Research on strategies for the high-quality development of science popularization work by Chinese scientific and technological societies

Abstract

With long-term government support and collective societal engagement, China's scientific and technological (S&T) societies have achieved significant progress in science popularization (SP), substantially contributing to the enhancement of national science communication capabilities and the improvement of citizens’ scientific literacy. Within the overarching framework of advancing the high-quality development of China's SP endeavours in the new era, the high-quality development of SP by S&T societies plays a pivotal role. This study systematically examines the challenges and dilemmas confronting the high-quality development of SP within China's S&T societies. Theoretically, it expands the research framework of collaborative mechanisms in science communication, while practically proposing the construction of a ‘six-in-one’ high-quality SP service system encompassing brand development, platform construction, talent cultivation, specialized projects, incentive mechanisms and infrastructure development. Our research further reveals that empowering SP content innovation through digital and intelligent technologies, as well as optimizing the compatibility of policy instrument portfolios, can strengthen the efficacy of SP services and provide systematic support for the modernization of S&T societies. This study not only offers policy references for improving the governance system of SP but also identifies future research directions, such as deepening comparative international studies and long-term efficacy evaluations, to advance the development of more explanatory theoretical frameworks. These efforts aim to bolster high-level S&T self-reliance and contribute to the construction of a world-leading scientific, educational and talent powerhouse.

1. Introduction

During the third collective study session of the 20th Central Political Bureau, President Xi Jinping emphasized the need to strengthen the country's science popularization (SP) capabilities, deeply implement actions to enhance the scientific literacy of all people, disseminate scientific knowledge and showcase technological achievements through multiple online and offline channels, and cultivate a social atmosphere that cherishes and respects science. SP is a foundational task for enhancing citizens’ scientific literacy and fostering an innovative cultural atmosphere across society, which is crucial for national development and national prosperity. As bridges and links connecting scientists and engineers in various fields, scientific and technological (S&T) societies possess unique organizational and talent advantages, making them important social forces in SP efforts and key drivers for promoting the high-quality development of SP in the new era and enhancing the scientific literacy of all people. Looking at the development histories of internationally renowned, world-class S&T societies, such as the Royal Society, the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, as non-governmental organizations, they often play unique roles in providing platforms and channels for S&T governance, cooperation and popularization in their respective countries and regions (Meng et al., 2024). In China, since its establishment, the China Association for Science and Technology (CAST) has borne the mission of promoting the scientific spirit, popularizing scientific knowledge, disseminating advanced technologies, spreading scientific ideas, advocating scientific methods, defending scientific dignity and improving the scientific literacy of all people. With the rapid development of S&T innovation and the increasing demand for enhancing citizens’ scientific literacy, the role of S&T societies in SP efforts has become increasingly important. As nonprofit organizations voluntarily formed by scientists and engineers, S&T societies play an irreplaceable role in SP. The term ‘S&T societies’ used in this paper mainly refers to various national and local scientific organizations, associations, research societies and other similar entities.

SP serves as a foundational endeavour to enhance citizens’ scientific literacy and cultivate an innovative cultural ecosystem, bearing profound implications for national development and societal advancement. Currently, as global scientific innovation enters a phase of intensive activity, and a new wave of technological revolution and industrial transformation accelerates, the strategic value of synergizing SP with scientific innovation has become increasingly prominent. According to the National action plan for scientific literacy (2021–2035), China aims to raise the proportion of citizens with scientific literacy to over 15% by 2025 and 25% by 2035. Achieving these goals necessitates addressing critical bottlenecks, including unbalanced resource allocation, insufficient societal participation and low efficacy in SP services. Against this backdrop, S&T societies, functioning as pivotal hubs connecting the scientific community and the public, have emerged as key actors in driving the high-quality development of SP.

As professional organizations bridging scientists and society, S&T societies possess unique institutional and talent advantages, positioning them as vital forces in SP. Leading international scientific societies have implemented systematic strategies that not only elevate public scientific literacy but also establish bidirectional synergies between science communication and innovation in domains such as ethical governance and technology transfer (Meng et al., 2024). In China, by contrast, while organizations such as CAST and its affiliated societies have long committed to SP, three structural contradictions persist under the high-quality development requirements: 1) Mission‒resource mismatch: some societies prioritize academic activities over public engagement, and have inadequate funding and talent-retention mechanisms. 2) Expertise‒demand disparity: homogenized content and low conversion rates of cutting-edge scientific resources into accessible formats hinder relevance. 3) Traditional‒modern tension: weak digital dissemination capabilities and delayed emergency-response systems limit adaptability (Kang, 2015; Zhao et al., 2019). These contradictions significantly constrain the strategic role of scientific societies in advancing China's S&T ambitions.

