Teacher Education Students’ First-Time Experiences of Video-Recording Their Teaching and Analyzing it

Abstract

Video-supported reflection supports the professional development of student teachers and is a natural part of teacher education. The study aims to find out teacher education students’ opinions about recording their teaching and analyzing it, to describe the experiences of recording and analyzing the videos, and to systematize their main areas of learning and development. Based on this, future video-based analysis tasks in teacher training could be planned more effectively. One hundred thirty-six teacher education students carrying out their teaching practicum participated in the study. Data was collected via a questionnaire after the teaching practicum (practical teaching course). The answers to the open questions were analyzed using the qualitative content analysis method, and the results of the answers to the closed questions are described using frequency indicators. The results show that the teacher education students who participated in the study expressed neutral opinions and positive expectations, as well as hesitation, uncertainty, discomfort, and fear before the first-time recording of their lesson and its analysis. For most of the study participants, the experience of recording and analyzing their lesson and observing a fellow student’s lesson video was helpful and increased their self-confidence. The discussion highlights the possibilities of making the experience of video reflection more supportive and useful for teacher education students.

Introduction

The teaching profession requires continuous learning and the systematic development of professional skills. Ruijters and Simons (2020) have also stated, when describing learning professionals, that a professional is considered a person who is ready to view learning as a central part of his work, emphasizing that a professional must be able to learn from experience. In Estonia, which is the context of the current study, Teacher Professional Standards (Kutsestandard, 2020) also describe the teacher as a reflective practitioner. Therefore, reflection plays a vital role in every teacher’s professional development to be the best possible development partner for students and colleagues.

One way to support teachers and student teachers through reflection is to offer them various opportunities to reflect on their practice and that of others. According to several authors (e.g., Allas, 2020; Vermunt & Endedijk, 2011), reflecting on one’s teaching is essential for professional development. However, teachers’ acquisition of reflection skills requires practice for it to become natural to the teacher leading the learning process (e.g., Allas, 2020; M. G. Sherin & Han, 2004; Zhang et al., 2011). Hence, it is vital to support the development of reflection skills already in teacher training by offering students different ways to carry it out.

It is known from previous studies (e.g., Allas, 2020; Körkkö, 2021; Korthagen, 2014) that one way to support the professional development of teachers is to use videos. It has been found (e.g., Allas, 2020; Borko et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2011) that guided video analysis (video-supported reflection) supports both in-service and pre-service teachers’ professional development. At the same time, there is also evidence that recording one’s lesson and sharing the recording can be frightening, creating uncertainty and anxiety for in-service teachers (see e.g., Leijen et al., 2014; M. G. Sherin & Han, 2004; Zhang et al., 2011). However, less is known about how teacher education students, for whom the recording of lessons and their analysis is part of their teacher education program, experience video recording and learning through its analysis. Therefore, in the research that is the basis of this article, we focus on understanding students’ early experiences with reflection to find areas that might need further support in the teacher education context. The current study focuses precisely on this aspect by investigating teacher education students and their first-time experiences of recording their teaching practicum lessons. Two research questions were formulated: 1) What are teacher education students’ opinions about recording and analyzing their teaching prior to their recording experience?; and 2) What are the teacher education students’ experiences related to recording and analyzing their teaching for the first time, and what areas of learning and development are highlighted?

In the next section, we will provide an overview of the theoretical foundations and previous empirical findings on reflection in teaching and learning and using video as a reflection tool.

Literature Review

Using Video as a Reflection Tool

According to numerous previous studies (e.g., Allas, 2020; Korthagen, 2014; Körkkö, 2021; anonymized), reflection has been considered a crucial component in the professional development of teachers and student teachers. It has been found that through reflection, teachers can observe, evaluate, and conceptualize their experiences, which in turn help to increase their awareness of their feelings, beliefs, and assumptions, thereby creating an opportunity to develop new analytical perspectives (Kolb, 1984). Reflection also makes it possible to associate different types of knowledge with practical experiences, through which the teacher can develop an integrated knowledge structure, making knowledge more accessible in the future (Moon, 2004). The teacher’s competence can be increased through reflection (e.g., Allas et al., 2020), turning the situations underlying the reflection, including their classroom experiences, into meaningful and valuable learning experiences. Tripp and Rich (2012) have defined reflection in the context of teacher training as “a self-critical, investigative process wherein teachers consider the effect of their pedagogical decisions on their situated practice with the aim of improving those practices” (p. 678).

It is known from previous studies that the use of videos has effectively supported reflection (e.g., Allas, 2020; Corbin Frazier & Eick, 2015; Hollingsworth & Clarke, 2017; Koni & Lepp, 2021; Kori et al., 2014; Körkkö, 2021). In addition, the usefulness of video in reflection for teacher education students and teachers has been highlighted in various aspects. For example, it has been found that since videos allow to repeatedly return to activities while watching the video, it also helps to analyze the practice in detail and from different perspectives (Hollingsworth & Clarke, 2017; Körkkö, 2021; Marsh & Mitchell, 2014). At the same time, Zada and Villaverde (2021, p. 104) have said that video-recorded lessons provide a more reliable source for reflection than only the teacher’s memory because the video “presents the lesson as a fact, as it occurred.” Moreover, as pointed out by, for example, Clarke and Hollingsworth (2000) and Zhang et al. (2011), watching a video-recorded lesson helps one to notice nuances in one’s teaching, which one does not remember when thinking back to the teaching situation. According to Roth (2007, as cited in Marsh & Mitchell, 2014), the ability to look back on your teaching and reflect on what you have experienced can be valuable as, over time, the emotional connection that the teacher experienced during or immediately after the lesson has decreased.

