Abstract
In the context of the publication of the National Action Plan for Scientific Literacy (2021–2035) and the 14th Five-Year Plan for the Development of the Modern Science and Technology Museum System (2021–2025), and based on a review of the history and characteristics of various science popularization venues, this paper analyses the mission of those venues in advocating scientific methods, disseminating scientific ideas and promoting the scientific spirit and the scientist spirit. It discusses the requirements for science popularization venues to strengthen scientific culture. Finally, the paper provides suggestions for fulfilling the guiding role of scientific culture through promoting the modern science and technology museum system, including enhancing strategic awareness, strengthening academic research and breaking disciplinary barriers.
China’s National Action Plan for Scientific Literacy (2021–2035), released in 2021, is a guiding document in the field of science popularization. It sets out clear requirements for the dissemination of scientific ideas and methods, putting particular emphasis on promoting the scientific spirit and the scientist spirit (both of which are defined below). As important platforms for the presentation and representation of scientific culture, science popularization venues must respond to the needs of the times and think about how to realize the value of scientific culture through traditional exhibitions and the use of digitization, virtualization and other new technologies.
The contemporary connotation of scientific ideas and scientific spirit
With the development of the modern science and technology (S&T) museum system, science popularization venues have made significant progress in disseminating scientific knowledge to the public through informal education. Yet, integrating scientific ideas and methods into exhibitions and displays, as well as promoting the scientific spirit through S&T exhibitions and activities, has not received the same attention. Thus, both theories and practices of science popularization need to be enhanced.
Scientific methods
Scientific methods are the ways and means in line with the general principles of science that people use to understand and change the world. They include the ideas, procedures, rules, techniques and models applied in theoretical research, applied research and product development and promotion (Guo and Yang, 2013). Scientific methods, in a narrow sense, refer to the procedures or processes through which people learn about nature or acquire scientific knowledge (that is, the procedures, paths, means, techniques or modes of investigation used in a particular scientific discipline). Scientific methods, in a broader sense, refer to the fundamental methods that people use to understand and change the world on the basis of a correct world view.
In the pre-scientific era, Aristotle’s Organon was a grand collection of logical methods. Geometry, pioneered by Euclid, and hydrostatics, founded by Archimedes, are manifestations of ancient logical methods. On the eve of the birth of modern science, two masterpieces—Novum Organum (1620) by the empiricist Francis Bacon and Discours de la Méthode (1637) by the rationalist René Descartes—provided a systematic account of two key aspects of the scientific method: empirical induction and hypothetical deduction. In the scientific and philosophical arena of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the leading figures of the critical school of thought, represented by Ernst Mach, Henri Poincaré, Pierre Duhem, Wilhelm Ostwald and Karl Pearson, made contributions to the development of the scientific method. They were the forerunners of the scientific (physical) and philosophical (logical-empirical) revolutions of the twentieth century and the source of inspiration for the modern scientific method.
Science popularization venues should present the history of scientific methods and reveal their diversity (rather than unity) so that people can understand science, experience science and apply science more objectively. The venues are unique in their use of available tools. They should provide props and experimental instruments for visitors. In recent years, the development of interactive exhibits has changed the traditional museum world: greater emphasis is placed on the presentation of and education on the application of scientific methods.
Scientific ideas
Scientific ideas are a collection of ideas distilled by scientists, based on a variety of scientific knowledge and research methods, that reveal and explain other things of the same kind or more. They can guide scientific research and social practices in advanced forms and broader scope (Guo and Yang, 2013). Scientific ideas consist of elements such as the scientific way of thinking, scientific thoughts and scientific concepts.
In the nineteenth century, the modern scientific idea was established based on the aim of exploring the mysteries of the universe and pursuing a universal truth that is common to any subject, nation, era or culture. It had four world-view presuppositions: (1) the existence of reality is independent of our representation of the world; (2) reality is independent of the language used to describe it; (3) truth is a precise representation; and (4) knowledge is objective. The understanding of scientific ideas at that time was based on these views. Accordingly, from the end of the nineteenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, scientific–industrial museums, which were at the height of their development, focused on transmitting science’s enormous positive transformative power on society, known as ‘academic science’. Academic science is a type of science in its purest form. Scientists produced and disseminated knowledge out of curiosity, and ‘knowledge for knowledge’s sake’ was their basic principle.
