An exploration of science popularization ethics in China facing the future: Completing an important part of the ethical governance of science and technology *

Abstract

Science popularization (SP) ethics is an indispensable part of the ethical governance of science and technology (S&T). This paper discusses the necessity of developing science popularization ethics in China in the new era and their important role in the construction of the future S&T ethics governance system. We analyse the main problems and challenges facing SP ethics in China and the practice and enlightenment of SP ethics from Western countries. Based on this analysis, we put forward construction strategies and implementation paths for SP ethics in China, aiming to provide support for the improvement of the S&T ethics governance system and complete an important part of that system. By strengthening the construction of SP ethics, we can more effectively promote the social responsibility of S&T achievements, improve the public's understanding and acceptance of science and realize the harmonious integration of S&T and society, thus providing moral guidance and ethical guarantees for China's S&T progress and social development.

1. Introduction

Science popularization (SP) ethics concern the moral standards for the dissemination of scientific information. The core principle is to make sure that the information conveyed is accurate and impartial and does not cause any harm to the audience, while always respecting their rights and interests. SP ethics not only involve the respective responsibilities and obligations of scientists, SP workers and the general public, but also include a moral examination of the means of scientific interpretation and communication. There is an inextricable link between SP ethics governance and the governance of science and technology (S&T) ethics. The governance of S&T ethics, as a broader subject, covers various ethical issues involved in the research, development and application of S&T. Its objective is to safeguard the public interest and individual rights and provide a robust assurance of stable progression and innovation in S&T, in order to forestall potential ethical risks and ensure that the utilization of S&T advancements adheres to broader societal norms.

Given the richness and diversity of SP activities, the principles for the governance of S&T ethics provide clear guidance for SP ethics, ensuring that the scientific information conveyed is responsible and in line with ethical standards. SP activities are not only an integral component of S&T ethics governance, but they can also enhance the scientific literacy and ethical consciousness of the public. In doing so, they foster a deeper societal understanding and facilitate effective public oversight of S&T endeavours. It is fair to say that SP ethics and S&T ethics governance complement and reinforce each other and jointly push for the positive interaction between S&T and social ethics. In the technological society of the future, SP ethics are poised to play an essential role. They deliver moral and ethical guidance for the trajectory of S&T development, ensuring that advances align with human interests and societal aspirations. Moreover, SP ethics vigilantly observe the influences of technology on human life, promptly pinpointing and circumventing potential hazards. Beyond that, SP ethics are dedicated to fostering a harmonious relationship between technology, society and the environment. They emphasize the cultivation of moral literacy among S&T professionals through education to help them embrace their duties and missions.

In-depth research on SP ethics not only helps to improve the system of S&T ethics but also provides strong moral support and justification for S&T practices. By constructing a framework for SP ethics, we can effectively prevent the misuse of technology and ethical conflicts, thereby achieving a harmonious relationship between technology and society, the economy and the environment and boosting the positive influence of technology on society. Concurrently, that process will enhance our comprehension of S&T ethics studies and enrich their theoretical framework, thus offering clear guidance for the practical activities of S&T workers and bringing down ethical risks. Furthermore, profound discussions on SP ethics will elevate public awareness and trust in S&T, which in turn will bolster societal acceptance. That will lay a solid foundation for cultivating S&T talent with high moral literacy and further promote the healthy development of the entire industry. More importantly, it will elevate the ethical awareness and moral standards of the entire society, paving the way for a more just, harmonious and secure technological and social environment. The exploration of SP ethics facing the future not only completes an important link in the governance of S&T ethics but also has far-reaching implications for improving the S&T ethics system, guiding S&T practices and promoting the harmonious development of S&T alongside society. That is not only necessitated by S&T advances, but is also a choice that must be made to drive the progress of civilization.

2. Literature review

There is a substantial amount of literature on the topic of S&T ethics. In the CNKI database alone, there were 2709 articles related to S&T ethics (as of 30 May 2024), including 343 articles on the governance of S&T ethics and 27 on SP ethics. This section offers a comprehensive view of related research through the lens of a general analysis of literature pertaining to S&T ethics and a specific review of the literature on the governance of S&T ethics and SP ethics.

First, generally speaking, there is a large body of research literature on S&T ethics, focusing mainly on the following aspects. First, the research methodology system for S&T ethics is continuously improving. Researchers have drawn on research methods from other disciplines and combined them with the characteristics of S&T ethics to form a relatively comprehensive methodology system encompassing ethical review, empirical research and case analysis. Second, research on the principles and norms of S&T ethics has made progress. Researchers have proposed a series of principles and norms for different technological fields. These principles and norms provide moral guidance for S&T activities, help to prevent risks and promote the healthy development of S&T. Third, the research domain of S&T ethics is continuously expanding. Relevant research covers various emerging fields, such as biotechnology, artificial intelligence (AI) and cybersecurity. For instance, within the realm of biotechnology, ethical considerations surrounding cutting-edge technologies such as gene editing have been thoroughly addressed. Similarly, in the domain of AI, the morality of algorithms and issues of data privacy have emerged as prominent subjects of discussion. Fourth, relevant stakeholders have made progress in fostering S&T ethics. Some universities and research institutions have begun to actively explore and implement S&T ethics governance. For instance, several universities have set up S&T ethics committees to regulate S&T innovation activities and scientific research, fulfilling their primary responsibility for managing S&T ethics. These practices provide valuable experience for the implementation of S&T ethics. Fifth, cross-national research on S&T ethics is being carried out. Various organizations and S&T professionals from different countries have articulated their shared understanding within their fields through joint declarations, and this practice has garnered significant attention. These declarations provide solutions to problems arising from the interaction between technology and humans; they actively explore the integration of S&T with ethics and morality, providing important ideas and directions for the sustainable development of S&T.