In addition, when using lesson videos to support student teachers’ learning, it has been highlighted that video recordings allow student teachers to watch and analyze their activities without a colleague or supervisor being present and giving feedback (Brouwer, 2011). Watching allows the teacher to practice noticing what is happening in the classroom (Zada & Villaverde, 2021) and gain the confidence to share before receiving feedback from the external provider. At the same time, Marsh and Mitchell (2014) have also found that video is an effective means of didactic demonstration, as it allows real-life examples (real people in real situations) to illustrate complex situations in the classroom, which would be more unclear to convey in words. Video as a source of reflection thus contributes to teacher education students (and in-service teachers) developing an evidence-based understanding of their teaching and themselves as teachers (Rich & Hannafin, 2009). In other words, as Hollingsworth and Clarke (2017, p. 458) have pointed out, video can be considered a suitable tool for stimulating teachers’ self-reflection, and classroom practice recordings “can provide unique, rich and powerful opportunities for teacher learning and teacher professional growth.”

At the same time, for the teacher education students who participated in Koni and Lepp’s (2021) study, for example, watching their lesson videos and reflecting on what they saw helped them get to know themselves as a teacher and enabled them to analyze their body language and speech in class, whereas less was noticed regarding the pupils. Likewise, in previous studies (e.g., Calandra et al., 2008; Leijen et al., 2014; M. G. Sherin & Han, 2004; M. Sherin & Van Es, 2009), it has been found that the analysis of videos is often initially focused on the (student) teachers’ actions. However, with repeated analysis of videos and skilled guidance, and as the reflection experience grows, it is possible to notice better and analyze pupils’ actions (Allas et al., 2020; Leijen et al., 2014). Hopkins (2001, as cited in Marsh & Mitchell, 2014, p. 410) describes this as a “trajectory of reflective learning”—the movement of focus from the teacher to the pupil. In addition to the above, Leijen et al. (2014) have found that the learner’s previous teaching experience affects how the video-based (guided) reflection is experienced. For example, students without previous teaching experience experienced difficulties with the guided reflection process, and it was difficult for them to point out the benefits of this procedure. On the other hand, the more experienced teacher education students felt more confident in the process and saw a more significant benefit.

Previous studies where videos were used have shown that reflection is more effective when reflected in interaction with colleagues (e.g., Allas, 2020; Allas et al., 2020), as it formulates one’s thought process and gains new perspectives from peers. Thus, video-based reflection has also been valued in collaboration between teachers and learning from each other (e.g., Gaudin & Chaliès, 2015; Preston & Younie, 2016). Hollingsworth and Clarke (2017, p. 458) say that the use of video helps to make visible the practices previously unnoticed by teachers, and the joint analysis of videos support the development of new concepts describing teaching practice among teachers (or “new vocabulary,” as the authors call it). For example, Preston and Younie (2016) have also found that, in addition to the fact that through video-supported reflection teachers’ teaching skills improved and their self-confidence as teachers increased, they also started discussing teaching with their colleagues at school more than before. The same has been indicated by Davies et al. (2017), according to whom video-based reflection increases teachers’ self-confidence when talking about their teaching with colleagues.

The previously described studies highlight the usefulness of video-supported reflection for the professional development of both teacher education students and in-service teachers. At the same time, there are indications that recording their lessons and showing their lesson videos to others is uncomfortable for both teacher education students and in-service teachers. Technical issues that have negatively affected the experience have also been described, as well as ethical dilemmas related to video recording and analysis. For example, anonymized found in a study of already working student teachers that they had several hesitations regarding recording and analyzing their lessons. These were related to seeing themselves on video, hearing their voice and being concerned about their general self-expression. In addition, thinking about the lesson recording made them concerned about where the lesson would go as planned. Similarly, the students who participated in the study by Leijen et al. (2014, p. 318) mentioned that “the thought of filming and viewing a video of oneself was rather frightening” and described the first experience of recording their study as “very odd” because watching oneself on video in the role of a teacher was a new experience. Moreover, the teachers who participated in the studies by M. G. Sherin and Han (2004) and Zhang et al. (2011) expressed uncertainty and anxiety about being videotaped. In the study by Zhang et al. (2011), participants faced technical challenges related to video recording, including video recording skills.

Zada and Villaverde (2021) have also highlighted ethical issues regarding the privacy of people being video recorded, saying that both students and teachers have a right to privacy and that recording a lesson can violate this. There are also studies where participants have refused video recording and analysis. For example, Grossman et al. (2001) have described how a plan to analyze each other’s lesson videos in a video club with teachers at one school failed because the teachers refused to participate. The authors believed that the reason was that professional development focusing on videos reveals more easily actual teaching practices, and the individual classroom is still a so-called well-protected world, where allowing additional pairs of eyes (also via video) requires greater trust and respect from the teacher. Furthermore, in the M. G. Sherin and Han (2004) study, some teachers gave up the possibility of recording their teaching and analyzing it with their colleagues because they were “self-conscious about being videotaped” (p. 166). Borko et al. (2008) also claim that sharing classroom videos is likely to be more intimidating to teachers than, for example, sharing written materials. For teachers to be willing to do this, according to Borko et al. (2008), they need to feel safe and supported throughout the process. In addition, teachers should believe that showing these videos will provide learning opportunities for themselves and their colleagues.