In the second half of the twentieth century, with the publication of the book Silent Spring (1962) by the American marine biologist Rachel Carson, humankind became more aware of the devastating disasters that science could bring to the Earth. The series of scientific and technological risks that emerged afterward, such as nuclear safety risks, prompted humanity to re-examine the impact of science and technology. According to Ziman (2009), science has been going through a ‘quiet revolution’ since the 1980s. The interaction of science with politics and economics has become increasingly complex, and the production of scientific knowledge has become more closely connected with the interests of the state and enterprises. ‘Post-academic science’ has been formed as a result. Some Chinese scholars, based on a study of the gap in public scientific literacy between China and other countries, have introduced the concept of ‘living science’ and summed up the unique features of scientific ideas in the ‘post-academic science’ era (Gao and Zeng, 2013; Zeng and Li, 2007).
Scientific spirit
The scientific spirit includes the scientific ideas and traditions that have evolved based on the intellectual heritage of humankind and the synthesis of values and norms embedded in the underlying structure of scientific culture (Li, 2007). According to the American scientific sociologist Merton (2003), universalism, communism, disinterestedness and organized scepticism constitute the ethos of science. At the 20th annual conference of the Science Society of China in 1935, the Chinese scientist Zhu Kezhen gave a lecture titled ‘Right or wrong versus profits or losses’. He called the scientific spirit the ‘air’ for cultivating science and defined the scientific spirit as the spirit of ‘seeking truth’; that is, ‘asking only questions of right and wrong, and not considering profits or losses’. What he meant by ‘science’ was not limited to natural science. Zhou Guangzhao believes that the scientific spirit is the spirit of thoroughgoing materialism, and that staying objective and pursuing truth are the primary requirements of the scientific spirit. Cai (2003) summarizes the scientific spirit into six elements: objectivity, rational scepticism, pluralistic thinking, affirmative debate, practical examination and tolerant stimulation. It is difficult to say absolutely whose view is correct and comprehensive because, first, the formation of the scientific spirit has to do with the progress of science at that time. Second, different views about scientific spirit have emerged from the interaction between science and society in a particular social context.
In China, the scientific spirit has become an important part of science popularization, which was specifically mentioned in the National Action Plan for Scientific Literacy (2006–2020). In the 2021 scientific literacy action plan, the scientific spirit was described in greater detail. Promoting the scientific spirit through tangible displays has become a requirement for science popularization venues in the present era.
Scientist spirit
The scientist spirit is the collective character possessed by scientists. The concept of ‘scientist spirit’ first appeared in 2019 in the Opinions on Further Promoting the Scientist Spirit and Strengthening Research Integrity issued by the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council. The document received widespread attention in the academic community and other sectors of society, especially the parts concerning the connotations of the scientific spirit and the scientist spirit, the needs and strategies for promoting the scientist spirit in China, and the main characteristics of the scientist spirit in different eras (Ren, 2022; Ren et al., 2021a). As General Secretary Xi Jinping said in his speech at the Symposium of Scientists on 11 September 2020, ‘Science has no borders, but scientists have their homeland.’ While accepting international scientific culture with an open mind and tolerant attitude, it is an important mission of modern S&T museums to enhance the cultural confidence of the Chinese people and to shape a scientific culture with Chinese characteristics represented by the scientist spirit.
The characteristics of various types of science popularization venues in presenting scientific ideas and scientific methods
Although promoting scientific ideas and methods and other content of the scientific culture is a common task for contemporary science popularization venues, there are still significant differences in the specific content presented by the venues due to their historical backgrounds, working mechanisms and content features. In this paper, we follow the classification commonly used in Chinese and foreign academic circles (Li, 2017; Ren and Li, 2011; Wang, 2001) and analyse different types of science popularization venues, including nature museums, science and industry museums, S&T museums (science centres), and park-style museums and ecological reserves.
