Leadership Characteristics Through The Lens of Translocational Positionality Framework: Trailblazing Women in Policing

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of trailblazing women leaders in US police organizations as viewed through the lens of translocational positionality framework (TPF). The intent was to determine if as “trailblazers” their leadership strategies might have differed from other leaders in police organizations. This exploratory qualitative study used a purposive sample of 13 trailblazing leaders and conducted in-depth semi-structured interviews. Using a grounded theory methodology, the author found the women police leaders’ behaviors and leadership characteristics were fluid based on the context and circumstances of the situation. The themes of authority and presence emerged as the leaders proved to be highly capable and component caregivers, selfless servants, over-achievers, and great communicators who balanced both male and female leadership behaviors. The findings revealed that the trailblazing participants were unique, and their leadership strategies were different from their colleagues because they were willing to create their own path to leadership opportunities.

Introduction

The subject of this study is the exploration of the leadership characteristics of trailblazing women leaders in police organizations within the United States. Policewomen are component in all aspects of police work and leadership roles; however, the male-dominated police culture may discourage women from becoming leaders and commanders (Guajardo, 2016). Unfortunately, competence and leadership acumen are not enough for women leaders in police organizations to gain access to senior leadership opportunities. Women police leaders have noted that female leaders need to be more skilled, tougher, and more distinctive than their male counterparts in order to be accepted as leaders (Haake, 2018). This makes the experiences of women police leaders more complicated and thus sets the conditions that require trailblazers with a strong sense of their identity as leaders to pursue senior level opportunities. The willingness and the capability to be adaptable and unbounded is rooted in and viewed through the lens of translocational positionality framework (TPF) for this study. TPF provides the perspective to highlight the lived experiences of the trailblazers in this study as it relates to their behaviors and characteristics through the power dimensions of their professional environment (Rogers & Ahmed, 2017). TPF is the interplay of different situations, locations, time, and context on one’s experiences. For the purposes of this study, TPF is defined as the interplay of these differences on the lived leadership experiences of women leaders within their organizations. Simply put, TPF allows for a more subtle understanding of the nuance experiences of trailblazing women leaders in police organizations. Extant research recognizes the complexities of inequality and access to power associated with gender against the backdrop of hegemonic masculinity (Rabe-Hemp & Miller, 2018).

Translocational positionality framework is the lens the author uses to view the leadership experiences of the trailblazing participants. TPF offers valuable insights into the genderized processes that impact the experiences of disadvantage, capital convertibility, and agency (Koh & Sin, 2022). Regarding this study, consistent with the Koh and Sin (2022) study, TPF brings a perspective of historical processes within police organizations that make the experiences of these participants unique. TPF highlights the individualized and personal view of the experiences of each participant.

This study fills a void in the literature by providing a level of specificity to the lived experiences of the trailblazing women police leaders. This study fills the gap by providing the real-life experiences as a model to the vicarious experiences of individual’s self-efficacy being strengthened by having access to the capabilities and competence of others (Chu et al., 2020) through the lens of TPF. The main objective of this paper is to explore the experiences of trailblazing women leaders in US police organizations as viewed through the lens of the translocational positionality framework (TPF) to identify shared leadership characteristics. For this study, the author defines trailblazer as a women police leader who has attained a rank or position not previously held in her organization by a woman and or being the first or only women within her organization to accomplish something or being assigned to a position. The existence of the “glass ceiling” in police organizations makes achieving trailblazer status for this study unique. For this study, the author conceptualizes the “glass ceiling” as the barriers created by the traditionally hegemonic police culture that sometimes prevent and oftentimes make it difficult for women to become leaders and navigate up the chain of command in police organizations. For the purposes of this study, the criteria for participant designation as a trailblazer and breaking through the “glass ceiling” are aligned as it relates to achieving a rank/position or being the first and or only woman in their organization to accomplish something. The intent is to determine if as “trailblazers” their leadership strategies might have differed from other leaders in police organizations. Trailblazers break cultural traditions and enjoy a sense of pride in broadening stereotypical roles (Storie et al., 2016). This study is significant to the contribution of the literature on gender and policing in the US because gendered police reform comprises a spectrum of characteristics and actions that seek to deconstruct male dominant norms within police forces (Huber & Hudson, 2019). The study of lived experiences of trailblazing women police leaders breaking through the “glass ceiling” provides justification for this study in the context of providing another level of visibility to the need for gendered police reform. Koh and Sin (2022) indicate that TPF allows for the consideration of culture, symbolic, and social resources. This process provides both the participant and author the opportunity to view these embedded resources in the context of leadership activities in police organizations and how these resources can be maximized by trailblazers navigating through the “glass ceiling.”

Scholars recognize that women continue to be under-represented in leadership positions in police organizations (Morabito & Shelley, 2018) making up only an estimated 3% of police chiefs (Reaves, 2015). This underrepresentation creates a power dynamic that provides male police leaders access and opportunity that is not available to female leaders in police organizations. The difference between male and female police leaders in this context is the male domination of positions of authority (Doan & Portillo, 2017) and the perception that men are better police leaders than women which sets the conditions for the lack of respect for women police leaders (Haake, 2018). Police organizations represent the deeply entrenched and pervasive power culture, hierarchical relationships, autocratic leadership styles, and norm of hegemonic culture which illustrates the persistence of male canteen culture (Cunningham & Ramshaw, 2020). There is not one way or template to be a leader. The role of trailblazing women as leaders is vital to police organizations and the 13 participants of this study demonstrate their ability to balance both male and female gendered behaviors amidst cultural challenges. The exploration of the experiences and characteristics of these trailblazing women are highlighted through the conceptual lens of translocational positionality framework (TPF).