Thus, previous research indicates that skillfully directed and conducted video-supported reflection guides teacher education students and in-service teachers’ professional development (e.g., Allas, 2020; Borko et al., 2008; Leijen et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2011). At the same time, relatively little research has been conducted focusing on what teacher education students, whose lessons are recorded as part of their teacher education, experience themselves with regards to the recording and lesson analysis (e.g., Koni & Lepp, 2021). Since “attitudes and beliefs are important concepts in understanding teachers’ thought processes, classroom practices, change, and learning to teach” (Richardson, 1996, p. 102), it is necessary to open this perspective further. Consequently, the study aimed to find out teacher education students’ opinions about recording their teaching and analyzing it prior to their recording experience, to describe the experiences of recording and analyzing the videos, and to systematize their main areas of learning and development.

Context of the Study

In Estonia, where the study was conducted, the teacher qualification requirements for preschool kindergarten teachers and vocational teachers are a bachelor’s degree and a teaching profession (three years of studies). For primary school and high school subject teachers, class teachers (grades 1–6) and special pedagogues, a master’s degree and a teaching profession/special pedagogue’s profession (3 + 2 years of studies) are required. There are two major teacher training universities in Estonia, with approximately 700 specialists in the field of education graduating annually. About 400 graduates from the University of Tartu, among who this study was conducted.

A natural part of teacher training is various practical training courses and teaching practices, which aim to shape and ensure the competencies necessary for teaching and to create opportunities to connect the theoretical knowledge necessary for a teacher with practical teaching. At the University of Tartu, classroom practice is a mandatory part of all teacher training curriculums, and the volume is a total of 24 ECTS (1 ECTS = 26 hours of student work). At the beginning of the studies, the student participates in observation practice. During the continuous pedagogical practice during the studies, the student carries out smaller teaching tasks and analyzes them as part of the pedagogical practice held at the university. The 11 ECTS (out of 24) primary practice (field-based supervised teaching practicum) is at the end of the studies. In different teacher training curricula with slightly different emphases, the set learning outcome is that students who have completed this practicum can, among other things, understand themselves as teachers and their activities in an educational organization and, based on this, analyze their knowledge, skills, and attitudes and plan self-development. Therefore, an essential component of the teaching practicum within the teachers’ professional studies is the analysis and reflection on activities.

During the school/kindergarten teaching practicum, students have an on-site teacher who supervises the practice at the school/kindergarten, whose task is, among other things, to observe and provide feedback on the teaching carried out. In addition, it has been customary at the university, at least once during the classroom practice period, for the university lecturer (practice supervisor) to visit the lesson/activity conducted by the student and give feedback. However, on-site observations are time-consuming, mainly due to the long distances to and from the practice institution, but also expensive in terms of travel costs. Therefore, it was decided to adopt the IRIS Connect video platform for recording and analyzing lessons/activities in teacher education practice courses and teaching practicums.

In the opening seminars of the practice courses, the technical possibilities of using IRIS Connect were introduced, and the process of asking for parents’ written informed consent before recording was discussed. In addition, a video guide about the possibilities of the environment was shared with the students. In the opening seminars, students were also informed that they would be asked to participate in a user experience study at the end of the practice course.

Using the IRIS Connect Environment in Teacher Training Practice

IRIS Connect (www.irisconnect.com) is an online environment designed to support the professional development of teachers and student teachers through video-supported reflection and collaboration. It is a video technology provider whose system allows teachers to record lesson videos safely, review, edit, and share their video material, and to give and receive feedback on teaching and learning. IRIS Connect enables learning activities, either in the classroom or online, to be automatically recorded on a personal web-based platform protected by a username and a password. The IRIS Connect platform complies with the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation. The video owner decides which lesson recording to share with other users. This online platform enables users to add time-stamped comments to specific moments in the lesson video and to develop an exchange of ideas. Additional materials (e.g., lesson plans, worksheets, context descriptions) can be uploaded to the environment to complement the lesson recording.

All teacher education students who participated in the study as part of the practice course had a common task to video record their teaching activity (at least one lesson/activity) using the IRIS Connect environment. Their next assignment was to review their lesson, analyze it according to the guidelines outlined in the practice manual, and provide a written self-reflection. After that, they had to share at least one lesson with a group of students from the same course and watch and give feedback on at least one video recording of their fellow students. They were encouraged to discuss the lesson video in the comments section on the online video platform. The task was also to share their lesson recording with their teacher educator (lecturer), who gave them feedback. Students could decide which lesson/activity recording they shared with fellow students and the lecturer. Students could repeatedly record without limit.

Methods

Participants

In the spring semester of the 2020/2021 academic year and the autumn and spring semesters of the 2021/2022 academic year at the University of Tartu, teacher training lecturers conducting the practice courses were able to use the IRIS Connect video environment in their practice courses. Twenty lecturers responsible for practice courses in four curricula (eight practice courses in total) used this opportunity. In addition, they consented to conduct a study among the students participating in the practice course supervised by them.

The study included students from four teacher education curricula—preschool teacher, special pedagogy, class teacher, and various subject teacher—who participated in the practice courses. Altogether 179 students agreed to participate in the study. Since this article focuses on the first-time experience of lesson recording and analysis, 136 students who, according to themselves, had no prior experience with recording and analyzing their lessons were included in the study on which this article is based.

Out of 136 participants, 15 (11%) of the participants studied in the preschool teacher curriculum, 15 (11%) in the class teacher curriculum, 47 (35%) students were in the special educators’ curriculum, and 59 (43%) in subject teacher curricula.

Of the participants, 127 were women and nine were men. Thirty-four were undergraduate students, 102 were master students, and 40 (29.4%) had never worked as teachers or special educators. The work experience of participants varied from up to a year (26 students, 19.1%) to more than 21 years (nine students, 6.6%). Most of the respondents, 41 (30.1%) students, had 2 to 5 years of work experience.