Nature museums
Nature museums include natural history museums, planetariums and geological museums. Historically, nature museums have had three major functions: collection, research and education. Yet, the functions of nature museums are becoming increasingly diversified. Some people have noted that museums are essentially education centres, research sites, academic platforms and cultural institutions. Nature museums of the twenty-first century should have multiple functions, including research, education and exhibition, as well as sociocultural and political functions. They should also serve to improve social welfare and raise the quality of people’s lives.
In recent years, there have been some changes in the functions of China’s nature museums: their main functions involve not only specimen collection, scientific research and science education but also eco-gardening and tourism and leisure services. For example, the Shanghai Natural History Museum has set its objective and function as ‘joining the ranks of top museums in the world’ and building a modern, integrated nature museum combining exhibition and education; collection and research; culture and leisure; and science and art.
There have also been changes in the exhibition format of nature museums. First, there has been a change from taxonomic to theme-based exhibition. The taxonomic textbook-style exhibition of traditional nature museums has been overturned and replaced by theme-based exhibition. Second, there has been a change from past-oriented preservation to future-oriented services. In the past, the mission of nature museums was to manage and preserve the natural world and human civilizations, with collection and research as their main purposes. Now, future-oriented cultural services are a greater focus. Third, there has been a change from exhibiting objects to exhibiting ideas. Unlike traditional nature museums, which mainly exhibit objects, modern museums are more focused on educational functions and the display and communication of scientific concepts.
Science and industry museums
Science and industry museums include science museums, technology museums and industry museums. Over the years, they have developed into one of the most important groups of museums. They collect important historical materials in the fields of power-generation technology, transportation, communication and manufacturing. Their collections, covering industrial production and practice throughout the nineteenth century (Alexander, 2014), are a demonstration of strong technology capabilities and an effective way to popularize advanced S&T knowledge (Ge and Zhang, 2018). Science and industry museums complement the functions of nature museums and have advantages in the presentation of advanced S&T (Wu, 2019). Since industrial museums emerged from the boom in the exhibition of the achievements of S&T revolutions and the protection of industrial heritage in the West, they are mainly represented by countries in Europe and North America. Focused on the exhibition of and education on industrial history and scientific knowledge, the museums use modern technologies and media tools to pass on scientific knowledge. In addition, they put great emphasis on the conservation of heritage sites and the development of humanistic activities and services. In aspects such as organization and operation, they are increasingly connected with individuals and other organizations, making efforts to develop new forms of industrial culture that serve the community. These aspects make science and industry museums an example of the integration of traditional and modern museum concepts (Yu, 2020).
Science and industry museums have some common characteristics. First, in the exhibition of industrial machinery and related technical products, the museums use static exhibitions and automatic demonstrations to display S&T principles, as well as industrial culture and its history. In that way, they provide science education to the public. Second, through community-based development, new forms of local culture and common knowledge are created. Under the concept of eco-museums, community-oriented museums have become a new trend. Among them, industrial museums based on the residential communities of industrial plants are good examples. Third, the museums attach great importance to cultural innovation. With a focus on the stimulation of innovative ideas and the creation of cultural brands, the museums have acted as the driving force for cultural communication through cultural projects. Fourth, industrial museums developed based on heritage sites can stimulate cultural inspiration and give vitality to the original sites. The Oberhausen Gasometer in the Ruhr area in Germany is an example.
S&T museums (science centres)
S&T museums (science centres) consist of modern science centres with interactive functions and some conglomerates of science centres and traditional museums. Since the twentieth century, advances in S&T have quickened, leading to explosive growth in S&T achievements. The interaction between S&T and socio-economic development has become increasingly important. Thus, deeper and broader scientific literacy is required than in the past, and people need to develop a habit of loving, understanding and using science from their teenage years and embrace the ambition to engage in S&T careers. This requires the public to have a better understanding of S&T. It is for these reasons that the prevalence of science centres has grown in both developed and developing countries alike (Zhao, 2016).