Recent scholarship has argued that identities are contextually and spatially bound, challenging previous assumptions, and illustrating the inattentiveness to the fluidity of behaviors (Doan & Portillo, 2017). This study is important and adds to the literature because trailblazers in senior leadership positions can facilitate cultural modifications and opportunities for advancement for women. Senior women in policing can facilitate initiatives to improve gender equality and promotion opportunities for women (Ward & Prenzler, 2016).

Police Culture

The Haake (2018) study analyzed conditions for gender equality in police leadership and the results revealed that women in particular indicated that organizational culture and structure must be changed to address the problem of the paucity of women in leadership positions. Valuable scholarship has explored how opportunities for leadership in policing have often been hidden or outright denied to women due to cultural, structural, and attitudinal challenges in advancing to senior command and primary staff positions (Morabito & Shelley, 2018).

Previous research has posited that the leadership characteristics and identities of women police leaders have been impacted by organizational challenges and the “glass ceiling,” an imaginary term, which is identified as an artificial or invisible barrier that prevents qualified individuals from advancing vertically in their organization into high-ranking positions (Reis & Grady, 2018). Carli and Eagly (2016) suggest this process is more appropriately described as a labyrinth or maze, with winding paths, dead ends, and unexpected obstacles. Other research concludes that male police officers have reservations regarding the capabilities and skills of women due in part to sexist attitudes, isolation, and lack of encouragement (Ward & Prenzler, 2016).

The Cunningham and Ramshaw (2020) study posited that the hegemonic masculine culture in policing is rooted in masculinities based on holding and preserving male power and privilege and subordination of other groups. Oftentimes, the presence of women in high-ranking positions creates conflict and challenges in some police organizations. Women’s presence in senior positions inspires a narrative that insinuates women did not possess the leadership skills but got the promotion simply because they were women (Cunningham & Ramshaw, 2020).

Leadership Characteristics and Behaviors

The Rogers and Ahmed (2017) study examined positioned hierarchies and how actors themselves are positioned through these power dimensions where positionality encouraged an analysis of lived experiences. Previous research examined translocational positionality when performative is interrogated to illustrate how people represent their identities, lives, and experiences (Ahmed, 2015). A translocated framing serves as a reminder that context and temporality are influential as individuals can present themselves differently in various settings and these performances vary based on context (Rogers & Ahmed, 2017).

Recent scholarship has argued that identities are contextually and spatially bound which is captured with translocational positionality framework (Doan & Portillo, 2017). The conception of translocational positionality sets the conditions for identities and behaviors to be reflexive and unbounded (Rogers & Ahmed, 2017). For example, studies on women in male dominant organizations, posited that women experience fluidity in their leadership characteristics and their behaviors depending upon with whom they are interacting and where and under what context the interactions occur.

The examination of how trailblazing women police leaders identify themselves as leaders is important to realizing potential differences between trailblazers and their colleagues. A significant portion of the existing conceptual work on leader identity development views women through a bifurcated lens defined by gender (Reis & Grady, 2018). The subtle, cultural, structural, and attitudinal barriers to women’s advancement may influence women’s ability to see themselves as leaders and discourages women from becoming supervisors and commanders (Guajardo, 2016). As demonstrated by previous research, individuals live and exist within multiple, layered identities derived from social relations, history, and the impact of the organizational power structure as police executives are pressured to frame issues related to gender in ways that are consistent with the dominant belief of their workforce (Schuck, 2018).

The lived experiences of women leaders in police organizations encompasses a multitude of dynamics and perspectives, which informs the first-person assessment. Exploring lived reality through the lenses of women based on their collective police experiences illuminates the characteristics and behaviors of the women (Cunningham & Ramshaw, 2020). The presence of women police leaders illustrates the layers of identity, which provide the framework for the development of leadership characteristics, behaviors, and the recognition of individual identity and organizational authority. The findings of a meta-analysis of gender and perceptions of leadership effectiveness is relevant as the study indicated that men view themselves as congruent with most leadership contexts (even though other evaluators disagree), while some women see themselves as incongruent as middle and senior leaders, even though women display equal leadership competencies to men (Reis & Grady, 2018).

Effective leadership goes beyond the realm of skill and capability; it involves self-awareness and personal breakthroughs and knowing the rules of the profession and the path to promotion (Reis & Grady, 2018). Previous research supports the perception that effective leadership in police organizations is primarily the domain of men. Men are still seen as more ideal leaders than women in police organizations. This perhaps reflects the fact women are not as respected despite being critically examined which leads to the conclusion that men are favored as leaders in police departments (Haake, 2018).

The primary responsibility for defining one’s reality lies with the individuals who live that reality, those who live those experiences, however, in the end, leadership for women is about taking the next step up the chain of command (Reis & Grady, 2018). In spite of the disparate treatment of women in law enforcement, research has suggested that women possess the leadership competencies required to be successful as law enforcement leaders and it is recommended that women seek the highest positions in law enforcement organizations as the existing narrative does not explain the totality of the experience of women who seek to be promoted (Morabito & Shelley, 2018). Previous research argued that in order for women to reach senior career ranks within a hierarchical organizational structure, as is the case in police organizations, they have to devote a significant amount of time within the organization in order to be promoted meritoriously through the ranks having assimilated to the masculine organizational culture (Johnston & Houston, 2018).