This study addresses these challenges by focusing on the high-quality development of SP by Chinese scientific societies in the new era. It seeks to answer two core questions: 1) What are the theoretical dimensions and practical requirements of high-quality SP by scientific societies within China's modernization framework? 2) How can institutional innovation overcome existing barriers to establish a sustainable service system? By proposing a ‘six-in-one’ solution integrating branding, platforms, talent, projects, incentives and infrastructure, the study advances three contributions: 1) At the theoretical level: it clarifies driving mechanisms and evaluation criteria for high-quality SP. 2) At the practical level: it provides actionable pathways for system construction. 3) At the policy level: it offers governance recommendations to optimize SP ecosystems. These insights hold significant implications for transitioning SP from scale expansion to quality enhancement, thereby supporting China's pursuit of technological self-reliance and global leadership in science, education and talent development.

The study employs a mixed-methods approach: 1) Literature review: we use critical analysis of academic publications, policy documents (e.g. the National action plan for scientific literacy, CAST's 14th Five-Year Plan) and case reports to identify research gaps. 2) Case studies: we conduct in-depth examinations of representative societies, including the Acoustical Society of China (Zhao et al., 2019) and the Chinese Society for Cell Biology (Ji, 2019), with a focus on brand initiatives and resource-conversion models to validate theoretical frameworks. This dual methodology ensures theoretical rigour while grounding findings in China's institutional context, thereby strengthening the validity and applicability of proposed solutions.

2. A review of SP research by S&T societies in China

As bridges connecting S&T workers with the public, S&T societies play a crucial role in SP. In recent years, with the increasing demand for SP in Chinese society, the paths, mechanisms and effects of S&T societies’ participation in SP have become research hotspots. This paper reviews the current status and challenges, as well as the hotspots and trends, of Chinese S&T societies’ involvement in SP, aiming to provide references for research and practice in related fields.

2.1 The current status and challenges of SP research

As voluntary organizations of S&T professionals, S&T societies exhibit unique expertise and authority, playing an irreplaceable role in SP. Through extensive volunteer-driven science-communication initiatives, these societies have emerged as critical contributors to SP efforts within New Era Civilization Practice Centers. They not only disseminate scientific knowledge and technological information to the public but also elevate scientific literacy and foster innovative mindsets through organized science outreach activities and educational programmes (Yan et al., 2022). The innovative dual-track model of ‘SP activities + science education’ adopted by S&T societies bridges the practical functions of these societies with the overarching objective of enhancing citizens’ scientific literacy, thereby constructing a social service-oriented analytical framework for future research.

S&T societies engage in SP through diversified pathways, encompassing talent development, platform construction, resource dissemination and institutional mechanisms. Strengthening professional capacity building, optimizing the functionality of science communication platforms, innovating models for resource allocation and refining participatory institutional frameworks constitute the four primary pathways to enhance the effectiveness of their engagement in SP (Yan et al., 2022). Moreover, mechanisms such as collaborative operations, supervisory review, omnimedia communication and evaluative feedback are deemed critical in their SP efforts. These mechanisms collectively form an integrated system for scientific societies’ participation in science communication, ensuring both efficacy and sustainability (Pan et al., 2022). The in-depth analysis by Pan et al. (2022) on collaborative operations and feedback mechanisms unveils the institutional determinants underlying the long-term viability of SP practices. Their conceptualization of ‘mechanism integrity’ has emerged as a foundational theoretical basis for subsequent policy design.

Despite the significant achievements made by S&T societies in SP, they still face numerous challenges. Kang (2015) has noted that the SP work of S&T societies faces issues such as uneven development, simplistic working methods and low openness of S&T resources, as well as shortages of funding and personnel. Taking the Acoustical Society of China as an example, Zhao et al. (2019) have conducted a detailed analysis of issues such as insufficient funding for SP, low social visibility and weak SP platforms, and have proposed corresponding solutions to address these problems. These challenges not only constrain the further development of SP work by S&T societies but also affect the improvement of the public's scientific literacy and the cultivation of innovation awareness. The two empirical studies grounded in representative cases have precisely delineated the structural contradictions between the resource endowments and functional mandates of S&T societies. The problem inventory identified in these studies continues to serve as a benchmark reference for scholarly discourse on supply-side reform in SP.

2.2 Hotspots and trends in SP research

In the new media era, how S&T societies innovate their SP strategies has emerged as a prominent research focus. Scholars have proposed innovative approaches encompassing precise account positioning, real-time content delivery, user analytics, multistakeholder collaboration and post-campaign evaluation, emphasizing the imperative for societies to leverage new media platforms to amplify the reach and depth of science communication (Shi and Wang, 2023). A case study of the Chinese Society for Cell Biology's ‘Laboratory Open Day’ initiative exemplifies how scientific societies can drive innovation through platform-based engagement (Ji, 2019). These strategies not only diversify the modalities and content of SP but also enhance its relevance and effectiveness. Such research on new media communication strategies transcends the linear dissemination paradigm of traditional SP. The ‘user analytics–multistakeholder collaboration’ model provides a methodological toolkit for scientific societies to construct immersive science communication ecosystems in the digital age.