Data Collection

Data was collected from students with a feedback questionnaire at the end of the practice course. This procedure allowed us to collect anonymous data from student teachers, and we did not have to create an additional task for the students. Thus, we were guided by the principle that when collecting data “the researcher inconveniences the subjects and groups involved in research as little as possible” (Estonian Code of Conduct for Research Integrity , 2017, p. 15).

The questionnaire contained both open and closed questions. In the case of closed questions, respondents had the opportunity to justify their answers and give examples.

The first part of the questionnaire focused on student teachers’ opinions about recording their teaching and its analysis prior to their recording experience. The participants were asked to recall the situation before recording the lesson video and to answer the open question: What was your previous opinions about filming your teaching and analyzing the recording before using IRIS Connect? Please justify your answer.

The purpose of the following questions was to find out student teachers’ experiences of their first lesson recording during classroom practice and its analysis. The participants were asked to answer one open-ended question: How did the experience gained in video recording and analysis (using IRIS Connect) affect your opinions about filming yourself for learning purposes? Please specify and give examples.

Students were also asked to answer four questions, where they chose between the answer options No/Rather no/Rather yes/Yes. The students had the opportunity to justify their answers and give examples if they wished. The questions were as follows: Do you feel that you behaved differently in the recorded lessons?; Was the feedback your fellow students gave on your video encouraging/helpful for you?; Was the feedback given by the lecturer on your video encouraging/helpful for you?; Was watching a video of your fellow students’ lesson or activity encouraging/helpful for you?

Besides the previous questions, students were asked to give a summary assessment of the statement “Recording and analyzing my lesson in the video-supported environment IRIS Connect supported my professional development” on a 7-point scale (1 = I do not agree at all, 7 = I agree entirely) and to answer the question: How did the experience of using IRIS Connect affect your self-confidence? (the answer options were: my self-confidence increased significantly, somewhat increased, somewhat decreased, decreased). At the end of the questionnaire, students had the opportunity to answer an open question: What else would you like to add regarding using IRIS Connect in teacher training (suggestions, recommendations)?

In addition, the questions about background data were used to describe the background of the participants (e.g., curriculum, practice course, work experience, age). We also piloted the questionnaire among 18 students, whose feedback indicated no need to introduce changes in the questionnaire.

Google Forms was used for the data collection. The questionnaire link was emailed to all first-time users of the IRIS Connect environment at the end of their practice course. Answering the questionnaire was voluntary and anonymous and did not affect the course’s successful completion.

Data Analysis

The answers to the questionnaire’s open questions were analyzed using qualitative inductive content analysis (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). The first author first analyzed the data related to each of the research questions in the QCAMap program (www.qcamap.org). For both research questions, the co-coder (author three of the article) performed partial co-coding on the responses to the questionnaire’s open-ended questions. The co-coder had the opportunity to use the existing codebook (prepared by the first coder), but she also had the opportunity to add her codes. After co-coding, the coders discussed the differences between the two codings by comparing codes and meaningful units. In most cases, the differences were in the lengths of the meaning units; the wording of individual codes also differed, and the co-coder added unique new codes. Finally, coders discussed coding decisions, as suggested by Graneheim and Lundman (2004), until a consensus was reached.

When categorizing, codes similar in content were grouped into categories. The grouping of codes into categories was discussed by both coders during the process. If necessary, the researchers discussed the memos made during the data analysis in the researcher’s diary and the meaning units marked in the dataset. Regarding the students’ opinions prior to recording their lesson (RQ1), the open responses were grouped into three categories: positive (e.g., the expectation of feedback, the expectation of learning from self-analysis), neutral (e.g., open attitude, no fears); and negative—expressing uncertainty/concern (e.g., feeling uncomfortable, fear of seeing and hearing oneself, fearing the feedback from others). The results also include the number of respondents. According to Sandelowski (2001, p. 233), presenting the results of a qualitative study in a numerical form provides an opportunity to “make patterns emerge more clearly or generate new questions or new lines of analysis; it can also clarify meaning.”

Answers to the closed questions of the questionnaire were re-coded. In the case of questions where the answer options were “Yes,”“Rather yes,”“Rather no,” and “No” on a 4-point scale, they were grouped into positive (“Yes” and “Rather yes” were compiled) and negative (“No” and “Rather no” were compiled). On a 7-point scale, “I do not agree at all” to “I completely agree,” 5 to 7 were compiled as positive. The results of the responses to closed questions are described using frequency indicators, presenting the number of respondents and relative frequency in percentages.

In the following section, the study results are presented based on the two research questions. To confirm and illustrate the results, examples of the answers are presented as quotes.

Results

Teacher Education Students’ Opinions About Recording and Analyzing Their Teaching Prior to Their Recording Experience

Out of a survey sample of 136 students, 15 students (11.0%) stated that they had a positive opinion about the upcoming recording of their teaching and the lesson video analysis. The expectation of self-analysis and learning through it, which the video enables, was mentioned, as was the expectation of feedforward (constructive feedback) from the lecturer and peers. Thirty-five students (25.7%) described their opinion as neutral, while 84 students (61.7%) expressed a negative opinion—hesitation, uncertainty, discomfort, and fear of the upcoming recording and analysis. In this latter case, self-related aspects (general unwillingness to be filmed, general feeling of discomfort, listening to and watching oneself, being unnatural on the video, seeing one’s mistakes) were distinguished in the descriptions of 62 students. In addition, aspects related to others were mentioned as unpleasant in nine cases (others watching and giving feedback causes anxiety). Thirteen students mentioned factors related to technical uncertainties and the lack of students’ digital skills. According to two students (1.5%), the recording and analysis task was unnecessary. Below, more detailed results are presented with the proportions of responses and quotes from respondents.