Although research on S&T ethics has achieved relatively rich results, there are still some challenges and deficiencies. For example, the rate of conversion of research results remains low, and practical application is yet to be strengthened; at the same time, with the rapid advance of S&T, new ethical issues continue to emerge, requiring continued attention and in-depth discussion from researchers.

Second, on the governance of S&T ethics, the main research topics include the principles, systems, mechanisms and practices of governance, as well as suggestions for improvement. In China, S&T ethics governance has gradually become a hot topic in the study of technology ethics. Li (2021) proposed that the governance of S&T ethics should follow the principle of differentiation to adapt to different forms of technology. Zhou (2022) emphasized that the frequent occurrence of ethical incidents suggests that we should strengthen the ethical governance of health research involving humans. To address the issue of insufficient public participation, Zheng et al. (2022) proposed a modern path for S&T governance in the new era. Ji (2022) proposed the requirements for an innovative approach to S&T ethics governance from four aspects, while Chen and Xie (2022) called for ‘ethics first’ and suggested building a community of S&T ethics governance. Liu et al. (2022) summarized the valuable experience of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in conducting S&T ethics. Ge and An (2022) pointed out that China's S&T ethics governance system is gradually improving and suggested directions for its future development. In the light of existing issues, including inadequate systems and mechanisms, Liu and Zhang (2023) offered recommendations for enhancements. Wu (2023) emphasized the vital role of moral imagination in the governance of S&T ethics. Duan (2023) proposed strategies for addressing deep-seated ethical risks of S&T, while He and Lu (2023) focused on China's role in the international governance of S&T ethics and proposed countermeasures for modernizing S&T ethics governance in China. Pan and Yang (2023) underscored the unique responsibility of the scientific community in S&T ethics governance. Ruan et al. (2024) and Yang (2023) paid attention to the respective roles of the government and scientific societies in S&T ethics governance. Li et al. (2024) reviewed the history of S&T ethics research in China and stressed the importance of deriving ethics governance principles from practical problems and cases.

Internationally, some scholars have also conducted research on S&T ethics governance. For example, Bosua et al. (2022) studied the use of public data to measure diversity in computer science research communities from a critical data-governance perspective. Bowes et al. (2023) studied the structured ethical review for wastewater-based testing in support of public health. Halder and Batra (2024) proposed the navigation of ethical discourse in construction through a review of relevant literature.

Third, on SP ethics, the main research topics include the new characteristics and challenges of contemporary SP, the ethical position that needs to be taken in the work of SP, as well as the digitalization of SP and digital ethics, with only limited research outcomes.

In China, research on SP ethics began in the early twenty-first century. In a news article, You (2004) discussed the ethical issues triggered by the ‘Body World’ popular science exhibition, causing much public attention and academic discussion. In the following decade, SP ethics gradually captured the attention of the academic community. Yun et al. (2008) discussed the importance of popular science and ethics related to the production and use of experimental animals and proposed specific suggestions and measures. Chen (2008) noted the harm of pseudoscience to SP ethics, pointing out that this abnormal form of science not only impedes the enhancement of public scientific literacy but also obstructs the cultivation of the scientific spirit. Entering the new era, research on SP ethics has become more in-depth and extensive. Wu and Cao (2017) explored the ethical challenges within the industrialization of health SP and offered potential solutions. In 2020, the Chinese Association of Natural Science Museums and other organizations jointly released China's first Science Popularization Ethics Initiative. After that, a series of articles on SP ethics was published, triggering a new wave of research on this subject. These studies covered various aspects of SP ethics, such as the ethical issues facing S&T museums, the new characteristics and challenges of contemporary SP and the ethical position that must be taken in the work of SP (CANSM, 2020; Liu, 2020; Li et al., 2020; Li and Ma, 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Zhang et al. 2022). In recent years, with the rapid development of digital technology, digital ethics has also become a field of research on SP ethics. Ge et al. (2023) highlighted ethical issues in health communication and proposed to incorporate health communication into the system of S&T ethics governance. Yue (2023) explored how science-fiction works can empower popular science in the era of big data and noted in particular the ethical dilemma between information surveillance and privacy rights. Wang and Li (2023) further stressed the importance of digital ethics in the digital transformation of SP and proposed suggestions for improving the digital ethics literacy of the whole population.

