecting Vietnamese undergraduates who knew others with similar traits. The researchers relied on recommendations from lecturers who had observed a phenomenon of Vietnamese undergraduates’ silence. They created a list of students who met specific criteria and then asked them to recommend their friends who shared the same characteristics. Fifteen students were interviewed online at their convenience. These participants included six males and nine females; each interview took at least an hour to complete. Participants’ names were anonymized with pseudonyms for confidentiality.
Fifteen participants were from different English levels and genders (male and female) to maximize the variations among participants. Researchers can identify ways of understanding students’ silence based on the participants’ varied experiences in different levels of English. While some characteristics were not distributed evenly across the sample, the diversity of participants’ backgrounds and experiences was broad and appropriate for a phenomenographic study (Bowden & Green, 2005).
According to the phenomenographic literature, it is suggested that sample sizes of 15 to 30 participants are ideal, but smaller sample sizes may also be sufficient (Bowden & Green, 2005). Refer to Table 1 for details of Vietnamese undergraduate participants.
Details of Vietnamese Undergraduate Participants.
Data Collection
Interviewing is common in phenomenography investigations because it gives rich and detailed data from participants’ viewpoints (Åkerlind, 2012). Semi-structured interviews were conducted online using Teams at the convenience of the participants. Each online session lasted 60 min, was video filmed, and was fully transcribed. Consent was confirmed the date, time, and place of the interview following ethical standards requirement.
In the interviews, we asked questions with follow-up prompts to gain a deeper understanding of participants’ experiences. The questions were divided into two parts: the first part focused on “what” questions, such as preferred forms of communication with peers as in “What forms of communication did you prefer to interact with your peers?,” reasons for silence in the classroom as in “What made your silence in the face-to-face classroom?,” and personal interpretations of silence as in “What does silence mean to you?.”
The second part focused on “how” questions, including interactions with peers and lecturers and the utilization of silence in learning, as in questions like “How did you interact with your peers or lecturer in the classroom?,”“How do you use silence in learning?.”
Phenomenography is based on a second-order perspective, which focuses on how the phenomenon is perceived by people rather than on the first perspective, in which someone attempts to describe it (Marton, 1981). Thus, this has greatly influenced the way questions were formulated.
Moreover, emphasis was placed on follow-up questions such as “Why do you think in that way?,”“Could you explain more about this?,”“Could you give me examples where you were in that context?,”“Could you clarify your explanation?.” These follow-up questions helped researchers understand in-depth students’ silent experience in a face-to-face EFL learning context.
Data Analysis
A number of phenomenography researchers have utilized a structure of awareness to analyze and describe the various methods of experiencing a phenomenon (Cope, 2004; Marton & Booth, 1997). Using a structure of awareness, they intend to reveal the various dimensions and levels of understanding that individuals can have regarding a particular phenomenon. This method permits a more thorough and nuanced analysis of human experiences. Marton and Booth (1997) have characterized it in terms of an internal and external horizon. The internal horizon refers to an individual’s personal and subjective understanding of a phenomenon, influenced by their beliefs, values, and prior experiences. On the other hand, the external horizon encompasses the broader societal and cultural influences that shape an individual’s perception and interpretation of the phenomenon. By considering both horizons, researchers can comprehensively understand how individuals make sense of and engage with a particular phenomenon. The context of the theme is the external horizon as an area of consciousness. The border between the external and internal horizons separates the subject from its context.
One way of describing a way of experiencing a phenomenon is in terms of a structure of awareness. The description should incorporate a structural aspect and a referential aspect. The structural aspect refers to the organization and arrangement of the elements involved in the phenomenon. The details include the dimensions of variation in the internal horizon, the relationships between dimensions of variation, and the boundary between the internal and external horizons. The referential aspect of phenomenography involves how people refer to or talk about a particular phenomenon. This can include using different terms, concepts, or frames of reference that people use to describe their experiences or understandings. Refer to Figure 1 for the structure of awareness.
Analytical framework of a structure of awareness, adopted from Cope (2004, p.11).
