As one of the oldest surviving languages in the world, the Chinese language is the means by which Chinese culture is passed down from one generation to the next. Indeed, the origins of some Chinese words can be traced back to ancient times, including xue (学). Typically translated as “learning,” xue has a long history and is still widely used today. The word is used in various ways in contemporary Chinese, including “learning” (xuexi, 学习), “student” (xuesheng, 学生), and “school” (xuexiao, 学校). While xue is often translated as learning in English, the two concepts differ greatly in terms of their connotations, value orientations, objectives, and approaches to actualization.
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Such challenges in translation often underscore profound divergences in semantics and the underlying realities that they convey. Understanding the differences in key educational concepts (i.e., xue or learning) offers deeper insights into the intrinsic differences between Chinese and Western educational systems. Certainly, xue is a key component of traditional Chinese pedagogy (Du, 2010). However, despite the importance of xue, there is little understanding of its origin, making it difficult for even contemporary Chinese people to discern between xue and learning.
Accordingly, this study explores the origin of xue and elucidates how it was understood and applied in ancient China. In early China, activities related to xue were associated with the practices of witchcraft and warfare, the latter of which utilized historical records and divination practices to facilitate decision-making for martial endeavors. Therefore, it is worth revisiting Chinese history to rethink the philosophical connotation of xue, discover the long-term impact of such a cultural tradition on contemporary education in China, and obtain a deeper understanding of the fundamental differences between xue and learning.
Xue-related activities in ancient China
According to the literature, the earliest record of xue can be traced to the Yin and Shang Dynasties (ca. 1766–1050 BCE). According to the Wangzhi (王制, royal regulations), one of the chapters of the Liji (《礼记》, Book of Rites), a seminal Chinese text, in the Yin and Shang Dynasties before embarking on a military expedition, it was a convention to conduct a ritual known as shou cheng yu xue (受成于学), which means “learning successful experience and strategies in the college (i.e., xue).” Zheng Xuan, a renowned scholar of Confucian classics in the Han Dynasty, regarded this practice as a strategic endeavor and referred to it as ding bing mou (定兵谋, “military strategy-planning”). Inscriptions on recently excavated oracle bones also reference the concept of xue, demonstrating that the record of shou cheng yu xue in the Wangzhi chapter (王制, royal regulations) of the Liji (《礼记》, Book of Rites) is a relatively accurate reflection of the military history of the Yin and Shang Dynasties further supporting Zheng's view of xue. Nevertheless, several questions remain, including what ding bing mou actually involved within the domain of xue, as well as who led such activities and where they were conducted. Answering these questions can enhance our understanding of the connotations of xue in Chinese culture.
In oracle bone inscriptions, xue contains the character 
. According to Tang (2005), an ancient writing expert, 
resembles the figure yao (爻) in ancient Chinese divination, indicating that xue was originally considered a divination activity. However, his view was not well-received in academia, with most scholars believing that the oracle-bone character 
of the Yin Dynasty was not the same as yao (爻), which was only identified after the Western Zhou period (1045–771 BCE).
However, recent archaeological research has revealed that the practice of numerology existed as early as the Yin Dynasty (Ding, 2019). As a divination symbol with plant stalks, the figure yao (爻) can be seen as a form of numerical divination itself.
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In structural terms, yao (爻) comprises two “×” marks, which is the symbol of numerical value “five” (五) (Pan, 2001). If numerology gave rise to divination with plant stalks and yao can be regarded as a numerical hexagram, it follows that the oracle-bone character 
could be related to numerology. In China, the emergence of numerology can be traced back to the Neolithic era.
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The archeological discovery of oracle bones with numerical hexagrams indicates that numerology gained popularity during the Yin Dynasty (Song, 1999). Therefore, it can be argued that the oracle-bone character 
and the figure yao (爻) used for divination in the Zhouyi (《周易》, Book of Changes) are the same. In other words, it is essentially a number.
This raises the question of whether it was possible to use numerology to facilitate military decision making. History answers in the affirmative. Ancient China has a profound tradition of developing military strategies based on numerical analysis. Indeed, numerous strategy-related Chinese characters imply the meaning of numerical calculations and are often related to the act of counting, such as “scheme” (ce, 策), “plan” (chou, 筹), “calculate” (suan, 筭), “count” (ji, 计), and “plot” (mou, 谋). Furthermore, a numerological practice called “orphan-empty” (guxu, 孤虚) has been documented in key Chinese historical works, including Shiji (《史记》, Records of the Grand Historian) and Songshi (《宋史》, History of Song). Used to support numerical calculations for military purposes, this practice already existed during the Pre-Qin period, as evidenced by the bamboo slips found in a Qin tomb at the Zhoujiatai site in Hubei Province (Lv, 2018). This suggests that, during its advent, xue may have been a form of numerology for martial decision making.