In international research, due to differences in contexts, the concept of science communication ethics can be seen as a counterpart of the Chinese concept of SP ethics, yet there is not much research literature in that field either. Clarke (2009) argued that the internet is full of incorrect and even dangerous information, and it is difficult for those who have not received science education or training to interpret that information in the right context, especially when the inherent uncertainty in the scientific process is taken into account. Those who explain science to the public, whether they are journalists, educators or other communicators, should use peer review as a benchmark. Roedder (2010) analysed the ethical and metaphorical dimensions of science communication and argued that the use of language, including framing, storytelling and metaphor, has political implications, and that the use of metaphor is often a moral issue. Wilkinson (2018) examined the ethical standards that safeguard the moral integrity and ultimately enhance the effectiveness of popular-science activities to their fullest extent. Nazemi and Secko (2018) studied recent books in science communication, with an analysis on science communication practice and ethics and a perspective on digital videos. John (2018) argued for the commitment to epistemic trust and the ethics of science communication. Medvecky and Leach (2017) studied what makes science communication a good and moral thing and whether there are potential boundaries of ‘good’ science communication.

In summary, research on SP ethics has made some progress but still needs to be deepened and expanded. With the continuous advance of S&T and the progress of society, SP ethics are expected to face more challenges and opportunities. S&T innovation and SP are equally important, and S&T ethics and SP ethics are equally important. However, while research on S&T ethics that underpin S&T innovation is in full swing, research on SP ethics is still very limited and unbalanced. Therefore, it is imperative to explore the current research landscape of SP ethics in China and make a forecast on the future trajectory of SP ethics in order to provide theoretical support and a decision-making reference for the development of SP ethics and fill in the missing link of S&T ethics governance in time.

3. The current state of SP ethics in China

To understand the current state of SP ethics in China, it is crucial to delineate the connotations and distinctive features of SP ethics, review the developmental trajectory and assess the key issues and challenges that the field is confronting today.

3.1 The basic connotations and characteristics of SP ethics

SP ethics refer to the moral norms and values that should be followed in SP work. They demand that SP workers not only focus on the accuracy of science when disseminating scientific knowledge but also pay attention to the social, cultural and ethical impacts of popular-science content. SP ethics underscore the values of promoting S&T and SP for good and advocate for a people-centred approach that serves national development and the happiness of the people. There are several principles implied in the connotations of SP ethics. First, they advocate for technology to be a force for good, demanding that SP work should uphold the value of ‘technology for the betterment of society’ and, by disseminating scientific knowledge, enhance the public's scientific literacy and foster social progress and development. Second, SP ethics emphasize respect for life and dignity, requiring that, in the process of popularizing science, every individual's life and dignity should be respected, and the use of discriminatory, insulting or offensive language should be avoided. Third, SP ethics advocate for the principle of scienticity, demanding that popular science content must be based on scientific facts and evidence to avoid spreading misleading information; at the same time, they encourage originality in popular science and oppose plagiarism and theft. Fourth, SP ethics advocate for social responsibilities, requiring that SP workers take on social responsibilities, actively improve the quality of popular science and provide the public with accurate and valuable scientific knowledge. Fifth, SP ethics advocate for the perspective of open development, calling for international exchange and cooperation to jointly promote the global cause of popular science. SP ethics are an indispensable part of SP work. Developing SP ethics helps to ensure that SP content is science-based, accurate and morally intact, thereby enhancing the public's scientific literacy and promoting harmonious social development (CANSM, 2020; Liu, 2020; Li et al., 2020; Li and Ma, 2020; Liu et al., 2020).

SP ethics are characterized by fairness, truthfulness, respect and responsibility. Fairness means that SP activities should be accessible to all members of the public, without favouring any particular group or individual, ensuring that everyone has an equal opportunity to acquire scientific knowledge. Truthfulness refers to the requirement that SP content must be based on scientific facts and research findings, without fabricating or distorting scientific information, in order to uphold the seriousness and credibility of science. Respect means that, in the process of popularizing science, one should respect others’ opinions and choices and refrain from imposing one's views on others or using demeaning or aggressive methods in science communication. Responsibility means that SP workers are duty-bound to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information they disseminate, take responsibility for the potential social impacts and actively address public enquiries and criticisms.

3.2 A brief review of the development of SP ethics in China

The evolution of SP ethics in China has gone through the stages of initiation, gradual development and standardization, making significant progress along the way. In the initial phase, when SP was just beginning in China, the concept of SP ethics had not yet taken shape. Nevertheless, SP workers had already begun to prioritize the dissemination of accurate and factual scientific knowledge to avoid misleading the public. In the stage of gradual development, with the rapid advance of S&T, there was an increase in SP activities, and issues of SP ethics became more prominent. In that phase, SP workers began to pay more attention to the authenticity and objectivity of SP content, while also considering the social impact of SP activities. In the standardization phase, the development of SP ethics in China moved into a standardized track, especially with the release of the Science Popularization Ethics Initiative, which is a typical example of China's practice on SP ethics. The initiative made a four-point appeal to SP workers across the country: promoting the value of technology for good and upholding the principles of fairness and inclusiveness in SP; maintaining an equal and friendly attitude and respecting life and dignity; upholding the principle of scienticity and encouraging originality in SP; keeping an open mind and boosting international exchange. The aim is to regulate ethical behaviour in SP work and improve its quality and influence. The release of the initiative has provided clear ethical guidance and behavioural norms for SP work in China. Various SP institutions and workers have actively responded to the call of the initiative and striven to enhance their ethical awareness and literacy and promote the standardization and professionalization of SP efforts. At the same time, the release of the document also attracted more attention and support from society for SP work, making a contribution to improving the scientific literacy of the population (CANSM, 2020; Liu, 2020; Li et al., 2020; Li and Ma, 2020; Liu et al., 2020).