When describing their opinions about recording and analysis, students (N = 15) stated that their opinion is positive because they understand the need to analyze their teaching to develop as a teacher. In addition, teacher education students said that the immediate video allows better self-analysis as a teacher and probably helps student teachers to see what they usually do not see while conducting a lesson. Participants also mentioned that video makes it possible to get feedback from peers and lecturers and develop oneself through it.

I understood the need from the aspect of self-development. It reveals parasitic words, logical errors, etc. (V80)

Some of the student teachers found that recording their lesson video, analyzing it, and sharing it with their course mates caused uncertainty and anxiety. For example, teacher education students mentioned a reluctance to be video recorded, but they explained that the thought of being in front of the camera causes general discomfort, and the unwillingness to be video recorded is simply inherent, and the discomfort associated with any filming is not even specific to a classroom recording.

Felt very unpleasant, and general discomfort. (V100)

Discomfort was also described concerning the thought of watching and hearing oneself on video. Whether one looks good enough on video was brought up, but concerns were also expressed about possibly doing something that one would like not to be recorded on video. Examples of (strange) body language and wrong word usage, appearing incompetent in the subject knowledge, and general behavior in the classroom (different from usual and from expectations) were given.

Had a fear of looking stupid and ugly. (V137)

Fear of making mistakes and being unnatural in the recording, unclear sentences/wrong word usage. (V129)

It was described how, due to the recording, the unwanted behavior is saved and can be viewed again, and due to the analysis, the possible discomfort must be experienced again during the analysis.

I was afraid that it would be weird to watch, it would look silly, and all the mistakes would remain on the video. (V111)

I didn’t find it very pleasant because I was afraid to see many mistakes in my actions. (V48)

In addition to the discomfort of seeing oneself in the recording, some study participants also found it unpleasant to listen to their recorded voice.

I don’t like listening to my own voice. (V44)

According to the participating teacher education students, the reluctance to record the lesson and the negative emotions related to the analysis of the video were also increased by the thought that during the recording, one cannot behave naturally while teaching due to the feeling of discomfort, and therefore the recorded material will not be truthful (their normal behavior in the classroom will not be captured).

I don’t like filming myself. I immediately start freaking out and acting unnaturally. (V84)

The student teachers also expressed the fear that not only they but also the pupils also do not behave normally in the class when being video-recorded and that filming diverts the attention of both the pupils and the teacher away from teaching and the usual course of the lesson.

I was afraid that I would get very tense and would focus too much on the filming. (V6)

I don’t particularly like it because it distracts attention. (V138)

Concern was expressed (N = 9) about fellow students and lecturers seeing the lesson recordings and giving feedback. The knowledge and fear that the feedback would be negative and critical caused additional tension and uncertainty in some participants before recording their lessons.

Filming creates extra tension, especially if you know that someone else watches and evaluates it. (V102)

Didn’t like the idea of others seeing the recordings. (V155)

I’m afraid I’ll get negative feedback. (V9)

The student teachers who participated in the study also expressed uncertainty about the adequacy of their digital competencies and the suitability of the used recording technology (N = 13) before their first lesson recording. It was explained that due to the lack of experience, they are not sure they will be able to ensure good quality videos that can be later analyzed. In addition, uncertainty was expressed about finding a suitable recording location in the classroom and the sound quality of the recorded material. Since the students were using (for them) a new video recording and sharing environment (IRIS Connect), the participants also expressed uncertainty regarding the technical aspects.

It’s hard to film because I don’t know how. (V130)

My biggest fears were filming specifically and further operations. Is everything on video? How is the filming going? How to operate in this environment? (V107)

Two participating students stated that recording the lesson and its analysis is unnecessary overall, as shown in the following quote: “I didn’t think it was necessary because it would disrupt the lesson more than it would help me” (V51).

A few of the study participants also pointed out that before recording their lesson, they considered this and the related tasks as an additional duty to their usual activities. Separately, the requirement to ask for parents’ and pupils’ written informed consent to record the lesson was mentioned as an additional obligation. It was also expressed that since the teacher’s activities in the classroom are recorded, the lesson needs to be prepared in more detail than usual for filming, which is additional work.

In summary, it can be stated that the teacher education students who participated in the study expressed neutral opinions and positive expectations, as well as hesitation, uncertainty, discomfort, and fear before the first-time recording of their lesson and its analysis. Some of the participants looked forward to the opportunity for self-analysis and peer feedback based on the lesson video, but the general reluctance to be on video was also mentioned. The discomfort associated with hearing and watching oneself was also described. It was mentioned that during video recording, unnatural behavior might occur due to discomfort, and the filming activity may distract the pupils and the teacher from the usual activity. The fact that fellow students and lecturers will see the lesson video and (possibly) give critical feedback on what they see also caused concern in the student teachers. Some of the participants were concerned about their digital competencies. Video-recording one’s teaching and related tasks were also considered an additional and unnecessary duty.

Teacher Education Students’ Experiences of Video-Recording and Analyzing Their Teaching for the First Time, and Areas of Learning and Development

After recording and analyzing the lesson videos, we asked the students who participated in the study (N = 136) to evaluate the usefulness of the activities (analysis of the video recordings). According to 115 respondents (84.6%), recording and analyzing their teaching supported their professional development. In addition, 124 of the respondents (91%) found that the experience with video recording and analysis increased or somewhat increased their professional self-confidence. In comparison, 12 students (9%) found that the experience with video recording and analysis decreased their self-confidence.