As per the analytical procedures, the first step was identifying, sorting, contrasting, and categorizing. In the identification step, the focus was on uncovering relevant information to support the phenomenon being told. The identified information was then grouped into meaning pools based on their similarities in the sorting step. In the contrasting and categorizing step, comparisons between the meanings were made, and descriptions were used to create categories. Furthermore, independent researchers coded a part of the data to ensure reliability, and the inter-coded reliability was then calculated.
The validity of the internal logic of how the categories connect (Marton, 1986) and the categories in light of how they make sense among comparative research were used to determine the validity of outcome space (Åkerlind, 2012). To get high-quality and consistent data for analysis, methodological approaches were used to ensure reliability (Åkerlind, 2012). These methodological approaches included using multiple researchers to code the data and conducting inter-rater reliability. The combination of validity and reliability measures ensured that the outcome space accurately reflected the data collected.
Findings
Eleven ways of understanding students’ silence are below in face-to-face EFL learning. They are category 1: past experience; category 2: learning space; category 3: instructor; category 4: social interaction; category 5: surroundings; category 6: mood; category 7: feelings of closeness; category 8: fear of language; category 9: content; category 10: sensory preference; and category 11: personality.
Category 1: Past Experience
Many students reported that their previous learning experiences greatly influenced their approach to education in high school and beyond. They shared that in high school, they were often asked to listen attentively, take notes, and ask questions when prompted. As a result, they became accustomed to a more passive learning style, spending most of their time silently absorbing information. This habit of silent learning carried over into their university experience, where they often completed tasks independently and rarely participated in collaborative teamwork. The established learning environment in high school can have a lasting impact on a student’s approach to education in the future. The excerpts below provide illustration for this.
Researcher: So do you know where the cause is from?
Student 9: I think it’s partly due to personality,
Researcher: What makes you so quiet?
Student 2:
In brief, category 1 presents students’ background, for their historical and social background. However, this category does not relate to learning experience straightforward in current experience. It is a part of their learning habit which affects somewhere. Past experience is not seen as enhancing students’ learning in general, but it exists. Thus, this category is seen less focused than other categories. The external horizon is to extent to sociocultural dimension.
Category 2: Learning Space
During the learning sessions, participants viewed the learning space as a place where they could focus and work in their own physical and mental space. This allowed them to feel safe and comfortable without worrying about disturbing others. Everyone recognized that they each had their own thinking space, so they kept quiet to avoid disrupting the flow of thoughts. This created a peaceful and respectful environment where everyone could learn at their own pace without any distractions. The following is for demonstration.
Researcher: Do you think your silence interferes with your studies?
Student 13: Yes, it’s good for extroverts. If I don’t understand the lesson, I don’t dare to ask, so it’s difficult.
Researcher: Why don’t you dare to ask?
Student 13: I don’t know either.
Researcher: When you study hard, does it make any sense?
Student 13:
Researcher: Can you tell me more about the definition of the keyword private space?
Student 13:
Category 2 differs from Category 1 in that it presents students’ social lives and mentions specific learning environments where students are involved in making learning happen. Thus, the external horizon extends to the social dimension, where learning space is involved in their learning process. This means that Category 2 goes beyond highlighting the importance of the physical environment in facilitating their learning.
Category 3: Instructor
Students explained that they often chose to remain quiet in class due to their lecturers, whether they were foreign or Vietnamese. When studying with foreign lecturers, students tended to stay silent because they were still learning English and were not confident enough to answer questions. Students needed to understand the instructions or requests thoroughly to avoid confusion. As for Vietnamese lecturers, some students felt that certain teaching methods could benefit from more verbal negotiation, such as incorporating humor or exploring topics beyond the textbook. On the other hand, some students found traditional teaching methods needed to be more engaging. The following excerpts are for illustration.
Researcher: When are you more silent?
Student 14:
Researcher: When are you really quiet?
Student 15:
Students perceive learning concerning others as instructors in a learning environment in this Category 3. However, this category limits learning through interaction or activities to make learning effective when it shows one-way perception. This one-way perception of learning can hinder the development of critical thinking skills and limit the overall effectiveness of the learning experience. Thus, the external horizon extends to the social dimension, where instructors play the role of social norms in students’ social learning contexts.