The Present Study

This present study is a first-person leadership assessment of trailblazing women police leaders who in most cases have broken through the glass ceiling to achieve success despite organizational and cultural barriers and attitudes. The Storie et al. (2016) study posited that trailblazers break cultural traditions by moving forward with a career or on a path that is uncommon. The was operationalized for this study and incorporated into the participant selection process. Given the sparse data available on this unique demographic of women police leaders and the contextualized influence of social structures and power dimensions prescribed by translocational positionality framework, the participants self-assessments helped to shape a framework of behaviors from leaders lived experiences. In so doing, exploring how these experiences have shaped the assessment of their leadership characteristics within the hegemonic police culture using grounded theory methodology is a key component of the study. Restricting the participant pool improved the study by capturing the experiences of leaders who created their own path to examine if the strategies employed by trailblazers were different.

This study provides findings of how women police leaders perceive themselves which includes their differences as it relates to both male and other female colleagues in pursuit of leadership opportunities of greater responsibility as well as in the execution of their leadership duties. The present study allows for the depiction and analysis of women leaders in police organizations to establish a more acute understanding of their leadership characteristics. Translocational positionality framework was employed to focus the discussion and contribute to the literature exploring how the leadership behaviors and characteristics of unique trailblazers operate in the police leadership context. Inroads by women into male dominated assignments and positions in policing present difficult challenges. Given the plateauing of women in policing and the complex calculus to advancement (Morabito & Shelley, 2018) many do not want to be the first women in a leadership position based on the impenetrability of the subculture. The experiences of the trailblazing women of this study add to the literature because the leadership characteristics they displayed to penetrate the subculture is rich and valuable for future research and future women leaders. Women in the policing community do not know what their nature is, but perhaps when they are made aware of this and do recognize it, things will change (Cunningham, 2022). This study fills this gap as the lived experiences of the trailblazing leaders represent a sense of agency and a consciousness of their nature and leadership characteristics.

Methodology

The data for this study was the result of the cultural analysis of a select group of trailblazing women leaders in US police organizations. These trailblazers have broken through the glass ceiling into senior leadership and created new opportunities for women. The shared experiences of these trailblazers facilitate the understanding of their leadership characteristics and behaviors and expression of the fluidity of their identity layers based on context and situation. Care was taken to ensure the anonymity of this select group of leaders as the informed-consent rules were strictly followed. In addition, all five principles for research ethics were maintained throughout the data collection and analysis process. For the purposes of this research, the decision was made to concentrate on interviews (Taruf-Arciniegas & Contreras, 2018). The interviews were conducted in-person/face to face as opposed to phone or through virtual platforms. The decision was made to concentrate on interviews to provide the author the opportunity to view and assess any non-verbal indicators portrayed by the participants as well as to ensure that participants were comfortable with the interviewer. In addition, the author wanted to obtain thick, rich data, and the in-person interview process provided that opportunity vice other tools.

Research Design

With a predominantly explorative purpose for this qualitative study, a constructivist grounded theory approach was followed. The constructivist grounded theory allows data collection, data analysis, and theory to stand in reciprocal relationships with each other and prescribes to an iterative process of comparison within and amongst data cases, theory and researcher notes, and memos (Charmaz, 2011; Gordon-Finlayson, 2010). The selection of a qualitative approach was important, as the intent was to expand beyond description; to obtain an understanding of the experience of the unique women leaders studied (Reis & Grady, 2018).

Sampling and Data Collection Methods

Theoretical sampling facilitated the purposeful selection (Palinkas, et al., 2015) of 13 trailblazing women leaders based on predetermined criterion of importance. Although the size of this sample does not reflect the full distribution of women police leaders, however, it is argued that given the challenges of obtaining representative samples from such a hard-to-reach population, this data offers the basis for further exploratory insights (Silvestri, 2020). The researcher selected these leaders based on the definition of trailblazer for the purposes of this study which includes attaining a rank/position or status within their respective organization that no other women had attained previously. Researcher access to organizations and leaders also affected the selection of the 13 trailblazers. Utilizing in-depth semi-structured interviews, this paper attempted to elicit the leadership experiences of women police leaders. The author recorded the interviews digitally and substantiated the interview sessions with field notes and memos. After the recorded interview sessions, the interviews were transcribed and then analyzed systematically and thematically by hand.

Data Analysis

Consistent with Charmaz (2011), coding is a primary grounded theory analytical convention that was applied to this study. The author conducted the analysis of the interview transcription line-by-line with each data piece (line, sentence, or paragraph), which was labelled according to its significance in relation to the research objective (Charmaz, 2011). From these initial codes, the author identified recurring themes based on key words used by the participants during the interview process.

Participants

The participants were women leaders who had firsthand knowledge and experiences with moving up the chain of command and blazing a new path for women in US police organizations. The participants and data are not selected to ensure the representative requirements of statistical inference but because they can provide significant contributions to the phenomenon being studied because of their navigational experiences as leaders in a police department (Reis & Grady, 2018). For this study, the selection of participants was based on trailblazing criteria related to the following achievements. The leader was the highest-ranking person in their organization, command or division or they had broken through the “Glass Ceiling” as the first women in the organization to hold a duty position. Selection criteria also included commanders in a special or tactical unit or those leaders who met some other criteria that made them unique within their organization. Whilst there has been discernable movement, women’s comments reveal that more work needs to be done for movement to become progress toward the destination of a truly reformed police culture (Silvestri, 2020). The lived experiences of these participants highlight the creation of their own unique path to leadership opportunities. The Carli and Eagly (2016) study which defined the “glass ceiling” as a labyrinth or maze or even a dead end at times speaks to why these participants had to create their own path. How these participants created their own path is represented through their willingness to be trailblazers and is expressed through their lived experiences captured through the interview process.