One hundred thirty-two students (97.2%) rated the observation of fellow students’ lessons as useful or rather useful, whereas four respondents (2.8%) found that observation of fellow students’ lessons was not useful. The feedback from the lecturer and fellow students on the video-recorded lessons was rated as supportive. One hundred and thirty students (95.6%) considered the lecturer’s feedback on the lesson video to be useful or quite useful, and six students (4.4%) found the feedback not useful. One hundred twenty-four students (91%) considered feedback from fellow students to be useful or quite useful. Nine percent did not find it useful.

In the answers to the questionnaire, after the experience of video-recording their teaching for the first time and analyzing it, 101 student teachers (74.3%) expressed positive opinions and descriptions of positive experiences. Becoming more self-aware and specific learning points for future teaching were highlighted as areas of learning and development. However, 16 students (11.8%) described the experience as negative, and 19 (13.9%) as neutral. But first, we will discuss the positive in more detail.

As a positive experience (N = 101), it was generally stated that the value of video-recording one’s lesson and its analysis was due to the possibility of repeatedly reviewing the video. The students also mentioned that the experience of lesson recording and analysis increased the courage to analyze their lessons. They explained that the possibility of repeated viewing helped them to notice nuances not observed when teaching during the lesson. It was also stated that the video allowed analysis from different perspectives, giving more opportunities to improve one’s teaching and self-development.

It had a positive effect. I’m always visible in front of pupils and colleagues. It’s stupid not to know what I look like from the side. (V122)

Predominantly, the learning points resulting from analyzing the teachers’ activities were described, which rewatching and analyzing the video helped to highlight. However, the answers also mentioned the possibility of analyzing the pupils’ activities, including the fact that pupils’ activities were noticed when analyzing the video, which they did not see when conducting the lesson in the classroom.

I could repeat this because it is an excellent way to monitor myself and the class. To see more clearly what went well, what could have been better, etc. I could also see how pupils reacted to specific instructions. (V 166)

In addition to the general opportunity to analyze one’s activities by watching the lesson video, the possibility of getting used to one’s voice and watching oneself and, more specifically, analyzing one’s speech and body language was also stated. The study participants explained that watching the videos allowed them to get used to seeing themselves and get used to their own recorded voices. They mentioned that the more they watched their lesson recordings, the less uncomfortable it was to watch themselves on the screen and the less their voice disturbed them.

The more you watch, the less your voice bothers you. (V45)

Very positive experience. Firstly, it wasn’t that bad at all, and secondly, I also realized that I needed it for learning, not for “looking good.” I got my courage and attitude in place. (V159)

The teacher education students explained that watching the video helped them notice parasitic words and the complexity of sentence structures they used during the lesson. They also mentioned that watching the video allowed them to monitor the speed of speech. Some respondents pointed out the fast pace of their speech—something they had not noticed before and no one else had mentioned. They also took notice of the ratio of pupils talking versus the teacher and the possibility of analyzing the clarity of work commands.

My task instructions tended to have a reverse structure sometimes. I realized that I need to think better about the tasks I give my students. (S25)

I saw that I talked too much. I should let my pupils speak more. (V50)

The study participants also said that watching the video recordings allowed them to track their body language and gestures in order to be more aware of avoiding unwanted behavior in the future.

I saw how others perceived me, what the tempo of the speech should be, how often I looked at the listener, and so on. And in the meantime, it’s worth smiling to keep in contact. (S76)

Some teacher education students explained that they took the noticed development areas into account in the following lessons and improved themselves by paying more attention to their speech and slowing down the pace of their talking.

For example, I noticed that I speak too fast and use parasitic words. In the following lessons, I took these aspects into account and improved myself. (V22)

In addition to becoming more aware of themselves and identifying learning opportunities by watching their lesson videos, the teacher education students also highlighted the possibility of seeing new teaching methods when watching the lesson videos of fellow students.

The students pointed out that they learned methodological techniques from others during this experience. On the one hand, the students mentioned that they got useful teaching ideas, and they valued that they could compare their teaching to fellow learners. In addition to adopting and adapting good techniques and practices, peer lesson observations allowed the participants to learn from difficult situations and failures that occurred in fellow students’ lessons. It was explained that all this would, in the future, help their lessons to be more beneficial for the learner and better as a whole.

I saw great and useful teaching methods and tricks. I also understood by watching the videos of fellow students what to avoid when giving my lessons (e.g., task instructions should be very clear). (S25)

For some of the participants, the experience of video-recording a lesson and analyzing the lesson video gave them an idea as well as greater courage to create their own pre-recorded videos in their further teaching, both for feedback on assignments and for explaining a new teaching topic.

In the future, I will use recorded videos more in distance learning—when explaining task instructions, etc. It has a better effect on the student if the teacher talks to them rather than reading from a paper. Even for more significant assignments, it is better to give verbal feedback with your face and voice—it seems more personal and warmer. (V70)

According to the participants, the overall positive experience was supported by the fact that they were able to decide and control themselves what kind of video recording they used, in what capacity and who they shared it with.

This experience was made as comfortable as possible. For example, I have control over who sees it and to what extent. (V118)

According to the respondents, 32 student teachers (24%) behaved differently or somewhat differently than usual during the recorded lesson. One hundred four (76%) respondents stated that they did not behave differently. They pointed out that the screen went black during the recording (one feature of IRIS Connect) and that not having to see oneself on the screen helped to reduce anxiety. They also mentioned that there was so much activity in the lesson that there was no time to think about recording.