Category 4: Social Interaction
Some expressed that they struggled with social skills and found initiating conversations or negotiating difficult. Many of these students also kept to themselves outside of class, limiting their opportunities to practice these skills. As a result, they often felt isolated and lacked the confidence to engage in social interactions. This further reinforced their struggle with social skills, creating a cycle that was challenging to break. The followings are for demonstration:
Researcher: Why do you know but you still keep quiet?
Student 3: Due to the same frequency, I don’t talk,
Researcher: How will you interact with friends or teachers?
Student 4:
Category 4 differs from Category 1, 2, and 3 in terms of self-evaluation. Students perceive themselves lack of social skills, and put themselves in social practice for illustration. From students’ perception of others like instructors, they think about themselves in social context. Thus, the external horizon must be extent to sociocultural dimension to see students’ place in social situations.
Category 5: Surroundings
Students said that the learning environment and their peers’ behavior could significantly impact their decision to remain quiet. When surrounded by introverted or silent peers, students may be less likely to stand out or draw attention to themselves. Excerpts below provide illustration for it.
Student 10: I also see my friends distracted by facebook. Sometimes when I am in an environment where classmates are active and study hard, I will be more motivated.
Student 14: Because I
Category 5 is similar to Category 4. Students see others’ behavior concerning their relationship with their surroundings, which involves learning space, social norms, and themselves. Thus, the external horizon focuses on the sociocultural dimension. This sociocultural dimension includes cultural values, societal expectations, and peer influence. Students in Category 5 are influenced by their immediate surroundings and the broader cultural context in which they exist.
Category 6: Mood
Students perceived their silence from unexpected moods previously. It did not mainly affect students’ silence, but it was a part of the day of learning. The unexpected mood that students perceived previously profoundly impacted their silence. However, it is important to note that the mood did not solely influence this silence; rather, it was an integral aspect of their overall learning experience for the day. The following excerpts are for illustrations:
Researcher: What makes you want to interact with people?
Student 11:
Researcher: What factors influence you?
Student 14: Mostly because I don’t want to talk,
Category 6 differs from other categories. It presents an emotional state where students struggle with their feelings of happiness or sadness in their learning. This emotional state in Category 6 impacts students’ overall well-being and academic performance. By prioritizing a positive mood, students may find learning more accessible and enjoyable. Thus, the external horizon is to the extent of the affection dimension.
Category 7: Feelings of Closeness
Students remained silent in class due to feelings of closeness. Students found it difficult to feel connected to others or like belonging to a team when unfamiliar with their peers. This can be especially true for students from other classes or who have failed the previous course. Excerpts illustrate this as below:
Researcher: Do you belong in the learning environment?
Student 7: I think the learning environment is also important.
Researcher: What makes you so quiet?
Student 2:
Category 7 differs from Category 6 in terms of relationship. Students place themselves among their peers in the learning space. Students emphasize a feeling of belonging when studying together. It shows a boundary in students’ minds of thinking about others to get connected. This boundary is not present in Category 6, where students focus more on individual thoughts within their minds, and this does not make learning happen. Category 7 is the connection and collaboration with peers in their learning experience. Thus, the external horizon is to expand into the affective dimension.
Category 8: Fear of Language
Learning English was hard for many students, who faced many fears and anxieties. One of the most common fears was the fear of mispronouncing words or giving incorrect answers, which can be a major source of embarrassment. Additionally, many students feared expressing their ideas and thoughts in English, making it difficult to participate in class discussions. As a result, many students hesitated to ask questions in class, which could further hinder their language learning progress. The followings are for demonstration:
Researcher: Can you share more about the reasons?
Student 13:
Researcher: When did you decide you didn’t want to talk in class?
Student 7:
Researcher: What’s the language problem?
Student 7:
Researcher: What factors keep you quiet?