The participants in this study included 13 unique trailblazing, history-making leaders representing nine police agencies spanning local, state, and federal organizations across three different States including the District of Columbia. Several trailblazers served as leaders in different departments or in different capacities from the same large organization. Most of the participants responded to participation requests promptly, however timing, location, travel coordination, and scheduling of interviews proved challenging in some instances. Each participant was assigned an alpha-numeric code to ensure anonymity as many of the participants would be easily identified based on their trailblazing status and unique positions held within their organization which presented concerns of being exposed within their organization.

In the study sample, the largest race/ethnic background group of participants were White 53.8% (n = 7). The remaining participants were African American 46.2% (n = 6). About 53.8% (n = 7) were between the ages of 35 and 50 years. The remaining participants were between the ages of 51 and 69 years 46.2% (n = 6). About 84.6% (n = 11) of the participants had at least 20 years of experience in law enforcement. The remainder 15.4% (n = 2) had between 10 and 19 years of service. About 69.2% (n = 9) of the participants were either the highest-ranking person in their Department/Office or District/Precinct or were the first women to be assigned to a position or unit and or attend a senior leadership or special tactical school.

Although college degrees are not a requirement for police leaders, 84.6% (n = 11) of the police leaders held at least a bachelor’s degree with three of the participants reporting completion of a Master’s degree 23% (n = 3) and one participant 7.6% (n = 1) held a Juris Doctorate degree. The remainder 15.4% (n = 2) had completed some college course work. The sample of police leaders included 15.3% (n = 2) Police Chiefs/Sheriffs and 23% (n = 3) Assistant Police Chiefs/Deputy Police Chiefs. The remainder of the police leaders, 61.5% (n = 8) included one Major, three Captains, two Lieutenants, one Sergeant, and one Special Agent. Almost two thirds of the police leaders were current or former commanders which included Precinct/District Commanders, Patrol, and Criminal Investigation Division Commanders as well as Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) and Vice Commanders 61.5% (n = 8). Most of the police leaders from the eight local and State police organizations were from organizations with between 250 and 499 sworn personnel 50% (n = 4). The remainder consisted of one police leader from an organization with 1,000 or more sworn personnel, one from an organization with between 500 and 999 sworn personnel, one from an organization with between 100 and 249 sworn personnel and two from an organization with 99 or less sworn personnel. Most police organizations are 100 sworn officers or less, however, these participants generally worked in medium and large organizations.

Findings

The grounded theory analysis led the author to structure the data according to the multiple traits, characteristics, and skills of the trailblazers against the backdrop of the police culture and in relationship to other police leaders. These leaders displayed “authority” as it relates to adapting to the masculine police cultural and organizational challenges to become trailblazers. “Presence” as it relates to the multiple layers of identities the leaders exhibited which included female gendered behaviors despite gender biases and expectations in order to succeed in different locations and situations within their organizations, at different times, and under varied contextual frameworks was evident. The authority theme developed throughout the interview process using the research of the Fehr et al. (2013) study which posited authority as the promotion or pursuit of collective goals as one party exercises the right to make decisions that influence outcomes based on a key word and content analysis which yielded the following supporting characteristics: Over-Achiever, Performer, and Communicator which culminate into how the 13 trailblazers assessed themselves. The presence theme was developed in like manner utilizing research involving the understanding of virtual and real-world endeavors where presence refers to the perception and awareness of self-identity (Ratan et al., 2007). This highlighted the recognition that fluidity between and among characteristics and identities is paramount which yielded the following supporting characteristics: Caregiver and Selfless Servant.

Both themes were developed with the intent of illustrating leadership characteristics and with the consciousness that translocational positionality framework contributes to the women police leaders’ ability to leverage all their experiences and how these experiences shaped their characteristics and behaviors. The navigation through the “glass ceiling” and the necessity to develop the ability to balance between male and female gendered behaviors sometimes amid organizational dissidence was a notable finding in this research. It expands the discussion about leadership roles for women in police organizations and the unique abilities of trailblazers. The themes were developed during the interview process and thus informed the findings of the study as viewed through the lens of TPF.

Leadership Characteristics of Trailblazers

Effective leadership was central to this study relative to the over-arching intent to examine if these trailblazers utilized different leadership strategies than perhaps their male as well as other women counterparts in the organization while analyzing their shared leadership characteristics and behaviors. The participants described an effective leader as having to embody and exhibit characteristics that put the individuals they lead first to accomplish the organization’s mission. The participants expressed a multitude of styles, techniques, and behaviors that spanned both male and female gendered norms and represents translocational positionality as a framework to understand the fluidity of these leaders’ identities amid police hierarchies.

Possessing the mental toughness and intestinal fortitude to continue to strive for higher rank and positions within the organization despite having their actions and even successes reduced to their gender was extremely important to the leaders. They viewed this as an opportunity to display resilience and validate that they possessed all the qualities necessary to reach the highest levels of leadership despite them being the first or only women, which made them trailblazers. Women are scrutinized as they move up the rank structure due to the gendered norms in police organizations, which insinuated that women could not do the job (Cunningham & Ramshaw, 2020). In response to the question: Explain what pushed you to attempt to break through the class ceiling in your organization, one leader noted:

When I applied for the Deputy Chief position, I didn’t make it. I didn’t get it and even though the Police Chief asked me to serve as the Acting Deputy Chief and I had the qualifications after having served in the position for almost a year. I was the only female who applied. It was heartbreaking. I didn’t let it define me. I wasn’t bitter. I looked at it, if it was not meant to be. Could I have said what the hell, I could have but I chose not to. When you work in a small organization people watch. They are looking to see how you are going to react. They are going to look to see how she handles things more so than how he handles things. (P20)

Social capital and network theories indicate that men’s domination in positions of authority in organizations offers them access to information and opportunities that in the context of this study facilitates the understanding of gender fluidity as viewed through the lens of social hierarchies within police culture (Doan & Portillo, 2017). This understanding makes it necessary for trailblazers to execute different and unique mitigation strategies to lead in police organizations. Participants indicated that they must make a special effort to go the extra mile and to be conscious of not only what they do but even what they say when decision makers are in the room. Multiple participants noted that a man’s ability as a leader, whether it is a physical or a cognitive task, is often accepted as part of the social hierarchy without the burden of having to always prove his value continuously to the same decision makers.