Emergency SP is a crucial component of the SP efforts of S&T societies and is also one of the current research hotspots. Some researchers have explored the methods and strategies for S&T societies to carry out emergency SP in the context of sudden public events, pointing out that, while S&T societies have unique advantages in emergency SP, they also face issues such as an inadequate policy basis and insufficient resource reserves (Guo, 2020; Zhang and Wang, 2018). These studies not only reveal the important role of S&T societies in emergency SP but also provide valuable references for their future participation in such endeavours. Moreover, the integration of crisis-management theory into SP research has established a ‘strengths‒gaps’ analytical framework, offering a decision-support system for S&T societies to address public emergencies.

Another research hotspot is how to scientifically evaluate the effectiveness of SP work by S&T societies and establish effective incentive mechanisms. Lu (2023) constructed an evaluation index system for the brand management of S&T societies using the theory of science communication, providing new ideas for assessing their SP work. Huang et al. (2024), using the example of people's application for SP-related professional titles, studied the career development status and needs of staff in S&T societies, highlighting the importance of incentive mechanisms in SP. These studies not only help to improve the quality and efficiency of SP work by S&T societies but also stimulate the enthusiasm and creativity of scientific workers in participating in such work. Zhang et al. (2023) analysed the functions, roles and paths of S&T societies in participating in the governance of scientific ethics, pointing out that S&T societies have multiple functions, such as organization, research, norm-setting, constraint and education in this area. They believed that SP, as the core competency of S&T societies, has a solid practical foundation and real-world impact.

2.3 Research limitations of existing literature and innovative contributions of the present study

While prior studies have provided valuable insights into the pathways, mechanisms and practical challenges of SP by S&T societies, notable limitations persist.

Fragmented research perspectives. Existing works predominantly focus on isolated issues (e.g. funding shortages or communication strategies), lacking systemic analysis of the interdependencies among popularization capacity, resource allocation, mechanism design and ecosystem cultivation. This fragmented approach fails to elucidate the synergistic mechanisms of multi-factor interactions.

Limited operational feasibility. Most recommendations remain abstract, emphasizing generic principles like ‘increased investment’ or ‘improved mechanisms’, without proposing differentiated solutions aligned with the organizational characteristics of scientific societies (e.g. pathways for translating academic resources into popularized content, mechanisms coupling science communication with innovation goals).

Insufficient localization of international experiences. While case studies of global scientific societies are cited, they often lack critical analysis of institutional contextual differences, limiting insights into the viability of cross-border knowledge transfer.

Building on a comprehensive synthesis of existing scholarship, this study advances novel contributions in three dimensions.

1. Theoretical innovation. Transcending the linear ‘problem‒solution’ paradigm, we construct a tripartite analytical framework of strategic functionality–synergistic systems–organizational evolution to unravel the dynamic mechanisms underlying high-quality SP by scientific societies.

2. Methodological advancement. Integrating policy analysis and mechanism design theory, we propose a ‘six-in-one’ service system that transforms fragmented recommendations into a cohesive governance architecture.

3. Practical breakthrough. In the context of institutional reforms of CAST, we pioneer a ‘science-popularization-empowered societal development’ pathway, offering institutional solutions to resolve the long-standing tension between academic prioritization and public engagement.

3. New requirements for the high-quality development of SP work by Chinese S&T societies in the new era

Doing a good job in SP is an important function and an unshirkable social responsibility of S&T societies, and it is also an inherent requirement for deepening the reform of various S&T associations (CAST, 2021). The Opinions on further strengthening science and technology popularization in the new era issued by the General Office of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the General Office of the State Council propose that relevant mass organizations and social organizations should carry out SP and education in their respective fields according to the characteristics of their work objects. A first-class S&T society must have first-class SP. SP is not only the main business of S&T societies but also an important means for them to continuously enhance their attractiveness, cohesion and influence (BAST, 2023; CAST, 2021). In the great journey of Chinese-style modernization and the overall pattern of high-quality development of national SP in the new era, the high-quality development of SP work by S&T societies is of crucial importance and strategic significance.

3.1 The strategic requirement to promote the simultaneous development of SP and S&T innovation and to support high-level technological self-reliance and self-improvement

Both SP and academic exchange are essential functions of S&T societies, and conducting SP, like promoting academic exchanges, is a core mission of these societies. S&T societies organize scientists and engineers from their respective disciplines or professional (industry) fields to carry out SP work through various forms and methods. On the one hand, this can disseminate cutting-edge S&T knowledge from their disciplines or professional (industry) fields to the public, thereby promoting the popularization of high-quality S&T resources. On the other hand, this can also enhance the public's understanding, comprehension and recognition of the discipline or profession, thereby in turn promoting the development of the discipline or profession, contributing to disciplinary prosperity and technological innovation and achieving the simultaneous development and synergistic integration of SP and S&T innovation.