S&T museums are different from nature museums and science and industry museums in several ways. First, they stress the importance of visitors’ participation and use diversified forms of exhibitions to attract that participation. Second, their exhibits contain fewer objects and S&T relics. They usually use modern exhibition technologies and information technologies to present scientific principles. Third, they hold regular S&T activities and science popularization lectures. As these differences suggest, modern S&T museums pay more attention to the functions of science popularization and education, and their fundamental purpose is to enhance the S&T literacy of the visitors (Wu, 2019). John Beetlestone noted that ‘visiting a science centre is an experience … Science centres aim to create a relaxed, open and stimulating atmosphere and environment that sends the message that “here you will find many unique and worth-seeing things, and you will feel that everything is friendly and warm”’ (Alexander, 2014).
Park-style museums and ecological reserves
The museums that fall into this category include zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens and wetland museums. According to the UNESCO definition, all museums share the same mission: to study, conserve or exhibit objects of cultural value for the benefit of the community as a whole. Park-style museums are no exception. For example, in zoos, animals are kept, studied and exhibited through professional planning and management, and zoos often help conserve endangered animals (Burcaw, 2011). Influenced by the evolving philosophy of the museum industry, park-style museums have also gone through significant changes, from using traditional ‘caging and herding’ methods to becoming more immersive and ecologically oriented.
In their development, science popularization venues have gradually acquired more functions, from simple demonstrations of S&T achievements to science communication and education, and their value in society has also increased. Therefore, in the future, science popularization venues should not just fulfil their existing basic functions, but also introduce advanced S&T in their construction. Content-wise, they should strengthen the dissemination of scientific methods, scientific ideas and scientific spirit and seek innovation in their mode of services and educational functions. Taking public interest as the core, they should enhance their systematic service capacity to meet the diversified and personalized scientific-cultural needs of the people.
The requirements of contemporary scientific culture for science popularization venues
Performing the basic function as science popularization infrastructure: Transferring scientific knowledge and skills
Ren Fujun and other scholars have proposed the hierarchical structure of innovative culture and discussed the overall structure of scientific culture, taking the presentation of scientists’ stories and the promotion of the scientists’ spirit as an important part of the structure (Ren, 2022; Ren et al., 2021a, 2021b). The academic sector, and society as a whole, are now paying attention to the wider scope of S&T and underscoring the importance of S&T dissemination. However, the transmission of S&T knowledge remains the basic function of science popularization venues, continues to hold great importance and provides the foundation for the venues to perform other functions. This is consistent with China’s specific requirements for strengthening the modern S&T museum system and general requirements for science popularization and science education. Therefore, in order to serve the needs of high-level self-reliance and self-improvement in S&T and China’s national strategy of innovation-driven development, it is imperative for science popularization venues to further strengthen their basic function of disseminating scientific knowledge and skills.
Expanding the function as educational bases: Advocating scientific methods and spreading scientific ideas
The promotion of scientific methods and scientific ideas is an important function of science popularization venues. It is a function that has been improved and enriched in the evolution of the venues themselves and the emergence of various new venues. First, the growing variety of science popularization venues speaks to changes in social needs. Whether it is natural knowledge, industrial civilization or life science, all these concepts are reflective of the public’s diverse needs for scientific culture. Second, as educational bases for the dissemination and representation of scientific culture, science popularization venues are influenced by the development of science and the resulting changes in scientific ideas and methods. It is therefore particularly important to stay sensitive to and keep up with those changes.
Meeting the needs of the new era: Promoting the scientific spirit and the scientist spirit
Taking science popularization venues as main platforms and channels for promoting the scientific spirit and scientist spirit is predicated upon the expanded public demand for scientific culture. This also reflects the requirement that the modern S&T museum system should facilitate the advance of S&T and the innovative development of the country. In particular, the introduction of the concept of ‘scientist spirit’ and its repeated reference in important documents, such as the 2021 scientific literacy action plan, demonstrate the importance of establishing the leading role of top-level values in science communication, which is a necessary path leading to stronger cultural confidence. If scientific ideas and scientific methods reflect the characteristics and level of scientific culture, then what the scientific spirit and scientist spirit show is the position of scientific culture in the overall social culture, which involves the integration of the scientific culture with other cultures in society.