One of the most potent factors in the development of effective police leaders is the nature of their job assignments and the challenge is to ensure women leaders recognize the importance of making decisions to move up the chain of command in a mindful manner that supports entry into the leadership labyrinth (Reis & Grady, 2018). This was important because even after women were promoted and had achieved new heights for themselves, they still faced scrutiny at a level greater than their male counterparts. The perception that once women are promoted, men are still seen as more ideal leaders in police organizations points to the fact that women leaders are not respected despite being critically examined and facing more resistance than men (Haake, 2018). Responding to the question: What is the culture like for women seeking to break through the glass ceiling and are women accepted as leaders in your organization, multiple interview participants expressed views regarding translocational positionality framework that the translocational lens serves as a reminder of the contradiction and the intersection between privilege and disadvantage as well as the influence of context and temporality as people present themselves differently in various settings (Rogers & Ahmed, 2017). The below are examples of these views:

I think ambition wise, considering my husband is law enforcement also, I think women pigeon-hole ourselves into positions with no desire of separating ourselves from the position of convenience to the lifestyle they want to live. I think those restrictions we put on ourselves is the first level of limitations. The second level is from the male perspectives pigeon-hole us into more of the administrative functions where it makes it more convenient for women to stay. (P28)

For a man, it’s easier to forgive immature behavior than for a woman. I will give an example; I curse a lot. I have been in a meeting with other leaders where a white male curses and it is accepted in the meeting, then if I curse, someone says don’t curse. (P21).

These trailblazers proved to be different and unique. None of the trailblazing leaders interviewed overtly expressed being less competitive neither did their actions or mannerisms even remotely indicate that they allowed the masculine police culture to overcome their ability to be fluid in their leadership styles and behaviors based on their rank, position, and environment. Positionality should consider practices and performative nature of positionalities taking into account agency within the context of the larger social structures and hierarchies (Rogers & Ahmed, 2017). These women were not afraid to be themselves regardless of the preconceived construct and their responses represent their reluctance to be fixed to established gender protocols and representing the outcome component of social position based on actions as expressed by Rogers and Ahmed as illustrated in the below responses:

I have not given into the male dominated experience. I have not and I will not. It was always important for me to be myself. You just need to be smart, humble, and very strong and have a spiritual foundation. I don’t try to conform to other people. I always felt like it was important for me to be who I am. When you try to conform to be like someone else, you are saying that they are the standard of success and to be successful you must be like them. (P31)

I never thought I want to break that glass or beat the guys. I always strived to be #1. I always worked really hard on promotion test and in my performance to be #1. (P29)

Every position I have ever put in for I have gotten, some of which I have worked my “butt” off for. I have been first on promotion exams and chosen first off, the promotion list. (P27)

I’m strong, I own my room, I own my district and there is no doubt that I’m the Commander. (P26).

These sentiments provided by the participants provide a glimpse of how these leaders moved beyond the binary gendered mindset of characteristics and behaviors. All the trailblazers are confident in their ability and proud of their layered identities as their acumen supports their assertion that they are effective leaders who lead with authority and presence.

Personal Leadership Assessment

A plausible factor that may adversely impact women in supervisory or command positions is the shortage of women applicants or those willing to be trailblazers (Guajardo, 2016). Based on the comments from all 13 of the participants, these trailblazers possess a multitude of skills and abilities that allow them to navigate through different situations and circumstances fluidly. The translocational approach represents the discontinuous moving backwards and forwards between actions and behaviors within social hierarchies, which can serve as an assessment of leadership characteristics (Doan & Portillo, 2017).

The analysis of the interview sessions conducted with 13 trailblazing leaders revealed what the 13 trailblazers said based on their perception and assessment of themselves as leaders. Their assessments indicated that leadership characteristics were fluid for the women police leaders based on the context and circumstances of the situation. The fluctuating nature of the self-assessed characteristics based on contextual factors such as location, time, and personnel were largely visible during this study. Being placed in an inferior category by many male police officers, appears to have provided the opportunity for these leaders to expand their experiences and navigate through the hierarchical maze by being caregivers, communicators, overachievers, and high performers. Police executives, regardless of their gender or personal beliefs, are under pressure to frame gender issues in a manner that are consistent with the dominant beliefs of their workforce which reveal a high degree of gendered division (Schuck, 2018). The personal assessments also revealed the extremes of the privilege of being a leader and the disadvantage of being a woman in a male dominant organization. The existence of these extremes revealed that the leadership strategies of the 13 trailblazers were different from their male counterparts due to the prevailing hegemonic masculinity culture based on what the participants said in the interviews.

Women often must prove their ability to perform while being conscious that their own behaviors are not viewed as indifferent to the culture (Doan & Portillo, 2017). These trailblazing leaders exceled at demonstrating their leadership acumen and ability to exercise their adroitness in accomplishing tasks despite oftentimes critical and unwelcoming work environment. The Moyer and Haire (2015) study argued that trailblazers must contend with gender inequality which creates a sense of shared struggle. The selection of trailblazers added a unique perspective to this study because they broke cultural traditions, exhibited different leadership styles and techniques, and served in leadership positions previously exclusively held by men within their organization.