Student 9:
Category 8 is higher than Category 7 in terms of the negotiation of meaning. Students negotiate with others through language. With the fear occurring in their minds, it limits students’ interaction with others. Thus, the external horizon is to expand to the psychological dimension. Expanding the external horizon allows for a deeper level of student engagement and understanding, ultimately enhancing their negotiation of meaning in Category 8.
Category 9: Content
Some students were feeling concerned about the lesson’s content. They mentioned that it could have been more abstract or challenging to understand, which made them hesitant to participate in class actively. As a result, they chose to remain silent and listen to the lesson instead of sharing their points of view. They preferred to focus on understanding the material rather than trying to express themselves in English. The following is for details of illustration.
Researcher: How do I know which theme suits me?
Student 14: If the topic is studied in Vietnamese,
Researcher: What factors influence you?
Student 14: Mostly because I don’t want to talk, because of my mood the other day. Teacher has only a small effect.
Researcher: Why are you like this?
Student 8:
Students emphasize their learning progress in Category 9 by lacking materials to start conversations or share opinions. Thus, the external horizon has a psycholinguistic dimension. This psycholinguistic dimension refers to students’ psychological and linguistic barriers when trying to engage in conversations or express their opinions.
Category 10: Sensory Preference
All students benefited from having their learning preferences taken into account. They enjoyed listening to the sounds of their lecturers, observing the actions of those around them, feeling the emotions of others, and even imitating the learning styles of their peers. Overall, catering to individual learning preferences can lead to a more positive and effective learning experience for students. The excerpts below are for illustration.
Researcher: Why don’t you ask?
Student 14: Because I follow the majority. If a question I don’t know but the whole class knows, I will be embarrassed. I don’t even know how to start asking.
Researcher: How do you study?
Student 15: I just write down the important parts.
Researcher: How did you study?
Student 3: It will be more difficult to interact with other people and instead of that, I will
Category 10 shows the occurrence of learning using sensory and embodied methods. It reflects students’ evaluation of their surroundings, traits, and learning preferences to decide to be silent. It shows that learning happens through the senses. Thus, the external horizon has an interactive dimension.
Category 11: Personality
Many participants felt that their personalities largely influenced their decision to remain silent. They believed their introverted nature made them more comfortable with silence, allowing them to reflect and process information internally. Additionally, some participants mentioned that their reserved personalities made them less inclined to engage in unnecessary conversation, leading them to choose silence as a default response.
Researcher: Many of students are very active in the class, can you share more reasons why you are not like them?
Student 12:
Researcher: Are you affected by any factors?
Student 15:
Researcher: Do you feel teachers or friends think you learn?
Student 8: I usually sit at the table the most and also often interact with the teacher. My friends say that I don’t talk much so I don’t know.
Researcher: What makes you so quiet?
Student 2: Due to the new environment compared to the previous environment I studied. I don’t speak very well, so I’m afraid to speak in communication. Strangers, I am shy and rarely communicate,
When evaluating the dimensions of Category 11, it is essential to consider each individual’s needs and preferences. This helps students determine when to remain silent in certain situations. Focusing on individual dimensions also emphasizes the importance of personal growth and self-awareness within Category 11. By understanding themselves better, students can make informed decisions about when to speak up and stay quiet.
Hierarchical Relationship Among the Categories of Description
The sociocultural dimension of communication is influenced by various factors such as cultural and social norms, values, beliefs, and traditions. This dimension plays a crucial role in shaping the way people communicate with each other. Students understand, perceive the world, and act out in situations habitually from experience. Their beliefs are created to form their behaviors through interacting with social norms in some particular traditions in-class EFL context. Therefore, past experiences shape students’ understanding of the world and how they perceive new information in new contexts. The learning community plays a significant role in shaping overall experiences. Learning space impacts students’ ability to focus and process their materials cognitively, where they feel learning is their own decision. While interacting with others provides collaborative experiences to negotiate meaning. However, peers and instructors are not always valued for helping learning happen. Surroundings as community norms can impact students’ beliefs to be silent, which is a better choice in learning community of practice.