3.2 The objective need to build a socialized SP service system and enhance the scientific literacy of all citizens

The socialization of SP is a common trend in the development of modern SP. Only by fully mobilizing the forces of the whole society and building a socialized SP service system guided by the government and dominated by social entities can we promote the high-quality development of the SP cause. Among the entities engaged in SP, S&T societies, characterized by their scientific and academic nature, undoubtedly have the most advantages and are key entities and an important part of promoting the socialization of SP and building a socialized SP service system. By leveraging their professional advantages and organizational network strengths, S&T societies integrate S&T resources from various innovation entities such as government departments, universities and research institutes to carry out SP work. This is of great significance for innovating modern SP development models and promoting the diversification and socialization of SP development. It is also an important measure to continuously improve the SP work system and comprehensively enhance the scientific literacy of citizens.

3.3 The essential requirement for enhancing the attractiveness and influence of S&T societies and promoting the modernization of these societies

Organizing S&T workers from their respective disciplines and professions (or industries) to carry out SP work and provide specialized and precise services to the public is the mission of S&T societies, and also an important manifestation of their efforts to promote technology for the benefit of the people and SP for the welfare of the public. On the one hand, SP by S&T societies serves as an important platform for uniting and gathering S&T workers, providing opportunities for them to showcase themselves and serve society, and thus enhancing the societies’ attractiveness and cohesion among S&T workers in the process of helping them realize their personal and social values. On the other hand, SP by S&T societies is an important channel for expanding the social influence of these organizations. By conducting SP work for the public, S&T societies can make various sectors of society aware of and understand their societies, disciplines and professions (or industries), thereby expanding their social influence and reputation. This is conducive to enhancing the comprehensive strength of S&T societies, promoting sustainable development and laying the foundation for building modern S&T societies.

This section constructs a tridimensional theoretical framework of ‘strategic functionality–synergistic systems–organizational evolution’, systematically integrating fragmented perspectives from the literature review.

Strategic functionality. The framework couples the dual-wing synergy between SP and scientific innovation with Zhang et al.'s (2023) ‘bidirectional empowerment’ theory, redefining the core mission of S&T societies as ‘scientific communities’.

Synergistic systems. By extending Pan et al.'s (2022) ‘mechanism integrity’ theory through the design of a socialized science communication network, it establishes a dynamic equilibrium framework of ‘government guidance–society leadership–public participation’.

Organizational evolution. Internalizing SP capacity-building as a governance metric for modern scientific societies, the model aligns with Yan et al.'s (2022) social service-oriented analytical paradigm, thereby providing a theoretical anchor for the strategies proposed in Section 5.

This framework transcends the unidimensional interpretation of the popularization‒innovation relationship in traditional studies, laying a systematic analytical foundation for subsequent progressive arguments.

4. The problems and difficulties faced in the high-quality development of SP work by Chinese S&T societies

In recent years, the SP work of S&T societies in China has achieved remarkable results. Through various means and methods, such as cultivating branded SP activities, building SP platforms, gathering SP teams and establishing SP bases, S&T societies at all levels have played an irreplaceable role in uniting and serving S&T workers to promote S&T innovation, carry out SP and enhance the scientific literacy of all citizens, laying a solid social foundation for China's continuous progress towards becoming a world leader in S&T (Gu, 2023). However, in the context of China's modernization drive, the pursuit of high-quality development and the aspiration for high-level self-reliance and self-improvement in S&T, the high-quality development of SP work by Chinese S&T societies still faces obstacles and difficulties due to limitations in their capabilities, resources and conditions. These challenges are manifested in weak SP service capabilities, a lack of distinctive SP brands, suboptimal SP mechanisms, and the urgent need to cultivate a social ecosystem conducive to the development of SP by S&T societies.

4.1 SP capability is not strong

SP, along with academic exchange, is a primary responsibility of S&T societies. However, some societies prioritize academic exchange over SP and lack sufficient understanding of the importance of strengthening their SP capabilities. Additionally, due to a lack of funding, equipment and talent, most S&T societies have limited and simplistic means of converting their abundant academic resources into SP services. The forms of SP do not fully meet the public's requirements for the authority, interest, scientificity and timeliness of cutting-edge S&T knowledge in the era of informatization and digitization. Most S&T societies have limited capabilities in SP creation, making it difficult for them to produce original, distinctive and high-quality SP works that are widely recognized by the market and well liked by the public.