Masters of xue
Who mastered this form of numerology and took the lead in this endeavor? In addition to comprehensive knowledge and an excellent command of numerology, leaders in this field may have been familiar with or even involved in military operations, making historians the perfect candidates for such a role. Indeed, historians developed the Chinese written language and were the cornerstone of the bureaucratic system during the Pre-Qin period. Arguably, the functioning of the bureaucratic system was heavily reliant on the work of historians. Previously, historians were derived from shamanism. However, while both historians and shamans served as spiritual mediums,
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they were not the same. According to Confucius, the mastery of numerology distinguished historians from shamans.
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Such mastery of numerology was due to historians initially acting as celestial officials (tianguan, 天官) responsible for divination based on celestial patterns (Xing, 1998).
This raises the question of whether these historians were familiar with and engaged in military activities and whether they promoted activities related to xue. Historically, historians were considered civil officials with mastery over written language. It is worth noting that in early times historians were also involved in the formulation and development of military law and strategies. In Pre-Qin period, there was a military treatise known as Sima Bingfa (《司马兵法》, Military Strategy of Sima), which was written by the military officials who served as Sima for studying and formulating military strategies.
Additional evidence is provided by the famous legend of King Wen of Zhou and his divination work. According to Sima Qian, King Wen was the ruler of Zhou during the Shang Dynasty. King Zhou of Shang allegedly confined King Wen in a stone chamber in Youli (羑里), near the outskirts of the capital of the Shang Dynasty. In early China, stone chambers were designed to facilitate sacred rituals/ceremonies as well as military activities. It was in a stone chamber that King Wen wrote the classic book of divination, Zhouyi (《周易》) or Yijing (《易经》), that is, the Book of Changes. However, Sima Qian's account of imprisonment has been questioned by historians. According to their research, King Zhou of Shang immediately bestowed upon King Wen the title of “Xibo,” a prestigious position akin to a royal historiographer of the Shang Dynasty,
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and granted him the authority to command the military forces after he exited the chamber. This contradicts the notion of imprisonment and suggests a political affirmation of allegiance. It is worth noting that Youli produced Shi (蓍), also known as yarrow, which was used for divination. Accordingly, it is reasonable to speculate that divination activities using stalks of Shi (yarrow) had taken place in Youli before King Wen arrived. Given the military features of the chamber, it is highly probable that such numerological activities served martial endeavors. It is possible that, in the stone chamber, King Wen witnessed how divination activities facilitated martial decision-making. Through such experience, he obtained and improved this technique and then wrote Zhouyi. Following his stay in the chamber, he became a historical figure with the authority to lead military campaigns in support of the monarch.
Based on this information, it can be inferred that there were numerological activities involving the interpretation of numerical patterns (i.e., 
). This practice was subsequently applied to military decision-making by historians with excellent command of numerological techniques. Over time, 
often occurred at specific places, eventually developing into 
or 
.
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The designated place was referred to as 
or 
, giving rise to the early form and meaning of the character xue. According to Zuo Zhuan (《左传》, XIII. Thirteenth year, Book VIII. Duke Cheng, Commentary of Zuo), “The great affairs of a country lie in sacrifice and war” (国之大事，在祀与戎).
As such, divination played an increasingly crucial role in warfare and the political life of the country. Given their importance, divination activities and related venues were originally denoted by yao (爻), which represents numbers and numerology. Official historians, referred to as shi (史), became the masters of divination techniques and continued to play significant roles in the political and cultural spheres of ancient China over the years.
Influence of xue on Chinese culture and education
Originally, xue was a practice that utilized numerology to develop military strategies. Over time, it became institutionalized within a designated domain known as xue, and was primarily practiced by historians (shi, 史). This development path suggests a close connection between xue and early shamanistic traditions in ancient China. Furthermore, the adoption of numerological techniques—derived from shamanism and mastered by historians—may have played a crucial role in the establishment of xue as well as the gradual independence and ascendancy of historians. These insights offer a fresh perspective on and greater understanding of the spiritual basis and cultural significance of xue.