In recent years, the relevant departments have introduced a series of policies and regulations, underscoring the moral and social responsibilities of SP activities, to promote the healthy development of SP endeavours. Abiding by the norms of SP ethics, SP workers have paid more attention to the accuracy and authenticity of scientific knowledge and avoided the spread of false information, producing more reliable SP content. In the process of disseminating scientific knowledge, SP workers have proactively engaged with societal hot topics, popularizing scientific knowledge in a responsible manner. That plays a pivotal role in elevating public scientific literacy and underscores the social responsibility of SP activities. With the advance of S&T, the scope of SP is continuously expanding, which requires timely updates in SP ethics. SP workers have keenly followed emerging fields and cutting-edge technologies, diligently disseminating pertinent knowledge to the public, thereby enhancing people's understanding and grasp of S&T. Looking ahead, as S&T forge ahead and society progresses, the field of SP ethics will remain pivotal in elevating the development of SP to higher levels.

3.3 Major problems and challenges of China's SP ethics today

In today's era of information overload, ensuring the authenticity and accuracy of SP content has become a critical issue. The circulation of irresponsible information may cause misunderstandings and misguidance and even unnecessary panic, leading to questions about the authenticity and accuracy of SP content. SP activities should avoid any form of bias but, in practice, they may lose fairness and objectivity due to the subjective consciousness of information transmitters, commercial interests or other external factors, potentially leading to questions about fairness and objectivity in SP. With the rapid development of S&T, those delivering SP activities are undertaking increasingly important social responsibilities. The imperative challenge of ensuring that SP content not only imparts knowledge but also steers the public towards developing scientific thinking and behavioural patterns necessitates prompt resolution. Currently, the distribution of SP resources is unbalanced among different regions and social groups, which may prevent some populations from obtaining adequate SP education and information, leading to the problem of equitable distribution of SP resources.

As cutting-edge technologies such as AI, genetic editing and 6G emerge rapidly, SP activities urgently need to keep pace with the times, not only disseminating knowledge but also guiding the public to properly understand and accept the ethical essence of those technologies. The diversification of information circulation in the age of the internet creates unlimited possibilities for SP, but the complexity of information also increases the difficulty of screening and verification. How to accurately capture authentic, accurate and valuable SP content in the vast ocean of information is a severe challenge for us. At the same time, with the booming development of the SP undertaking, the demand for SP talent with high professional literacy and ethical consciousness is growing. Moreover, the rapid changes in S&T lead to a continuous rise in public expectations for scientific literacy. Effectively enhancing the public's scientific literacy and discerning ability through diversified SP activities is also an important task. Those challenges require a collaborative effort from the government, research institutions, educational establishments and society at large to address and surmount them. That can be achieved by formulating targeted policies, increasing the cultivation of SP talent and continuously innovating SP forms and content.

4. Practice and enlightenment of SP ethics from Western countries

Countries such as the US, the UK and the EU members have been at the forefront in practising SP ethics, and some of their practices and experiences provide valuable references and inspiration for other countries.

4.1 Practice of SP ethics in Western countries

(1) SP ethics practices of American science museums

Some science museums in the US attach great importance to the practice of SP ethics in their SP activities. They not only display scientific principles and the latest S&T achievements but also convey the spirit of science, scientific methods and scientific ethics to the public through exhibitions, lectures and interactive experiences. In museums, ensuring the accuracy and fairness of SP content is always paramount. All exhibition content must undergo strict scientific review to ensure that the information displayed is accurate. At the same time, museums also pay attention to their interaction with the public, encouraging visitors to raise questions and offer their opinions in order to continuously improve the content of exhibitions. In addition, American science museums also pay great attention to the moral responsibility of SP activities. They stress the moral obligations of scientists and researchers in SP activities, requiring them to include the social impact that scientific knowledge may bring while disseminating scientific knowledge. In addition, the museums also actively carry out scientific ethics education, helping the public to understand the ethical standards of scientific research and the importance of research integrity (Li et al., 2020; Xu, 2018).

American science museums also include ethical factors in the way they popularize science. They avoid using exaggerated or misleading promotional methods but focus on encouraging the public to actively explore and think about scientific issues through lively and interesting interactive experiences. That entertaining educational approach not only improves the scientific literacy of the public but also shows respect and care for the public (Li et al., 2020; Xu, 2018). The active exploration of American science museums in the practice of SP ethics is also instructive for other countries and regions in carrying out SP activities.