Aligning with socio-economic development: Turning S&T into an element of social culture
Putting the scientific spirit and scientist spirit at the heart is crucial for locating the unique cultural value and significance of S&T. Based on this, a relatively complete structure of scientific culture can be formed by combining scientific knowledge, scientific methods and scientific ideas. Although it is not possible to require every science communication activity to involve all aspects of scientific culture, the overall approach to communication must be premised on a consideration of the overall structure of scientific culture. Only in this way will it be possible to move S&T out of the confines of instruments, thus consolidating the foundation of the scientific culture and making it a unique culture that can exist independently and define the basic feature of social civilization, which contributes to the long-term development of the economy and society.
Suggestions for the modern S&T museum system to realize the leading role of scientific culture
Align with national S&T development strategies to serve S&T innovation
The modern S&T museum system should aim for higher goals in serving China’s development and social progress. The construction of the system should keep to the ‘four orientations’ (forefront of world S&T, economic development, major national needs and people’s lives and health) and contribute to a high level of self-reliance and self-improvement in S&T and the building of a modern socialist country (CAST, 2021). To meet the requirements laid out in Xi Jinping’s speeches on S&T innovation and science popularization, modern S&T museums should devise strategies and measures based on the ultimate goal of serving the country’s innovative development. In this way, they will promote the development of scientific culture and support the realization of high-level self-reliance and self-improvement in S&T.
Strengthen academic research to support the theoretical construction of the modern S&T museum system
Research on the construction of the modern S&T museum system has produced some academic results. We should continue to improve theoretical research in this regard and expand research into new relevant areas, thus improving the theoretical system and providing support for practices in the construction of the modern S&T museum system. By doing so, we can better meet the requirements for science popularization venues laid out in the 2021 scientific literacy action plan and the 14th Five-Year Plan for the Development of the Modern Science and Technology Museum System (2021–2025) and deliver the goals set out in the 14th Five-Year Plan. Theoretically, we should further strengthen the research functions and workforce of the venues so that they will acquire research capabilities. In practice, we should adopt appropriate incentive mechanisms to keep science popularization professionals motivated in the research and development of original exhibitions and activities so as to enhance the intellectual power of the modern S&T museum system (Li and Qi, 2022).
Break the disciplinary barriers between science and culture to expand the outreach of the modern S&T museum system
The modern S&T museum system, as a distinctive Chinese concept concerning the construction and management of S&T infrastructure, has made notable advances in its development over recent years, laying a solid foundation for the construction of science popularization venues in China. It has provided an important platform for implementing the advanced ideas of the 2021 scientific literacy action plan and boosting the scientific literacy of the population. On this basis, it is necessary to expand from the construction of science popularization infrastructure to the construction of cultural infrastructure. Thus, by breaking disciplinary barriers, science popularization venues, as scientific-cultural infrastructure, could maximize their outreach and become physical platforms for carrying scientific culture. The Alliance of Chinese Science and Cultural Venues established on 22 November 2021 is an example of interdisciplinary and cross-platform alliances. S&T venues, cultural venues and social organizations should join to form such alliances at both meso- and micro-levels and work to foster an inclusive and diversified scientific culture.
Establish a multidisciplinary expert pool to guide the construction of the modern S&T museum system
Science popularization venues have formed a sizeable industrial base and cultivated batches of professionals. However, due to the interdisciplinary and comprehensive features of the museum industry, there is still a need for front-line experts in a wide range of fields, such as basic research; medicine and health; and product research and development. These people can examine and recommend improvements to the various S&T frontiers and specialized subject areas involved in science communication. In addition, scholars in the fields of humanities and social sciences (such as the philosophy of science; science, technology and society; the history of science; and S&T policy) are also needed to address the humanistic connotations and cultural values of S&T. Thus, the S&T museum system could incorporate the latest intellectual achievements in the humanities and social sciences. Finally, due to the rapid advancement of exhibition technologies, we also need the guidance of experts who are well versed in the frontiers of exhibition design and the museum industry more generally. The establishment of a cross-disciplinary, cross-sector and cross-platform expert pool can provide guidance and support for the development of the S&T museum system in all aspects.
Footnotes
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.