4.2 Insufficient investment in SP

Adequate funding and manpower are fundamental guarantees for promoting the high-quality development of SP endeavours (Zhang and Wang, 2021). However, insufficient funding and a lack of dedicated personnel have been significant obstacles for many S&T societies in carrying out SP work. In terms of manpower investment, although S&T societies are gatherings of experts in various disciplines, these experts usually have their own affiliations (i.e. they work as part-time members of these societies). Most societies lack full-time staff, and even fewer are dedicated to SP work. In terms of funding investment, most S&T societies have poor profitability and limited funds to invest in SP independently. Furthermore, compared to scientific research projects, there are relatively few channels for applying for SP projects, and societies often receive relatively little funding for SP from government departments or science associations through competitive applications. As a result, most S&T societies lack stable funding for their SP work. The insufficient funding and lack of dedicated professionals lead to more short-term actions in SP activities by S&T societies, with inadequate internal development momentum. Many SP efforts can only be carried out based on available resources (Zhang, 2020), making it difficult to cultivate brands leveraging their professional and disciplinary advantages in the long run.

4.3 The working mechanism is not optimal

An inadequate working mechanism is also a significant factor restricting the high-quality development of SP efforts by S&T societies (Zhang, 2022). In terms of organizational mechanisms, many societies, especially those at the provincial and municipal levels, have not yet established specialized SP departments, lacking overall long-term planning and strategies for SP work. Regarding assessment and incentive mechanisms, although most S&T societies engage in SP efforts, some even organizing regular events such as Science Open Days, they lack necessary internal assessment and incentive systems. Once SP activities are completed, there is no follow-up evaluation or feedback on their effectiveness. Some societies actively encourage and organize their branches, specialized committees and other entities to carry out SP work, but they lack corresponding guidance, evaluation and incentives for the SP activities of these branches. As a result, the enthusiasm and initiative of subject experts and scientific personnel for engaging in SP are not effectively harnessed, leading to SP efforts being carried out annually but with no improvement in SP capabilities.

4.4 The development ecosystem is unfavourable

From the perspective of the overall national and social environment, a strong atmosphere for socialized SP has not yet formed in China, and there are some flaws in the macro-ecosystem for the high-quality development of SP efforts by S&T societies. Currently, China's SP endeavours are still predominantly government-led, and there is a need to enhance the socialization and marketization of SP. There is considerable room for improvement in creating a favourable environment for social organizations, such as S&T societies, to engage in SP work. Firstly, the motivation and ability of S&T workers to carry out SP need to be enhanced. Many universities and research institutes emphasize innovation over popularization in their research assessments and performance evaluations, making researchers reluctant or unable to engage in SP work (Zhou et al., 2016). Secondly, the mechanism for converting S&T innovation resources into SP materials is not well established. There is a lack of targeted measures in research project management to promote the popularization of research outcomes. Most research projects do not explicitly require tasks and responsibilities related to SP, and budgets for SP are generally not included when projects are initiated (Pan et al., 2022). Thirdly, government departments lack supportive policies for social organizations, such as S&T societies, to engage in SP work. Currently, from the national to the local level, there are almost no policies specifically supporting such organizations in their SP efforts (Zhao et al., 2019). In competition with universities and research institutes for funding support, S&T societies are clearly at a disadvantage. At the same time, since the SP work of S&T societies relies on S&T workers from universities and research institutes, this competition also weakens the neutral status and platform function of S&T societies to a certain extent, greatly compromising their authority and impartiality as part of the scientific community (Zhao and Zhou, 2019).

5. The ‘six-in-one’ approach to promoting the high-quality development of SP efforts by Chinese S&T societies

To continuously promote the high-quality development of SP efforts by S&T societies, it is essential to firmly grasp the new-era mission that a first-class S&T society must have first-class SP (CAST, 2021). By adhering to problem-orientation, demand-orientation and characteristic-orientation, with a focus on capacity enhancement and mechanism construction, we should accelerate the removal of bottlenecks that restrict the development of SP by S&T societies. We should guide and support these societies to establish and improve a high-quality SP service system that integrates the six aspects of brand, platform, team, specialized projects, awards and positions, enabling high-quality SP to empower the construction of modern S&T societies and contribute to achieving high levels of self-reliance and strength in S&T.

5.1 Focus on cultivating reputable and distinctive SP brands

Distinctive brands are the core of high-quality development in SP efforts by S&T societies. Government departments and S&T associations at all levels should establish and implement SP brand-cultivation plans for S&T societies, supporting them in conducting SP activities in conjunction with major S&T events, significant research achievements, important time nodes and societal hotspots and difficulties. They should guide and encourage S&T societies to focus on the development of SP activities and content, leveraging their disciplinary and professional (industry) advantages to cultivate distinctive SP brands.