Shaping the core Chinese philosophical spirit of “unity of
heaven and humanity”
Xue with numerological origins has shaped the spirit of Chinese philosophy, which is based on the “unity of heaven and humanity” (tian ren he yi, 天人合一). Zhang (1999b) examined the xue of Confucius and regarded it as an inexhaustible and ultimate pursuit that exists within the temporal and spatial realm of opportune moments. Based on a series of studies on the cultural characteristics of xue of the Confucian school, Yu (2012, 2014a, 2014b) concluded that the Confucianist xue is the aesthetical existence of time and space with a transcendental nature. It possesses a rhythmical quality and emotional profundity that interconnects the self and the external world.
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In short, xue embodies a core spiritual disposition toward the Doctrine of the Mean and transcendence, one that cannot be established without the numerological origins of xue.
Ancient Chinese numerology is rooted in an organic, holistic, and continuous cosmological philosophy—one markedly different from the dualistic, isolated, and static cosmology prevalent in the Western tradition. Chinese cosmological philosophy can be traced back to the practices of ancient sorcerers and shamans. Using numerological techniques, xue was initially enacted in the continuous pursuit of the optimal state of change, namely, the Doctrine of the Mean (zhongyong, 中庸), which is “an inexhaustible and ultimate pursuit that exists within the temporal and spatial realm of opportune moments.” The proactive sustenance of this state was what Confucius described as being “fond of learning.”
Xue is the process through which one continuously pursues the suitable states of change, while acknowledging the existence of a transcendent “heaven” that surpasses both the self and the present moment. In this sense, xue constitutes the dynamic interplay between aligning one's body and mind with the transformative forces of heaven through the ongoing transcendence of the self and the present moment. This state is commonly referred to as the “unity of heaven and humanity” (tian ren he yi, 天人合一) or the state in Confucianism wherein “one gains an understanding of the laws of nature by studying human affairs and principles.” As such, xue is an aesthetical existence of time and space with a transcendental nature. It has rhythmical quality and emotional profundity that interconnects the self and the external world, as well as the body and mind.
Establishing the central position of education in Chinese society
Xue occupies a core position in China's education. The pivotal role of xue in the early political and cultural history established the centrality of education in Chinese society. Evolving from numerology, xue played a crucial role in politics, military affairs, and cultural life in early China, underscoring its impact on Chinese culture. The adoption of numerology for martial strategizing contributed to the differentiation between historians and shamans and gave rise to a distinct approach to power and wealth that differed from the traditional reliance on blood ties. Considering its increasing influence, this new approach was primarily based on the merits and wisdom of historians and rooted in xue. This inevitably challenged traditional political authority grounded in kinship, which gave the central role to the monarch and took place in ancestral temples. Consequently, there was a cooperative and antagonistic relationship between the monarch and historians. Although their situations might change to some extent, collectively, they formed a distinct power structure known as the “unity of politics and xue.” Throughout China's long history, this dialectical relationship existed in the interplay between kings and sages, political and moral authority, royal and advisory power, official and private education, the imperial court and broader society, and even the internal conflict between external authority and inner moral excellence. Ultimately, a relative equilibrium was attained through the imperial examination system.
As a result, the practices and places associated with xue provided the foundations for the transmission, development, and institutionalization of knowledge. Looking back on intellectual progress in ancient China from numerology to academic scholarship, divination to historical works, and eventually the emergence of distinct schools of thought during the Pre-Qin period, xue became a practical conduit and spiritual haven for the formation, transmission, and advancement of ancient Chinese traditions. It was also a central part of traditional Chinese education, offering a vital means by which individuals could cultivate themselves and engage in political practice.
Promoting the formation of the talent cultivation goal of “de” in Chinese education
De (德, virtue) is an important goal in the cultivation of talents in Chinese education. According to Confucius, “A gentleman is virtuous, while a villain is earthy.” Talent cultivation remains a major goal today. Indeed, in recent years, Chinese President Xi Jinping has reiterated “fostering virtue through education as a fundamental task” (China Daily, 2023). It is worth noting that the early practices of xue promoted the formation and transformation of de, with de thus constituting an important goal in the cultivation of human resources in Chinese education.
De represents the highest objective pursued within traditional Chinese education and constitutes a core tenet of ancient Chinese politics and philosophy. The notion of de originated from the early practices of xue. Initially, de denoted actions allowed by heaven, referred to as “unconscious virtue” (
). It later developed into “conscious virtue,” which signifies the innate moral qualities that harmonize with the cosmic will. The underlying shift in the concept of de from celestial virtue to the unity of celestial and human virtue during the Yin and Zhou Dynasties was likely influenced by the practice of divination in martial decision-making (Chen, 2007).