The affective dimension deals with emotions and feelings involved in communication. It is important to consider this dimension as it affects the quality of communication and the way others perceive it. Students highlight the significance of affection in their learning experience. Affection is an important part of social presence where students can feel close to each other in communication. Students’ silence is not only from themselves but also from others who perceive it positively or negatively.
The psycho-linguistic dimension concerns the cognitive and linguistic processes involved in communication. This dimension includes language proficiency, vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. It is important to have a good grasp of these aspects to communicate effectively. In the psycho-linguistic dimension, there is a logical relation between fear of language and communicated content. When individuals fear language, they may feel anxious or intimidated by certain words or phrases, which can affect their ability to comprehend and process the content being presented to them.
The interactive dimension concerns the relationship between the sender and the receiver. This dimension includes aspects such as feedback, nonverbal communication, and the context of the message. People’s sensory preferences dictate the interactive dimension they enjoy most. For example, those who prefer visual stimuli may gravitate toward interactive experiences that involve graphics or videos. In contrast, those who prefer auditory stimuli may enjoy interactive experiences that involve music or sound effects. Similarly, those who prefer tactile stimuli may enjoy interactive experiences that involve touch or haptic feedback. Ultimately, the interactive dimension people choose is often influenced by their sensory preferences and can greatly impact their overall experience.
The individual dimension is concerned with the unique characteristics of the sender and the receiver. This dimension includes aspects such as personality, attitudes, and beliefs. It is important to consider this dimension as it affects the way people communicate with each other and the way they interpret messages. For example, someone naturally outgoing and extroverted may excel in social situations. In contrast, more introverted people may prefer to spend time alone and focus on internal self-reflection. Figure 2 gives an overview of the findings.
The outcome space.
Social self refers to how students perceive themselves, others, and their social groups. Students’ beliefs, values, and traditions ingrained in their culture shape their societal perception and place. It is through these interactions that students’ social self is formed. The affective dimension and social self are closely intertwined as emotions significantly shape interactions with others. Moods and feelings can influence how students perceive themselves in social situations and behave toward others. The psycho-linguistic dimension plays a crucial role in forming one’s social self. Students’ language and communication skills greatly impact how they interact with others and perceive themselves in social situations. For instance, someone with strong linguistic abilities may feel more confident and better equipped to navigate complex social dynamics. On the other hand, individuals with weaker language skills may struggle to express themselves and feel excluded from certain social circles. Overall, the psycholinguistic dimension is integral to shaping our social selves. It is to confirm that students’ social selves involve sociocultural, affective, and psycholinguistic dimensions. Thus, silence plays certain functions to be understood fully in the learning context.
Students’ interactions with others, whether positive or negative, can greatly impact how they view themselves in the world. By engaging with others meaningfully, students can better understand their values, beliefs, and priorities and, ultimately, become more confident and self-assured. Students
Discussion
By exploring learners’ experiences, findings provide valuable insights that help better understand the phenomenon. Since only a limited number of studies use this phenomenography methodology, comparing findings with existing research can be difficult. This study shares some similarities with previous studies on students’ experience of silence. These similarities mainly stem from cultural, social, psychological, and linguistic dimensions, but they also reveal specific differences in terms of affective, interactive, and individual dimensions that support our argument.
This study shared similar themes with Maher (2021) in the psycho-linguistic dimensions, such as fear of language, poor pronunciation, lack of confidence, and worries. Fear of language and content in the psycho-linguistic dimension are crucial factors in understanding the impact of silence on individuals, as highlighted by Liu and Jackson (2008) and Nguyen (2020) in their studies. The category in the interactive dimension is consistent with Teng's (2009) idea that silence is not the absence of thought but rather the absence of talk. Additionally, the categories in the sociocultural dimension align with previous studies that have examined students’ cultural and background context, such as Bao’s (2014) research. Category 6: Mood, one of the effects of students’ silence, is similar to Bao’s (2014) study conducted in Australia.