When responding to the question, describe yourself in the context of leadership and your organization, the participants’ provided the following responses which demonstrate the ability to move backwards and forwards dependent upon the context:

Ambitious, Loyal, Family-oriented. It wasn’t always in that order. (P25)

I am Faithful, I am Family-oriented, yet I am Firm. That sums me up. (P24)

Pretty Stoic and non-emotional. I think I got that from my Dad. (P30)

Professional, Respectful, and Reliable. (P20)

Caring, Generous, and I would do whatever it takes to help someone else. (P29)

Faithfully Present. Both Personal and Professional. (P23)

Fair, honest, direct, don’t play but very effective and great to work with. (P31)

These trailblazers recognized the value and utility in all their characteristics, which provided a view of the complete person or the wholeness and diversity of the leader.

The authority to lead can include the exercise of influence, the use of motivation, and the fluidity of identity as well as relative positions of power (Doan & Portillo, 2017). Participants responded to a question regarding how they identify themselves as it relates to a feeling of power and authority. Participants were asked: What are the specific identifies that make you feel powerful and gave you the confidence to be a trailblazer. There were many different responses to this question as the below comments indicate:

Veteran Executive, Female Commander. Veteran Executive is the competence and confidence to do my job. Female Commander is the power to do and say what I feel is right without concern for losing my position. (P26)

Raised by a single mother from a predominantly female family of very strong women so I had great role models. I use my gut; it always provides good “advice”. (P19)

I feel the most powerful when I see my subordinates mentoring successfully. Additional leaders in this organization with “Our Shared Vision”– It is about (Shared) Leadership – It is Amazing. (P23)

Mother because my children are a blessing from GOD. They make my life complete and joyful. Female Leader – I continue to work diligently with the same abilities in a “male dominated” environment. Hopefully I provide influence to others seeking the same rank/status within my agency. (P24)

Social positioning as a set of practices, actions, and behaviors can manifest contradictory and shifting locations where one might be in a position of dominance and subordination simultaneously representing the melding of multiple social positions (Rogers & Ahmed, 2017). None of the trailblazers portrayed a sense of dominance over subordinates; however, as illustrated by their comments, they expressed confidence and authority to do what is right and to influence their subordinates and future leaders. This can be further explained through the lens of feminist theory. Cunningham in her 2022 book, Women in Policing: Feminist Perspectives on Theory and Practice references the historical texts of Wollstonecraft to explore the specific field of women in policing using a feminist informed discourse analysis which can cover the concept that women by virtue of being women will rarely be in the position of power afforded men in a patriarchal society. Although the police culture lends itself to categorizing women in policing as subordinate, these trailblazers remained undaunted and continued to move up the chain of command. The subordinate status as it relates to the preference and privilege of males in police departments was expressed as illustrated by the below comment:

There have been reasons why people got positions that have nothing to do with your work. I tried to get in a unit that had no women for four years and I got turned down all four years. The reason why I didn’t get the job is because I don’t hunt. I couldn’t go hunting. Yes, there are cliques that don’t allow females in. They brought me in to use the fact that I was of a specific demographic which helped them, but they never assigned me to the unit. It wasn’t until the fifth year when they needed me in the same capacity, I told them no. (P28).

Presence

Presence is the illustration of self-awareness in the face of all obstacles and challenges especially the presence to recognize your layers of identity and the need to be fluid dependent upon time, location, and context is one of the two primary themes of this study. The participants of this study displayed their presence by illustrating their commitment to those they lead, their colleagues and their organization by being care-givers and selfless servants. These trailblazing women identified themselves as caregivers who are passionate about the personal and professional welfare of the people in their organization. They are selfless servants who consistently go above and beyond the call of duty in support of organizational objectives above personal achievements and even gender-role socialization.

The Morabito and Shelley (2018) study offers that promotion opportunities for women often directly deal with women and children such as sexual assault investigators and child abuse liaisons and suggests that rather than viewing feminine characteristics such as compassion and collegiality as weaknesses, women should embrace the possibility that these skills are the gateway to promotional opportunities that lead to advancement up the chain of command. In addition, these women leaders have expressed a level of commitment and dedication that has facilitated their success within their organizations. Eight participants, 61%, described themselves using key words such as caring and nurturing. About 77%, 10 participants described themselves using key words such as selfless service and work ethic.

Translocational positionality addresses issues of identity in terms where behaviors and characteristics are not fixed but contextually based and time related which invoke shifts and sometimes contradictions (Rogers & Ahmed, 2017). This includes communal characteristics, which research findings view less favorably in a police environment. These trailblazers demonstrated the ability to maximize all characteristics to include communal characteristics in order to accomplish tasks and organizational goals. The below comments demonstrate the confidence these trailblazers have in themselves and their abilities as well as their willingness to match the appropriate style and approach based on the situation:

I think it first starts with a peace within the leader. They know who they are, and they live a principled life. You can tell that when they are addressing a group. The best example in the Chiefs of Police community is David Brown from Dallas PD, he is at peace with who he is. Peace within and knowing who you are. (P23)

I am strong and compassionate. (P26)

Also, I am very caring. I handle all the line of duty death things. I will tell you men shy away from that. They don’t know how to talk to people. They don’t know how to talk to a grieving spouse. I think that nurturing trait has helped me a lot. Being able to make the department look good when it becomes to a highly emotional situation. I believe these traits have benefited me. (P29)

Women are expected to engage communally and lead with traits traditionally attributed to women (Reis & Grady, 2018) but these trailblazers evidenced by their statements view communal traits as a strength rather than a weakness. This is significant because these trailblazing women leaders recognize that effective leaders change their behavior to fit the situation and therefore may sometimes choose behaviors associated with male gender roles and sometimes female gender roles depending on the circumstance and environment as the varied aspects of work should not be viewed as “naturally” male or female space (Doan & Portillo, 2017). They possess and are fluid enough to exercise agentic characteristics if the situation and circumstances warrant those characteristics. These leaders are not monolithic, and their statements and responses are highly diverse and both support and contrast previous research.