(2) SP ethics practices of the UK

The UK has promoted active exploration and practice in the ethical regulation of digital technology. The UK Government has established an interagency collaboration mechanism, formulated clear ethical governance principles and national standards and conducted effective regulation of the ethics of digital technology. In terms of regulatory models, the UK has adopted a multicentred, decentralized approach to digital technology governance, spearheaded by government departments and characterized by extensive vertical and horizontal coordination with intergovernmental organizations, all aimed at fostering the robust development and application of digital technologies. In addition, the UK has issued a series of regulatory policies and reports, such as Understanding Artificial Intelligence Ethics and Safety and the Review into Bias in Algorithmic Decision-Making, with the aim of regulating the development and application of digital technology, especially in the fields of AI and big data. During the science-communication process, the ethical constraints encountered by certain UK S&T museums not only involve the scientific content they present, but they are also reflected in the requirement that the museums must consider whether the content and practice of dissemination have achieved a harmonious alignment of values in the exhibition and education process. A typical case is that the Science Museum in London requires strict ethical review of exhibits to be displayed in the exhibition hall, and the ethics committee's deliberation sometimes lasts up to six months (Li et al., 2020; Xu, 2018). Those policies and practices not only reflect the UK's determination and action in the practice of SP ethics, but also provide valuable references and insights for other countries.

(3) SP ethics practices of the EU

The EU has also made active explorations in the practice of SP ethics. It has formulated ethical guidelines and policies, strengthened ethical education and training and established ethical review and regulatory mechanisms to ensure the healthy development of S&T and the fulfilment of social responsibilities. In the context of ethical practices within the EU, several countries have implemented their own initiatives. A case in point is the Deutsches Museum, where exhibition staff are vigilant and will promptly halt any photography that could include children, insisting that any such images be deleted immediately, on the spot (Li et al., 2020).

4.2 Insights provided by the SP ethics practices of Western countries for the development of SP ethics in China

The practices of SP ethics in Western countries offer insights for the future development of SP ethics in China. The following is a brief analysis focusing on two primary aspects.

First, the development of SP ethics requires the joint efforts of the government, the scientific community, the educational sector and all sectors of society. The government should formulate relevant policies and regulations to provide legal protection for SP ethics; the scientific community should actively participate in SP activities and disseminate accurate and scientific knowledge; the educational sector should strengthen SP education to enhance students’ scientific literacy; and all sectors of society should play their part to create a positive social atmosphere for SP. The accuracy and fairness of SP content are at the core of SP ethics. We should strengthen the review and quality control of such content to ensure that the information circulated is accurate and avoid misleading the public. At the same time, we should pay attention to the fairness of SP content to avoid any form of bias and discrimination.

Second, the moral responsibilities of scientists and researchers should be highlighted in SP activities. Scientists and researchers should be required to not only disseminate scientific knowledge but also pay attention to the potential social impacts of that knowledge and actively assume moral responsibilities. That can enhance scientists’ sense of social responsibility and help to strengthen the public's trust and support for science. We need to abandon the traditional method of didactic education, while encouraging the public to actively explore and think about scientific issues through lively and interesting interactive experiences. This approach can not only improve the public's scientific literacy but also help to cultivate the public's innovative thinking and practical abilities. We need to actively learn from and draw on international best practices and advanced experiences to formulate strategies for promoting SP ethics in line with China's national conditions and push for the continuous development of SP ethics in the country.

5. Future-oriented strategies for the development of SP ethics in China

Looking ahead, the development of SP ethics in China requires a diversified approach, encompassing multiple dimensions such as theoretical research and innovation, the establishment of a normative system, enhancement of ethical quality and awareness of responsibility, strengthening ethical review and supervision mechanisms and promoting deep integration between SP ethics and the governance of S&T ethics.

5.1 Strengthen theoretical research and innovation in SP ethics

We can strengthen theoretical research on SP ethics in the following aspects: 1) deepen research on the basic theories concerning SP ethics to clarify their core values and principles and explore ethical responsibilities, moral norms and codes of conduct in SP activities; 2) study the ethical issues and challenges in SP activities and analyse the commonalities and differences of SP ethics in various cultural and social contexts to provide the basis for establishing universal norms; 3) pay attention to ethical issues in emerging technology fields such as AI, biotechnology and big data and ensure the moral sustainability of technological development; 4) explore the ethical responsibilities and role of SP activities in dealing with public crises and improving public scientific literacy; 5) study the ethical behaviour and norms of SP workers in disseminating scientific knowledge and promoting the spirit of science; 6) encourage scholars from multidisciplinary backgrounds to participate in SP ethics research and promote exchanges and cooperation between different fields; 7) draw on ethical theories and methods from other disciplines, such as bioethics and environmental ethics, to provide new perspectives and ideas for SP ethics; 8) explore the interactive relationship among SP ethics, technological innovation and social development to provide theoretical support for formulating scientifically sound SP policies; 9) establish courses related to SP ethics in universities and research institutions to cultivate professionals with high ethical quality; 10) encourage SP workers to consciously abide by ethical norms and lead by example; 11) encourage SP workers to actively participate in ethical discussions and practical activities, engage in international exchanges and cooperation on SP ethics, regularly organize international SP ethics seminars or forums, and discuss global issues and challenges in SP ethics. Overall, strengthening theoretical research and innovation in SP ethics calls for efforts in multiple aspects, including deepening research on basic theories, expanding the field of applied research, promoting interdisciplinary research and innovation, and enhancing education and popularization efforts. These measures will help to establish a comprehensive system of SP ethics and promote the dissemination of scientific knowledge and the progress of S&T innovation.