During filming, the screen turned black, and I could not see that it was filming. (V61)

After pressing the start button, I forgot that I was being filmed. I focused on the lesson. (V172)

The positive experiences can be summed up by a quote from one participating student (V47), who said: “I got the experience that it makes sense to do it constantly.”

In addition to the several previously described positive experiences and learning points that the student teachers brought up regarding the recording of their teaching and the analysis of the lesson videos for the first time, there were also students who, in their opinion, had a rather negative experience and would try to avoid it in the future if possible.

The participants who described the experience as negative or somewhat negative (N = 16) said that looking at themselves on video was uncomfortable for them, and the feeling of discomfort did not decrease during the process. All these students who described the experience negatively were also anxious and uncertain when describing their feelings before filming. They explained that even if they essentially understood that lesson recordings are informative and offer a learning and development opportunity, making video recordings and watching themselves on video was still unpleasant, and they would not do it voluntarily in the future.

As a preference, on-site observation in contact learning by a supervisor or a colleague was mentioned.

I must admit that filming my lesson was very informative, although in the future I will not do it voluntarily. (V90)

I’d prefer a colleague/supervisor observing, but not filming. (V129)

However, in some cases it was mentioned that further practice by repeatedly watching and analyzing one’s lessons could help to reduce the feeling of unpleasantness.

Filming wasn’t terrible, but watching your own lesson is still unfamiliar and unpleasant. Need to practice more! (V91)

Another aspect mentioned as negative was the time spent on the whole process, especially the extra effort of getting permission from parents so that children in the classroom could be video-recorded for educational purposes.

I could see it being useful, but getting permission from everyone involved to film is quite a time-consuming undertaking. (V50)

In addition, one student in the study said that the feedback from a fellow student on the lesson observation was not adequate and this reduced the confidence in recording and sharing lesson videos.

Feedback from a fellow student was not adequate. (V137)

The students who said that the experience of recording and analyzing their video was rather neutral (N = 19) stated that filming, watching, and analyzing themselves did not affect them in any way. The process was part of normal learning for them—it did not evoke any positive or negative emotions.

It did not affect me in any way. (V147)

To summarize the above, for most of the study participants the experience of recording and analyzing their lesson and observing a fellow student’s lesson recording was useful and positive and increased their self-confidence. The growth of courage to analyze one’s actions based on the video was said to be instructive. The opportunity to watch the video repeatedly for learning purposes and to analyze it from different perspectives (including the pupils’ actions) was also valued. Watching a lesson video helped the teacher education students to get used to their recorded voice and image. The videos made students aware of their body language and speech in class. From observing fellow students’ lessons, new methodologies and techniques were valued, which can be adopted into one’s practice. At the same time, activities to avoid in their teaching practice were also considered instructive from the video recordings of fellow students’ lessons. The students’ freedom to decide what kind of video recordings to share and with whom was mentioned as supporting a positive experience. However, for some students watching themselves on the screen was an unpleasant experience. In addition, excessive time spent on additional activities before recording and inadequate feedback from a fellow course member was highlighted as negative points of video-recorded lessons. Table 1 summarizes the quantitative distribution of the results of both research questions, based on the qualitative analysis as a differentiated distribution of positive, neutral, and negative opinions.

Table 1.

Teacher Education Students’ Opinions About Recording and Analyzing Their Teaching Before Recording for the First Time and After the Experience of Video-Recording Their Teaching and Analyzing It.

	Opinions about recording and analyzing their teaching prior to recording		Opinions after the experience of video-recording their teaching for the first time and analyzing it
Expressed opinion	Number of students (out of 134 a )	% of students	Number of students (out of 136)	% of students
Positive	15	11.0	101	74.3
Neutral	35	25.7	19	13.9
Negative	84	61.7	16	11.8

a

In order to summarize the change in the opinions of the participants before and after the video recording and analysis—divided into positive, neutral, and negative—the opinions of two participants (1.6% of students) about video recording and analysis as an unnecessary task (prior to recording) have been excluded from Table 1. After the recording and analysis experience, these participants considered the experience to be positive.

The results clearly show that although prior to filming many participants had negative opinions about recording and analyzing the video, the actual experience of video-recording their teaching and analyzing it was perceived as positive by the majority of the participants. At the same time, the table also shows that for almost a quarter, the experience was neutral or negative, which calls for further attention as will be discussed in the next section.

Discussion

The study aimed to find out teacher education students’ opinions about recording their teaching and analyzing it, to describe the actual experiences of recording and analyzing the videos, and to systematize their main areas of learning and development. The study’s results revealed that most of the teacher education students who participated expressed hesitation, uncertainty, discomfort, and fear before the first-time recording of their lesson and its analysis. Previous studies (e.g., Leijen et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2011) have also found that teachers and teacher training students experience uncertainty and anxiety about being video-recorded. The results lead to the following questions: to what extent can this be taken as a so-called acceptance of the situation by the teaching staff in teacher education?; and to what extent should alternatives be offered so that the teacher training students do not have to experience (excessive) tension due to video-recording? However, research (e.g., Leijen et al., 2014) shows, and the results of the present study confirm, that practicing alleviates the fear of recording one’s lessons and reduces anxiety. Therefore, the authors recommend that students (from elementary school to university) should be offered more opportunities to record and analyze their school assignments. In this way, the use of video for self-analysis becomes a regular (a habitual) part of learning and self-development at an early age (see, e.g., Andiappan et al., 2022). At the same time, as a general approach, the step-by-step approach can also be used to reduce tensions. As Adu-Yeboah and Kwaah (2018) have also highlighted in their study, the student teachers’ self-confidence can be increased in real-life learning by watching and analyzing each other’s teaching. Then, once some confidence is gained, a video recording and analysis component can be added.