Firstly, cultivate influential and branded distinctive SP activities. S&T societies should actively participate in major national SP events such as National Science and Technology Week, National Science Popularization Day and National Science and Technology Workers’ Day, as well as regional events. They should also organize thematic SP activities around important dates, activity weeks and current events related to their disciplines and professions (industries). By organizing SP lectures, scientific consultations, science exhibitions and education, and SP creations, they should carry out activities that are close to the times, the people and daily life, creating brand activities with disciplinary and professional (industry) characteristics.

Secondly, produce high-quality and upscale SP content. S&T societies should continuously enhance their original SP capabilities and introduce excellent SP works. Focusing on the frontiers of disciplines and technologies, as well as the needs of the public and national and local development strategies, they should integrate science-communication resources within their professions (industries) and disciplines to strengthen the production of high-quality content and actively create diverse and popular SP works (BAST, 2023). By strengthening cooperation with professional SP institutions and media organizations, they should actively promote the popularization of cutting-edge technologies and significant achievements, bringing the latest scientific knowledge and major technological innovations to the public and society. This will enhance public understanding and support for S&T development and foster a social atmosphere that advocates innovation and scientific rationality.

Future initiatives could implement a phased brand-cultivation strategy. For instance, by 2025, the Certification Standards for Science Popularization Brands of Scientific and Technological Societies could be established, incorporating a three-tier (basic‒provincial‒national) accreditation framework alongside an artificial intelligence-powered resource-matching platform. This platform would automatically allocate media exposure, funding support and other resources based on certification levels. Starting in 2028, a dedicated fund with an annual budget of no less than 20 million yuan could be launched to support the global promotion of nationally accredited brands.

5.2 Accelerate the construction of a multilevel SP promotion platform

High-quality SP content must be disseminated through appropriate channels and methods to truly produce positive effects. S&T societies should strengthen the development of SP methods, carriers and channels, building an integrated online‒offline and traditional‒emerging SP platform to form a permeable SP network and a multilevel promotion structure.

Firstly, construct a full-media promotion platform with the characteristics of S&T societies. S&T societies should strengthen the ‘internet+’ mindset, focus on cultivating and building the ‘internet + SP’ brand and establish diversified communication platforms such as websites, journals, WeChat official accounts, microblogs and short-video accounts. Using these platforms, the societies can regularly push SP content to the public, achieve online‒offline cooperation and virtual‒reality integration in SP promotion and expand the coverage of SP.

Secondly, expand mainstream media promotion. S&T societies should strengthen deep cooperation with mainstream media and online platforms, expand the field of dissemination and build more SP service and display platforms for S&T workers to showcase annual SP figures and works. The societies should also enhance collaboration in SP dissemination, focus on scientific hotspots and societal focal issues of public concern, respond to public concerns and promptly clarify public doubts and misunderstandings.

Thirdly, strengthen the construction of emergency SP platforms. Based on the characteristics of their professions (industries) and disciplines, S&T societies should reserve and disseminate high-quality emergency SP content resources, establish a rapid-response mechanism for sudden S&T events, strengthen scientific-communication mobilization capabilities and organize S&T workers in their fields and professions (industries) to promptly speak out on public events, scientific events and emergencies (Zhang, 2020).

Fourthly, build domestic and international cooperation and exchange platforms. S&T societies should actively engage in cooperation and exchanges within and across disciplines, collaborating with various organizations, such as S&T innovation institutions and media organizations, to jointly carry out science communication. They should fully utilize international and ‘Belt and Road’ cooperation and exchange mechanisms to extensively conduct international cooperation and exchanges in SP, convey the value of SP and tell Chinese stories well.

Some specific measures can be conducted to build a multilevel SP platform. For instance, a pilot implementation of all-media platform-construction standards could be initiated by 2025, with non-compliant societies suspended from project applications for the current fiscal year. A certified platform operation officer system could be institutionalized, complemented by monthly stipends and mandatory annual training programmes. National-level platforms would be required to maintain multidisciplinary emergency SP resource packages and conduct quarterly simulation drills.

5.3 Continuously build a professional team for SP work

S&T workers are the greatest resource advantage for S&T societies to excel in SP work. S&T societies should fully leverage the organizational and network advantages of being homes for S&T workers, attracting groups of knowledgeable, enthusiastic and dedicated S&T workers to actively participate and continuously build professional teams of SP workers.

Firstly, establish a dedicated team for SP work. S&T societies with the necessary conditions should set up independent SP departments such as SP committees, increase the staffing of dedicated science popularizers and strive to build a team of SP managers.

Secondly, develop a high-level expert database for SP. S&T societies should actively attract high-level experts in various disciplines, professions (industries) and technological fields to devote themselves to SP work, establish a high-level expert database for SP across different directions such as SP creation, SP event planning, science communication and SP theory and policy research, gathering a group of leading talents in SP services.