5.2 Build a normative system of SP ethics

The normative system of SP ethics in China should reflect the core values of socialism and highlight the spirit of science, social responsibility and public interest. First, it should uphold the principle of authenticity to ensure that the content of SP is truthful and reliable and avoid disseminating false information or misleading content. Second, it should uphold the principle of fairness, maintaining an impartial stance in SP activities, not favouring any side or spreading biased information. Third, it should uphold the principle of respect, respecting scientific facts and others’ views, not infringing on intellectual property rights, and not discrediting or belittling other scientific views or research findings. Fourth, it should also uphold the principle of responsibility, demanding that SP workers take on the social responsibility of disseminating scientific knowledge, pay attention to the social impact of their work and avoid spreading harmful information. Bodies or committees dedicated to SP ethics should be set up to oversee the formulation and implementation of SP ethics norms and deal with violations of those norms. The review of SP content needs to be strengthened to ensure the scientific rigour and accuracy of the information disseminated. An archive on the credibility of SP workers should be established to record their performance in SP activities and punish violations. Cooperation with SP institutions from other countries and regions needs to be enhanced to jointly formulate and implement international norms for SP ethics.

5.3 Enhance the ethical quality and responsibility awareness of SP workers

The ethical quality and responsibility awareness of SP workers can be strengthened by the following measures: 1) strengthen education in SP ethics and provide regular ethics training for SP workers; 2) include courses on SP ethics in relevant training or continuing education programmes, with a systematic presentation on the principles, norms and practical applications of SP ethics; 3) analyse real cases of SP ethics to help SP workers understand the true impact of ethical issues and learn how to deal with them in practice; 4) establish a practical guidance mechanism to provide detailed operating instructions for SP workers and clarify the ethical standards and behavioural norms to be followed in SP activities; 5) set up dedicated ethics consultation channels to provide timely guidance and assistance on the ethical issues confronted by SP workers in their work; 6) enhance supervision and evaluation by regularly assessing the ethical quality and responsibility awareness of SP workers to ensure that they meet the requirements of SP ethics; 7) promote exchange and cooperation by establishing platforms for SP workers to share experiences and lessons in enhancing ethical quality; 8) organize cooperation programmes to help SP workers confront and overcome ethical issues and raise their ethical quality and responsibility awareness; 9) establish a reward mechanism to recognize and reward SP workers who excel in their performance and follow ethical norms in their activities; 10) take appropriate punitive measures for violations of SP ethics to serve as a warning to other SP workers; 11) encourage and strengthen self-learning and improvement by recommending reading materials, classic works and the latest research findings on SP ethics to SP workers; 12) encourage SP workers to engage in regular reflection and self-assessment, thereby enhancing their ethical self-awareness and practical competencies.

5.4 Enhance the ethical review and supervision mechanisms of SP activities

Specifically, ethical review and supervision mechanisms can be improved in the following aspects: 1) develop detailed ethical review standards that cover the scientificity, accuracy and fairness of SP content to ensure that all activities comply with ethical requirements; 2) set up specialized ethical review committees responsible for examining the content, form and purpose of SP activities to ensure their compliance with ethical standards; 3) create a standardized review process, including submissions of review applications, preliminary assessments, detailed reviews and final decisions, to ensure that each SP activity is thoroughly reviewed; 4) set up independent supervisory bodies to conduct regular or ad hoc supervision and inspection of SP activities and ensure ongoing compliance with ethical standards; 5) establish a reporting mechanism to encourage the public to report SP activities that violate ethical norms, so that problems can be discovered and corrected in good time; 6) strengthen accountability by seriously punishing activities that breach ethical norms in accordance with laws and regulations, and holding those responsible accountable; 7) provide regular training to members of ethical review committees and supervisory bodies to improve their review and supervision capabilities and ensure that they can accurately identify and handle ethical issues; 8) establish an expert pool by inviting specialists from relevant fields to participate in the review and supervision work and provide professional support and opinions; 9) publicize the results of ethical reviews and welcome public supervision to increase both transparency and credibility; 10) establish a feedback mechanism by encouraging the public and other stakeholders to provide feedback on SP activities to identify and correct potential ethical issues in a timely manner; 11) set up dedicated communication channels to facilitate public input on ethical issues in SP activities and promote two-way communication and exchange. These measures can effectively strengthen the ethical review and supervision mechanisms of SP activities, ensure the scientificity, accuracy and fairness of the content and enhance public trust and satisfaction in SP activities.