The research revealed that before recording the videos, the students were worried that their unwanted behavior would be recorded on the video. This refers to the understanding that performance must already be perfect during the learning process, which might shed light on implicitly held professional role expectations that need to be reflected upon and discussed with pre-service teachers. This is especially so because contemporary views on the teaching profession (see Ruijters & Simons, 2020) point out that the teaching profession requires continuous learning and ongoing development of professional competencies. In other words, learning is a characteristic of being a professional teacher. Therefore, supporting teachers to become professional learners in teacher education is essential. This also involves normalizing mistakes in learning. It will help student teachers to become better teachers, and it is also important that they bring this attitude to their pupils to support their learning, as highlighted by Brodie (2014) and Seifried and Wuttke (2010).

The student teachers’ responses revealed that before recording their lesson, they expressed uncertainty because their peers and lecturers also see the video and could give critical feedback on the recorded lesson. The above confirms that contextual and cultural factors influence the decisions and behaviors underlying teachers’ actions (Leijen et al., 2020; Leijen et al., 2021). Therefore, to reduce the tension and discomfort described by the students, it is necessary to proactively and even more than before, as the results of this study show, to support the creation of a supportive learning community, of which the lecturer would be a member. It is also important, as Hunt and Karm (2022) also suggest, to talk more clearly with the students about the basic principles of providing and practicing giving feedback, as well as to discuss how to deal with criticism as a student and how to support yourself and your peers (see Carless & Boud, 2018, for further information). It is important to do conscious, purposeful work on behalf of a supportive learning community in teacher training so that every student understands and feels that the learning community (e.g., in the practice course, teaching practicum) supports their professional development in the best way. This community can offer support during studies and create an anxiety-free atmosphere for studying, and it can continue to offer support after the completion of teacher training. In addition, the positive experience of being in a supportive learning community encourages further participation in the work of learning communities and their creation in the future workplace (see e.g., Jimenez-Silva & Olson, 2012).

The results show that when watching their teaching in the video, teacher education students primarily reflected on superficial features of classroom practice (e.g., speech, body language, gestures), although the descriptions also contained an analysis of the pupils’ activities. Previous studies have also shown that video analysis allows one to notice nuances in teaching that cannot be observed when teaching (e.g., Hollingsworth & Clarke, 2017; Körkkö, 2021; Marsh & Mitchell, 2014). In the research of Allas et al. (2020) and Leijen et al. (2014), it was found that when analyzing the videos, the students first focused on their own activities in the classroom and then, when the experience increased, on the learners. Also, in this study, the descriptions contained several aspects related to the teacher education student (e.g., body language, etc.). One way of proceeding is to direct teacher education students to pay primary attention to the pupils’ activities while analyzing the first video recordings. At the same time, if topics related to the teachers themselves (e.g., the already mentioned speech, body language, as well as getting used to seeing and hearing themselves) are important for the teacher education student to gain confidence, then, according to the authors, practice can still be started with reflection based on the students’ observations, wishes, and needs. Then, if students are confident about seeing and hearing themselves, they can begin to consciously focus on the analysis of different aspects of their teaching. In any case, it is essential to model the analysis of videos (the discourse of discussing video cases) and include training sessions in the learning process to remove (or reduce) any fears that may affect the teaching practice in the classroom.

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Studies

As a limitation of the study, we point out that the survey was conducted retrospectively. The students who participated in the study were asked to recall their opinions about recording and analyzing their teaching prior to recording experience. It is possible that the recording experience influenced the recollection of their initial opinions and thus also affected the results. It would have been possible to ask separately about students’ opinions before and after the recording. At the same time, considering the students’ workload and their opportunity to answer anonymously, the researchers evaluated the chosen approach to be rational. To avoid or minimize recall bias while designing similar studies in the future, we still recommend planning two data sets, asking separately about students’ opinions before and after the recording.

Another limitation is that the students who participated in the study were at different stages of their studies (from bachelor’s to master’s) when they recorded their lesson videos. Although recording their lesson videos was a new experience for all participating students, other experiences (e.g., previous teaching experience within a previous practice course or working as a teacher during their studies, resulting in confidence in front of the class) may have influenced the results. For comparison, it would be interesting to conduct a large-scale study among different groups, for example, as a longitudinal study throughout the teacher training course, and find out in more detail how self-confidence and the content of reflections change as experience increases. Further research could also focus on on-site mentor teachers who supervise the practice in schools to clarify their role in supporting video-based reflection.

Conclusion

The study offers insights into the teacher education students’ experience of the practice course. The study aimed to find out teacher education students’ opinions about recording their teaching and analyzing prior to any recording experience, to describe the actual experiences of recording and analyzing the videos, and to systematize their main areas of learning and development.

This article provides food for thought for teacher educators to understand students’ early experiences with recording teaching and to find areas that need further support in the teacher education context. Most importantly, the results direct teacher educators to do targeted work with pre-service teacher students before using videos, so that activities to support their professional development are not hindered by the use of a teaching method and environment that might create negative emotions for the learner. More specifically, we consider it important to have proactive discussions (when giving the teaching task) with students both about how and why to make a video recording of their teaching and what can be learned through lesson analysis. The study’s results also draw attention to how important it is to have a supportive community in the learning process so that the learning is safe for the teacher education student, and students will continue to (voluntarily) use the video recordings of their lessons for professional development. We find that future video-based analysis tasks in teacher training could be planned more effectively, using the results of this article as input.