Silvestri (2018) notes that the dearth of women holding rank status is an occupational choice. In addition, (Johnston & Houston, 2018) posited that women, in order to reach senior career ranks with the hierarchical police structure, would have to devote a considerable amount of time within the organization in order to be promoted meritoriously through the ranks. This statement by one trailblazer expressed how being a servant and being dedicated and loyal to the organization takes precedence:

We are still servants, and you are a greater servant the more rank you have. We don’t have a lot of crime here, but what we do have is citizens who expect highly competent officers to take care of them. I hope to think that I lead from the front, but I know when to follow. When you balance the needs of the organization versus the needs of the individual, you lean towards the organization. (P23).

Words such as dedication, determination, loyalty, and hardworking were just a few of the terms that participants used to describe themselves. These statements represent the participants’ view of themselves:

Committed, Dedicated. (P19)

Professional, respectful, and reliable. (P20)

Loyal, dedicated, and tenacious. (P22)

You have to be consistent, strong, and have integrity. Courage and determination. To be effective you have to be 10-8 which means to be ready to go. (P24)

Ambitious, loyal, family oriented. (P25)

Loyalty, dedication, compassion, integrity, honesty. (P26)

I go back to being loyal and compassionate. Loyal, sometimes to a fault. (P27)

These statements represent women leaders who are willing to go above and beyond in their level of commitment and their dedication for their organization.

Authority

Authority as it relates to the willingness and capability to make decisions that lead to the accomplishment of collective goals as well as influence and inspire other leaders and subordinates is the other primary theme of this study. This study sought to provide these women leaders with the opportunity to express how they have been able to lead in their respective police organizations as it relates to translocational positionality framework. These trailblazers proved to be change agents highly adept at balancing male and female gendered behaviors dependent upon the context of the situation. The following three key words: (Over-Achiever, Communicator, and Performer) emerged in support of the authority theme.

About 69%, 9 of 13 participants used the key words associated with code: Over-Achiever to include twice as much, Double/Three times, 110%, and double standards. About 69%, 9 of 13 participants used the key words associated with code: Communicator to include listen, take input, and talk. About 84%, 11 of 13 participants used key words associated with code: Performer such as competence, high performer, gets things done.

Previous research speaks to the challenges that women in police organizations face while seeking leadership opportunities. Many female leaders expressed that the organizational culture must change so that women do not experience suppression techniques, degrading treatment, or tougher assessments (Haake, 2018). These trailblazers have chosen to face these challenges head on and do whatever is required and beyond to be competitive for positions of greater authority as indicated by their comments:

I always felt that I had to give 110 percent while my male counterparts only had to give 90 percent. (P20)

I have had to work twice as hard and I don’t complain. (P26)

One of the more influential skills that participants discussed was the skill and ability to communicate. These women leaders have become very good communicators because of implementing different styles and techniques to accomplish tasks within their organization.

Consistent with these trailblazers shared experiences and translocational positionality framework, these leaders represent the dimensions of transformational leadership and social hierarchies such as idealized influence, inspirational motivation, and the ability to communicate effectively where gender identity was secondary to other identities (Doan & Portillo, 2017). The interview participants discussed the behaviors they employed to leverage and maximize all their leadership characteristics. They recognized that in some circumstances their behaviors were different dependent upon the situation, however, given the police culture, different but just as effective as their male colleagues. The following participants’ comments express this perspective:

Women come at things differently. Typically, it’s less aggressive. They talk things out. The de-escalation or use of force is thought of differently. Men go at it, and women talk it out. (P23)

Communication is the key and you cannot be afraid to confront the serious issues out there. That is why they pay you the big money. I have the ability to communicate very well because I realize with my size, I can’t kick anybody’s “butt” out there (P29)

Because I am comfortable where I am. I will speak my mind and share my opinion. As a woman sharing my opinion, I do believe I am different from a man. (P26)

The ability to communicate effectively whether to motivate their subordinates or to maximize a strength to accomplish a task speaks to the level of competence of these women leaders as well as the confidence they have in their own behaviors to be different from their male colleagues as well as women leaders unwilling to be trailblazers. These trailblazers overcame internal obstacles and through overachievement created a new path for themselves and for future leaders.

The interview participants were more than willing to express their abilities and level of competence as examined from the perspective of translocational positionality framework. These women can get things done in all facets of police work. About 84%, 11 of 13 interview participants used key words that referenced performance such as competence, get things done, capability, and knowledgeable.

The fact that barriers to leadership for women are often hidden and the totality of the exhausting experience can contribute to why some women rate themselves as less effective leaders in comparison to men who tend to overrate themselves as leaders (Reis & Grady, 2018). Less capable and unable to lead effectively are words that are anathema to the trailblazing participants in this study. Almost all of women police leaders in the Haake (2018) study stated that they did not see themselves as less capable leaders compared to their male counterparts, however, that others within their police organizations deemed men to be better leaders. These women unabashedly touted their exploits, leadership capabilities and all their identity layers as indicated by the comments below:

Competence is always the framework. I know my trade. You would not be talking to me if I did not know my trade. If I was not a senior leader. (P31)

I would say I am a natural leader and it could be because of the way I was raised. (P21)

My Boss would say: Strong personality, hard worker, extremely knowledgeable. (P25)

They all displayed and expressed a level of confidence in their own behaviors, identities, and leadership acumen despite the police culture. As trailblazers, these leaders also wanted to establish a legacy for other women leaders to follow as their comments represent:

I let them know up front because they are going to be the legacy. I want them to have a good career and to be thought of by their male counterparts as professional, respectful. My female counterparts and I always talk about playing the “girl” card. There is no crying when you get emotional you go to the bathroom. I’m very stern on how they look. They are not going to have a lot of make up on. If there in uniform, their hair will be pinned up in a bun. I think I’m a little harder on the women. I want that good persona. (P22).