Besides similarities, this study highlights important findings to contribute to the existing knowledge of literature. Affective, interactive, and individual dimensions should be considered to understand fully students’ silence. The findings show evidence to support argument that silence is not nothingness in learning, but it may be a tool of learning. Silence is meaningful with its functions in pedagogical implications. Category 10, sensory preference is considered a groundbreaking new finding in the context of phenomenographic study in Vietnamese EFL. Category 7, feelings of closeness in the affective dimension, is a new finding compared to others. This finding highlights the importance of emotion within students and the emotion of connecting with others to make learning progress happen effectively. Understanding and addressing the emotional needs of students can significantly enhance their overall learning experience. More importantly, students’ personality shows individual differences in learning. Those findings contribute to Bao (2023) that internal and external world can be quietly negotiated through mental process.
This study proves 11 hierarchically structured ways to organize students’ experiences, offering insight into how students may experience silence in the EFL classroom.
Conclusion
This study provides different ways Vietnamese undergraduates experience silence in a face-to-face EFL context. From 11 structured categories grouped into five different conceptions, silence is a considerable tool for learning in general and language learning in particular. Silence is not emptiness or nothingness. It has varied meanings from different dimensions, such as sociocultural, affective, psycho-linguistic, interactive, and individual dimensions. The findings contribute to the existing research on foreign language learning when silence has multifaceted conceptions. The findings are compelling on how EFL students are involved in language learning the whole human being, the human’s need for silence, and the potential benefits of silence in language acquisition.
This study suggests that silence can be a learning mode that promotes critical thinking and deeper understanding. It allows students to reflect on their thoughts and ideas while processing information at their own pace. It is important to note that silence should be one of many learning modes in the EFL context. By understanding students’ social self and self, instructors can help students develop skills that will serve them well academically and personally.
Implications
Silence can be a powerful tool for students looking to explore their social self from varied dimensions such as sociocultural, affective, and psycholinguistic dimensions. By refraining from speaking and observing the social dynamics around them, students can better understand their personalities and how they interact with others. In this way, silence can serve as a means of self-discovery and growth within social relationships. However, it is important to note that prolonged silence can also lead to feelings of isolation and disconnection, making it important to balance social engagement and personal reflection. It implies that educators in language teaching and learning fully understand students’ social self to perceive silence positively or negatively.
In a constantly moving and noisy world, embracing moments of silence can be a valuable way to prioritize students’ well-being. By being aware of students’ social self, educators can recognize how students’ identity and culture influence their learning styles. Understanding students’ self helps educators identify students’ strengths and weaknesses in language learning, allowing educators to tailor their approach accordingly. Internal and external silence can provide important opportunities for reflection and concentration, ultimately enhancing students’ ability to learn and communicate in English.
This study implies that learners use technology-based learning in their lives. Students may use online platforms to boost their doing, practice, and connect. In other words, students can be more interactive by working with peers online and accessing a wealth of resources in EFL learning. It is significant to consider the role of technology in the EFL context and how it may embody senses in learning compared to previous generations.
Limitations and Future Studies
Before concluding, it is necessary to acknowledge the limitations of this study. First, there were a limited number of participants in this study. They were recruited from a Vietnamese university with more female students, which may contribute to gender bias. However, 15 is a sufficient sample size for the phenomenographic research method (e.g., Forster, 2013). The future study will allow for a more extensive and diverse sample, which can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon. Future research could also consider including participants from different educational institutions to further enhance the generalizability of the findings.
Second, this study primarily relied on student interview data. However, the majority of high-quality phenomenographic research conducted in the prior literature was based solely on interview data (e.g., Khan et al., 2019). By incorporating additional data collection methods such as observation and diary entries, the future study aims to provide a more comprehensive understanding of students’ silence in universities across Vietnam. This multi-method approach will allow for a deeper exploration of the factors contributing to student silence and provide a more nuanced analysis of this phenomenon.
According to the phenomenographic research methodology, this study’s findings depend on the context of higher education in Vietnam. Kettunen and Tynjälä (2018) reported that the findings of qualitative studies are unique to their respective contexts; however, transferability to other contexts and groups is feasible. In addition, future research could investigate the applicability of these findings to other contexts and populations to understand the phenomenon better. However, the objective of phenomenography research is not to yield generalizable results; instead, it focuses on a specific phenomenon that requires in-depth investigation.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