Thirdly, strengthen SP capability training for S&T workers. S&T societies should enhance the construction of SP volunteer teams and strengthen the management and service of SP volunteers. They should strengthen cooperation with various training institutions, universities and comprehensive S&T museums, offering various levels of science-communication training courses for SP volunteers and S&T workers. The societies should also regularly provide training, promotion and other services for S&T workers in their respective disciplines, industries and technological fields to engage in SP, thereby enhancing their SP service capabilities (Zhang and Wang, 2021).

Future initiatives could pilot the professional title evaluation and appointment system for science-communication specialists in additional provinces, establishing a dual-track mechanism that integrates title assessment with the translation of popular science achievements. High-impact SP works may be recognized as equivalent to core academic publications in evaluation criteria.

5.4 Explore the establishment of a dedicated support fund for SP work

The high-quality development of SP work by S&T societies requires a solid resource base and conditional guarantees. While government departments and science associations at all levels are increasing their support for SP work by S&T societies, they should also encourage and guide these societies to establish dedicated SP projects, actively explore working mechanisms for the integrated development of public-welfare SP undertakings and commercial SP industries, strengthen resource sharing with the whole society, attract more social resources, especially from enterprises, to invest in SP causes of S&T societies, enhance resource guarantees for SP work, and achieve the diversified development of SP.

Firstly, establish a diversified investment system for SP by S&T societies. S&T management departments and science associations at all levels should increase their support for SP work by S&T societies. Where conditions permit, a dedicated SP project for S&T societies can be established to fund S&T societies in strengthening their SP work based on their own characteristics. S&T societies should also actively expand financing channels, attract diversified capital to support the construction of SP undertakings through crowdfunding, project co-construction, donations and other means (Zhao and Zhou, 2019), and create a win-win situation.

Secondly, vigorously cultivate and develop the SP cultural industry. In carrying out SP work, S&T societies should strengthen the concepts of marketing and knowledge marketing, pay attention to cultivating and making good use of industrialization mechanisms and rely more on market mechanisms and social forces to promote SP work. By leveraging opportunities and strengths, they can jointly organize SP product and service trading exhibitions and develop SP projects with industry enterprises, or further develop and market high-quality projects to form a self-sustaining mechanism for SP work and enhance self-profitability. They should promote the research and development of SP products, integrate the concept of knowledge marketing into all aspects of SP product development and SP work and use integrated innovation and integrated marketing of knowledge to build a future-oriented SP cultural industry, actively developing SP cultural industry chains such as industry consultation and planning, high-end SP products and derivative commodity research and development.

Future implementation may involve a tiered funding control system (e.g. national-level projects capped at 2 million yuan for each item), the introduction of third-party unannounced audits and a three-year longitudinal performance-evaluation mechanism, with assessment outcomes directly linked to funding increments. Additionally, an ‘innovation trial fund pool’ accounting for 5% of the total budget should be established specifically to support high-risk frontier projects.

5.5 Continuously improve the mechanism for SP work

Establishing a comprehensive, scientific and reasonable mechanism for organization and coordination, supervision and evaluation, rewards and incentives, and other aspects of SP work is a crucial guarantee for promoting the high-quality development of SP efforts by S&T societies.

Firstly, continuously improve the organizational mechanism. S&T societies should integrate SP into their overall work, planning, deploying and advancing it concurrently. They should include SP in their important agendas and key work arrangements, designate personnel to oversee SP efforts and ensure that there are institutions, plans, deployments and evaluations for SP within the societies. The chairpersons (presidents), secretaries-general and other key leaders of S&T societies should take the lead in conducting SP work, creating a favourable atmosphere for the development of SP in their respective disciplines and specialties (industries) and promoting high-quality SP. S&T societies should continuously improve their internal SP systems, providing norms and guidance for branches, specialized committees and others to carry out SP work.

Secondly, optimize the reward and incentive mechanism. Government departments should seize the opportunity of reforming the S&T evaluation mechanism to continuously improve the SP reward system, fully stimulating the enthusiasm and initiative of S&T workers, research institutions and universities in conducting SP work. S&T societies should, based on their own characteristics, improve their mobilization mechanisms and internal reward and incentive systems for SP work, achievements and tasks. For example, they should actively recommend excellent SP teams, individuals, achievements and works for national and local recognition and rewards. Qualified S&T societies can explore the establishment of influential science-communication awards to encourage S&T workers to actively engage in SP work.

Thirdly, establish a SP quality-supervision mechanism. S&T societies should fully leverage the academic supervision and industry evaluation functions of the scientific community, strengthen the supervision and quality evaluation of SP content in their respective disciplines, specialties or industries, creatively carry out work based on actual situations, enhance communication, select and establish models, timely summarize and appropriately promote good experiences and practices from the grass roots, and improve the quality and level of SP dissemination. They should establish a mechanism for reviewing the political and scientific nature of SP content, strengthen the political and scientific scrutiny of SP content, actively engage in scientific rumour debunking, strengthen scientific interpretation, dispel scientific myths and respond to social concerns.