Historians who mastered the practice of divination for military decision-making may have played a significant role in the formation and transformation of the concept of de. This is evident in the profound interconnection between de and the “numbers” in their works. In the Silk Manuscript of Yizhuan (《易传》), Confucius asserted:
One should first grasp the power of praise (of sorcery) to comprehend the principles of numerology and its moral significance (in history). By consciously aligning themselves with the appreciation of praise and the moral significance of the numbers in their practice, they can ultimately adopt benevolence in their personal conduct. Failure to grasp the principles of numerology results in mere sorcery, while overlooking the moral significance leads to a mere historian. [幽赞而达乎数，明数而达乎德，又仁（守）者而行之耳。赞而不达乎数，则亓为之巫。数而不达于德，则亓为之史。]
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While Confucius believed that mastering numbers as a historian alone is not the path to virtue, he still recognized a sequential relationship between comprehension, numerology, and virtue.
Historians appear to have promoted the shift from “unconscious virtue” to “conscious virtue,” thereby facilitating the formation of democratic thought with Chinese characteristics. These historians were the first to discern that the shifting tides of popular sentiment had a significant influence on martial changes and the outcome of wars. While rulers might assert their dominance by consistently taking advantageous positions, their policies would be worthless if they failed to align with people's will and interests. Consequently, an incremental correlation between the celestial mandate and the collective aspirations of the people emerged, ultimately giving rise to the philosophical underpinning of “unity between heaven and the people” during the transition from the late Shang Dynasty to the early Zhou Dynasty. It is through this intricate process that a form of democratic thought gradually developed. Of cultural significance in China, such democratic thinking expounded “being the masters of the people” and “acting in the best interest of the people” (Liang, 2018).
In the Yao (要) chapter of the Silk Manuscript, the Master said, “We all engage in divination, but we have different pursuits. (I seek moral qualities, while historians and shamans are concerned with the outcomes of divination)” (吾与史巫同途而殊归). In this respect, the concept of “governing with virtue” advocated by Confucius and the ethical beliefs of “gentlemen embodying virtue” upheld by the Confucianists during the Pre-Qin period (represented by Confucius) can be regarded as the continuation and evolution of the notion of de in the context of numerical divination for military decision-making. The emergence and development of the concept of de within the realm of xue elucidate why de was the lifelong pursuit of ancient Chinese scholars, with “moral conduct” the ultimate goal of xue.
Engaged in the practice of numerical divination for military decision-making, historians bore the weight of celestial mandates while exerting influence on the outcome of war, thereby assuming responsibility for the collective fate and well-being of their communities. Consequently, they gradually developed a profound sense of divine mission, deep-seated historical responsibility, pioneering spirit of leading by example, audacity to undertake ventures despite foreseeable obstacles, and a marked practical rationality. These spiritual qualities coalesced under the concept of de, giving rise to the idealized persona of the traditional Chinese literati. Over the course of the development of Chinese civilization, these spiritual forces played a foundational and leading role. The bearers of these spirits stood up when the country faced adversity and existential challenges, defending and leading the people with extraordinary capability and courage. The magnanimity, benevolence, perseverance, bravery, and rationality embodied in their practices comprised the unwavering spiritual backbone of the Chinese nation.
Generally speaking, the origin of xue shaped its philosophy as well as the mode of activity, function, practice, and purpose, making xue markedly different from learning developed on the basis of dualism. First, Chinese xue does not pursue the eternal and immutable Being, but seeks to grasp the balance in the change of time and space, that is, the so-called “unity of heaven and humanity.” It is worth noting that “heaven” in Chinese culture refers to both a material and abstract heaven (the Tao of Heaven). Second, Chinese learning does not pursue absolute pure spirit, but emphasizes the core position of the body in the process of realizing the “unity of heaven and humanity.” Third, because of the emphasis on the central role of the body, Chinese xue attaches great importance to emotion and experience, resulting in it leading to the transcendence of beauty rather than metaphysics. Fourth, as no independent sacrificial stratum had been developed, practitioners of xue sought to fulfil two missions, namely, to grasp the transcendent Tao of Heaven and transfer and practice the Tao in the earthly world.
Conclusion
This study traced the origins of xue, the central concept of Chinese education. In doing so, it underscored the significance of war and numerological origins in the formation of the concept of xue, and further revealed the two dominant forces in the formation of this concept: the shaman-historian group and the royal power group. This analysis provides important insights into the philosophical foundations upon which Chinese education was built, facilitating a more comprehensive understanding of the key role played by education in Chinese society and the underlying logic of the content and goals of Chinese education, which are only briefly discussed in this study. This study also provides new perspectives for comparing Chinese and Western educational cultures.