5.5 Promote deep integration of the governance of SP ethics and S&T ethics

The governance of SP ethics and S&T ethics should jointly work for the harmonization of technological progress and social responsibility. Clarifying this goal can provide direction for the deep integration of the two aspects. This can be achieved by the following measures: 1) strengthen the ethical awareness of the scientific and SP communities by popularizing ethical knowledge, make those who work in this profession more sensitive and responsive to ethical issues and forge a common ethical concept; 2) forge a unified framework of ethical standards by merging the foundational principles of SP ethics and S&T ethics and delineate the ethical guidelines for conduct within scientific research and dissemination activities; 3) provide researchers and SP workers with detailed operational guidelines on how to follow ethical norms in practice; 4) establish communication mechanisms by building platforms for communication between the scientific community and the SP community and hold regular exchanges and seminars to promote information sharing and experience exchange; 5) encourage research institutions and SP organizations to carry out cooperative projects to jointly study and address ethical issues in technology development and SP; 6) establish dedicated regulatory bodies to oversee the implementation of ethical norms in scientific research and popularization activities; 7) regularly assess the ethical situation of scientific research and popularization activities for the purpose of identifying problems and giving feedback in good time and promoting continuous improvement; 8) strengthen education on SP ethics and S&T ethics in universities and research institutions to bring up professionals with high ethical quality across various disciplines; 9) popularize knowledge of SP ethics and S&T ethics to the public through various channels and enhance the public's ethical awareness and supervisory capabilities; 10) establish feedback mechanisms to encourage public feedback and supervision on ethical issues in scientific research and popularization activities and foster a positive atmosphere of social co-governance. These measures can facilitate the deep integration of the governance of SP ethics and S&T ethics, promote greater balance between technological progress and social responsibility and help to improve the quality of scientific research and popularization activities, protect public interests and achieve harmonious development between technology and society.

6. The path to building SP ethics in China

To address the challenges and opportunities that China faces in building SP ethics, we need to explore effective paths from multiple dimensions and in line with the actual situation of SP ethics in China.

6.1 Formulate medium- and long-term plans for the development of SP ethics

Clarifying medium- and long-term plans for the development of SP ethics is important. We need to give a proper characterization to a particular plan, deciding whether it is nationwide or for a specific region, and whether it targets all fields or specific areas of SP. We need to conduct an in-depth analysis of the current state of SP ethics, including existing problems, challenges and opportunities for development. At the same time, we need to assess the needs and expectations of all parties regarding SP ethics to better formulate plans and strategies. Based on the analysis of the current situation and the assessment of actual needs, we could set specific, measurable goals, such as establishing a comprehensive system of SP ethics norms, raising the ethical quality of SP workers and enhancing the ethical level of SP activities. For each goal, we need to develop a detailed action plan, including timelines, responsible parties and required resources. To ensure the smooth implementation of the plans, corresponding safeguard measures need to be adopted, such as providing financial support, strengthening the professional workforce and improving regulatory mechanisms. We need to seek policy support from the government and relevant departments to create a favourable external environment for the development of SP ethics. During the implementation of the plans, a regular evaluation mechanism needs to be established to track and assess the effectiveness of implementation. The action plans and goals need to be adjusted in a timely manner based on the evaluation results to ensure their effectiveness and sustainability. In the meantime, a feedback mechanism needs to be established to collect opinions and suggestions from all parties in a timely manner to continuously improve the content of the plans. The development of SP ethics requires the joint participation and efforts of multiple parties, including the government, research institutions, SP organizations, the media and the public. Therefore, during the formulation and implementation of the plans, we need to actively facilitate communication and cooperation among all parties to produce synergy in promoting the development of SP ethics.

6.2 Improve the policy and regulatory system related to SP ethics

To promote the healthy development of SP activities, it is essential to first clarify the principles and standards of SP ethics. This involves establishing the core ethical guidelines to be followed in SP activities, such as respecting scientific facts, disseminating accurate knowledge and avoiding misleading the public. To ensure that these principles are effectively implemented, we need to develop detailed codes of conduct to provide clear operational guidelines for SP workers and institutions. In addition, it is crucial to establish a robust regulatory mechanism for SP ethics; the government should set up dedicated regulatory bodies to conduct strict ethical reviews and supervision of SP activities and, in accordance with the law, punish actions that violate ethical norms, thereby highlighting the seriousness and authority of SP ethics. Furthermore, establishing assessment and feedback mechanisms is crucial. We need to conduct regular ethical assessments of activities to identify and correct problems in a timely manner. Public participation in supervision also needs to be encouraged to jointly promote the improvement of SP ethics standards. Lastly, it is imperative to improve relevant policies and regulations, which involves enacting and amending laws and regulations related to SP ethics, clarifying the rights and obligations of all parties and severely punishing violations of SP ethics, in order to provide a solid legal foundation for the smooth implementation of SP ethics.