I took the test and did very well. I never wanted to get promoted because I was a woman, I always tried to do well on the test. (P29)

Regardless of police culture or treatment, these women leaders lived up the title of trailblazers. Trailblazers identify with a sense of pride in broadening the established stereotypical roles (Storie et al., 2016). They challenged much of the previous research by adding to the argument that effective police leadership is not the exclusive domain of male police leaders. These leaders were able to leverage their intersectional identities to lead in a police culture that questioned their leadership abilities simply based on their gender.

Conclusion

Consistent with the (Silvestri, 2020) study, this study remains an exploratory analysis as the author is working with a subset of women police leaders and excluded insights from male leaders. The findings of this study provide insights and perceptions of 13 trailblazing women police leaders based on what they expressed during the interview process. First, while serving police organizations, women leaders’ characteristics influence their ability to lead effectively relative to the salience they ascribe to their assessment of themselves as leaders. The findings extend TPF to illustrate the applicability of this framework to trailblazing women in police organizations. Also, in contrast to many women, these trailblazers stated that they are unique, and their leadership strategies were different from their colleagues because they were willing to penetrate the subculture despite the reality that no clear path was visible. In addition, the participants revealed that the leadership characteristics of being a caregiver, selfless servant, overachiever, good communicator, and high performer provided visibility of a fluid self-ascribed identity based on situation, type of task or event, and positioning with both subordinates as well as superiors.

Consistent with all studies, this work has limitations. The interview process allowed for access to rich content based on confidential in-depth conversations with study participants, however, the restrictive participant criteria yielded a small sample size, which makes it problematic to generalize to women leaders in general across police organizations. In addition, the researcher is a male, which perhaps may have limited their willingness to share information. The small sample size and perhaps geographically limited research are not considered definitive; however, the findings do add to our understanding by illustrating the processes and mitigation strategies by which women trailblazers navigate the masculinity complexities in police forces and demonstrate that some women eventually can, and do, make it to the top (Reis & Grady, 2018).

Regardless of the limitations of this study, this work contributes to the understanding of translocational positionality framework and the practical implications for trailblazing women police leaders who maximized their abilities to serve in leadership roles by deploying unique and different behaviors and characteristics. Access, availability, and willingness to participate contributed to the small sample size. Data collection ceased when all 13 participants agreed to be interviewed rather than when saturation was achieved. Future work should consider how TPF can be extended to other contexts and other organizations across both the public and private sectors in order to enhance understanding of the concept.

The lack of awareness and recognition regarding the fluidity and adroitness required for women leaders to break through the “glass ceiling” in police organizations is painstakingly obvious. The male dominant police culture sets the conditions for men to position themselves as gatekeepers to women making it up the chain of command. Although male police officers endorse the equal treatment of female officers, they have doubts about female officers’ capabilities (Haake, 2018). The results illustrate the broader issues regarding the extraordinary steps women must take to break through the systemic barriers. This brings visibility to the importance of trailblazers and the immediate need for a cultural transformation and implementation of policies to provide space and opportunities for women to lead across police organizations.

There is a mentality that police cultural reform as it relates to gender issues is secondary to more urgent concerns, however, feminist scholars urge that gender reform be considered integral to police particularly as it relates to improving operational effectiveness (Huber & Hudson, 2019). As a precursor to any policy or procedural implementation, it may be useful for police organizations to develop training that provides senior leaders the opportunity to understand the experiences of women in their navigation though the traditional hierarchies in policing. Doan and Portillo (2017) suggest that sharing these lived experiences more broadly with leaders within organizations may help to change the assumptions that women are less capable than men. Current police practices turn the leadership journey of women into a labyrinth that restricts opportunities to women who are willing to be trailblazers and essentially go where no women has gone before.

The plausibility that the reluctance of women to become trailblazers may adversely influence the advancement of women to senior leadership and command positions in some police organizations is a significant consideration (Guajardo, 2016). In the gendered sense, these trailblazers expressed their mastery of the ability to balance male and female behaviors dependent upon hierarchal structures and desired outcomes. The ability of these trailblazers to be flexible and fluid allowed them to maximize all their talents and attributes. These leaders shared experiences that provided a glimpse into the presence and authority that is required to be a trailblazer in a police organization under the critical and oftentimes unsupportive lens of male colleagues. Based on what the participants said their shared experiences and struggles to overcome barriers were unique because of their intestinal fortitude and the fact that in relation to men, they worked harder and performed better while still caring for and addressing the needs of those they lead within the organization as well as those they serve in the community. Participants identified a sense of pride in broadening the stereotypical roles even though they often found themselves navigating uncharted territory (Storie et al., 2016). Participants were exceedingly proud of their experiences and the journey they took to break through the glass ceiling as trailblazers. According to the statements of the participants and author analysis, these shared experiences were different from male police leaders as well as other women police officers who explicitly expressed a reluctance to chart their own path and become trailblazers amidst the hegemonic police culture. The ability of the 13 trailblazers to balance the polarity between perceived male and female characteristics demonstrates the significance of the difference between these participants and other leaders in their organizations.