Specifically, for instance, it is recommended to achieve full coverage of digital monitoring platforms by 2025, enabling the real-time generation of performance profiles for SP activities by societies. An annual credit rating system could be implemented, granting AAA-rated societies privileges such as exemptions from review processes. For major misconduct, a ‘one society, one policy’ rectification mechanism could be enforced, with societies under rectification barred from eligibility for excellence awards during the remediation period.

5.6 Collaboratively build diverse platforms for S&T communication

SP platforms, including SP infrastructure, serve as the primary venues for conducting SP work and are also important carriers for showcasing the effectiveness and characteristics of SP efforts by S&T societies. Although S&T societies have limited conditions and capabilities in building SP education bases and other such platforms, they can leverage their organizational network advantages to fully utilize and integrate resources from industries, universities and research institutions within their disciplines and industries, collaboratively constructing diverse platforms for SP.

Firstly, create unique SP platforms. S&T societies should actively organize and guide their member units to open laboratories, exhibition rooms, museums and other scientific facilities to the public or establish SP bases, venues and online exhibition halls, and carry out SP activities accordingly. Qualified S&T societies can build industry-specific or thematic SP venues, actively strive to become national SP education bases or provincial/municipal-level SP bases, and better serve the public while seeking national and local support, thereby expanding the influence of SP work (Zhao et al., 2019).

Secondly, actively integrate into grass-roots cultural and public places to expand the coverage of SP. S&T societies can collaborate with various S&T museums and other institutions to establish a mechanism for sharing high-quality SP resources, jointly build SP platforms and serve the public together. They should actively integrate the scientific resources possessed by S&T societies and their member units into grassroots cultural and public places, accelerating the improvement of grass-roots SP service capabilities and quality. By adopting various methods, they can promote SP by S&T societies in parks, stores, bookstores and other public places, integrating SP into people's daily lives and activities, such as leisure, shopping, medical care and tourism.

Future policies could pilot an ‘SP service hours for commercial venue usage’ model, offering up to 70% rental offsets. A shared platform for research equipment usage time could be established, mandating an allocation of 5% of equipment time for public science engagement. Government-funded bases could adopt traffic-based performance agreements, in which funds are proportionally reclaimed if promised public engagement thresholds fall below 80%.

The essence of the ‘six-in-one’ framework lies in its systematic reconfiguration of governance logic for scientific societies through synergistic design integrating capacity building, resource integration and institutional innovation. This paradigm shift transcends incremental optimization towards holistic transformation.

From the core competency layer (including branding, platforms and talent): branding enhances the distinctiveness of science-communication services, addressing the ‘resources without impact’ dilemma; platformization expands outreach scope, mitigating ‘activities without visibility’; professionalization fortifies human capital, resolving ‘capacity without sustainability’. This ‘iron triangle’ directly targets systemic inefficiencies in resource conversion and societal impact.

From the institutional safeguard layer (including projects, mechanisms and infrastructure): dedicated funding pools counteract fragmented investment patterns; digital oversight mechanisms institutionalize long-term accountability; networked infrastructure bridges the ‘last mile’ of service delivery. Together, these components create a closed-loop ecosystem of ‘resource allocation–precise governance–sustained efficacy’.

This framework transcends any mere aggregation of isolated solutions or mechanistic policy toolkits. Instead, it achieves strategic evolution from passive responsiveness to proactive leadership and from fragmented breakthroughs to systemic empowerment through modular complementarity and multitiered coordination. By synergizing the academic authority, organizational networks and societal service mandates of scientific societies, it not only resolves current developmental impasses but also charts actionable pathways for integrating these societies into China's modernization of governance systems.

6. Conclusion

This study systematically analyses the practical predicaments and optimization pathways for the high-quality development of SP by S&T societies in China. Theoretically, it expands the research dimensions of science-communication coordination mechanisms, while, practically, it provides policy references for improving the SP governance system. However, constrained by the research scope and methodology, limitations persist in the breadth of data coverage (e.g. the exclusion of field investigations into grassroots SP organizations) and the analysis of dynamic mechanisms (e.g. long-term efficacy assessment of SP). Future research could advance in the following directions.

Digital-intelligent empowerment: exploring practical pathways for digital-intelligent technologies to enhance SP innovation, such as constructing artificial intelligence-driven models for content generation and impact evaluation.

Cross-national comparative studies: investigating SP operational mechanisms of scientific societies across diverse institutional contexts to validate the universality of theoretical frameworks.

Policy instrument compatibility: conducting policy simulation experiments to investigate the compatibility of policy instrument portfolios, particularly in critical areas such as cross-regional resource allocation and multistakeholder incentive mechanisms.

Advancing these research directions will contribute to a theoretical system with enhanced explanatory and predictive power, offering sustained academic support for scientific societies’ participation in modern SP governance.