6.3 Strengthen the popularization of SP ethics education

Multiple avenues should be utilized, such as media campaigns, SP lectures and community events, to elevate the ethical consciousness of SP workers and the general public and to highlight the importance and far-reaching significance of SP ethics education. That will help the public gain a deeper understanding of the indispensable value of SP ethics in promoting S&T innovation and social development. Concurrently, it is essential to integrate SP ethics education into the entire education system. At the primary and secondary school stages, knowledge of SP ethics can be skilfully woven into science and moral education courses to guide students in forming correct values and ethical concepts regarding S&T. At the higher education level, courses focused on SP ethics can be provided or integrated into the curriculums of relevant disciplines to deepen students’ understanding of the subject. Moreover, strengthening the ranks of SP ethics teachers is crucial. By way of systematic training and practical experience, a cadre of educators with both rich knowledge in SP ethics and robust teaching skills can be cultivated. We need to leverage contemporary technology, including the internet and mobile apps, to craft and disseminate diverse content on SP ethics, thereby making this knowledge more accessible. Lastly, we need to establish assessment and feedback mechanisms for SP ethics education, regularly conduct objective evaluations of education effectiveness and actively solicit opinions from all parties to enable timely adjustments to educational strategies, thus ensuring the targeted and practical effects of SP ethics education.

6.4 Establish an inter-agency working mechanism for promoting SP ethics

To advance the work on SP ethics, an inter-agency coordination body or committee composed of representatives from various departments should be established. This body will serve as a bridge of communication to ensure smooth information flow and seamless collaboration among departments. By holding regular meetings, the committee will enable in-depth exchanges on SP ethics issues to build consensus and promote the formulation and effective implementation of relevant policies. To avoid work overlap and conflict, it is important to clearly define the respective responsibilities and tasks of different departments so that they can fulfil their roles and duties effectively. Additionally, it is crucial to establish an information-sharing mechanism, allowing various departments to obtain and share the latest information and resources on SP ethics in a timely manner. To strengthen communication and collaboration among departments, sound communication channels should be established to regularly exchange information about work progress and problems encountered and to jointly explore ways for enhancing inter-agency coordination. Furthermore, we need to establish an assessment and incentive mechanism for work in this field and recognize departments and individuals with outstanding performance in order to promote the continuous development of the overall work. All of these require the strong commitment and support of the leadership. They need to actively promote inter-agency collaboration and provide necessary resources and assistance to ensure that SP ethics work can be carried out smoothly and efficiently.

6.5 Encourage active participation from all sectors of society in building SP ethics

The government can introduce a series of policies to encourage and support in-depth participation from all sectors of society in the building of SP ethics. The following are some of the measures that can be taken: 1) provide financial support and tax incentives to encourage the participation of enterprises, research institutions and others in SP ethics activities; 2) establish a special fund for SP ethics construction to recognize and support individuals and organizations that stand out in the field of SP ethics; 3) fully leverage the media, the internet and the education system to disseminate knowledge of SP ethics and raise public awareness of their importance; enterprises and institutions should also actively integrate elements of SP ethics into product development and R&D, as this will not only enhance their sense of social responsibility but also effectively prevent potential technological ethical risks. Non-governmental organizations and communities also have important roles to play, such as organizing volunteer services and hosting lectures and exhibitions; educational and research institutions should integrate SP ethics into their curriculums and strengthen research in this field. In addition, cooperation and exchange platforms should be established to regularly hold academic conferences and promote information sharing and experience exchange. To stimulate the enthusiasm of all sectors of society, SP ethics awards can be established to give outstanding contributors an opportunity to present and introduce their work. These measures can encourage the whole society to get involved in the building of SP ethics and jointly promote the healthy development of SP.

7. Conclusion and outlook

This paper has delved into the indispensable nature of SP ethics in shaping the future trajectory of SP in China and their significant role in building an S&T ethics governance system. It has provided a detailed analysis of the main ethical challenges in China's SP practices and proposed strategies and pathways for the building of SP ethics. The aim of the paper is to enhance the ethical quality of SP workers, optimize the content of SP, establish regulatory mechanisms and advocate for cross-disciplinary collaboration to jointly create a new type of SP ecosystem characterized by diversity and collective participation. The research findings provide support for steering the cause of SP in China towards a healthier and more orderly direction and lay the groundwork for further improving the governance system of S&T ethics. We believe that by continuously advancing the practice of SP ethics we can be more effective in fulfilling the social responsibilities of S&T achievements, enhance the public's understanding and acceptance of science, achieve harmonious coexistence between technology and society, and thus provide solid moral support and ethical guarantees for China's S&T progress and social development.

Looking ahead, by strengthening ethical awareness, refining relevant standards, bolstering educational initiatives and fostering cross-disciplinary and international collaborations, China will make all-round progress in the realm of SP ethics and build up its global influence in that domain. With the rapid development of S&T and the continuous progress of society, SP ethics will play an increasingly important role in China's endeavours to communicate scientific knowledge and elevate scientific literacy and fulfil a crucial role in the governance of S&T ethics.