Abstract
Music holds a distinctive place in Hungarian culture, yet school music lessons are often perceived as less meaningful than other subjects. Building on McPherson and O’Neill's eight-country study, the present research introduces data from Hungary, a nation strongly associated with Zoltán Kodály's influential educational legacy. Grounded in expectancy–value theory, the study examined students’ motivation toward music in comparison with seven other school subjects (Hungarian language, mathematics, science, physical education, art, history, and foreign language) using a single-item measure for each expectancy–value component. A total of 4,073 students from Grades 5 to 12 (aged 10–19 years) participated. Results revealed that both competence beliefs and value components (interest, importance, usefulness) declined across grade levels, whereas perceived task difficulty remained low and stable for music. Girls and students engaged in extracurricular music activities reported significantly higher motivation than boys and non-music learners. Notably, the decline in music motivation in Hungary was steeper than that observed in the original eight-country comparison. This suggests that the motivational decrease cannot be explained by perceived difficulty but rather points to the weakening of value components within a changing social and cultural context. The findings underscore the need to revisit music pedagogy in Hungary and to adapt the Kodály tradition to contemporary learners’ motivational realities.
Keywords
Introduction
There is a deep and enduring bond between humans and music. It accompanies us through every stage of life—from childhood songs to youthful rhythms, wedding dances, and the gentle melodies of old age. Across history, music has reflected human emotion and social life, serving as a means of connection and belonging. People often turn to their favorite music when they feel lonely, using it to restore a sense of belonging (Paravati et al., 2025). Yet despite this profound role, music learning in schools is often undervalued. Studies show that students’ enthusiasm and motivation for classroom music tend to decline over time, as they perceive it as less enjoyable, important, and useful compared to other subjects (Kiss et al., 2025; Lowe, 2011; McPherson & O’Neill, 2010).
There is a particularly sensitive period during the transition from primary to secondary school (Lowe, 2011), when many students discontinue music education around puberty (Ruth & Müllensiefen, 2021). Asmus (2021) emphasizes that music learning is impossible without motivation: If students lack the willingness to engage, they simply will not learn. This issue is especially evident in the widely dreaded seventh-grade general music classes. The decline does not end with secondary school entry; instead, it often becomes more pronounced as students progress through high school (Ruth & Müllensiefen, 2021).
Students’ motivational profiles in relation to music education vary according to both gender and engagement in musical activities outside of school (Kiss et al., 2025). Girls generally report higher values (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010; Nonte et al., 2022) and more positive attitudes toward music compared to boys (Kibici, 2022; Kokotsaki, 2016). They also tend to have stronger confidence in their own musical abilities (Juvonen, 2011; McPherson & O’Neill, 2010) and report enjoying singing more than boys do (Kokotsaki, 2016). Appelgren et al. (2019) also found that women show higher levels of intrinsic motivation—whether they are professional musicians, amateurs, or non-musicians—while men are more often driven by external factors. Nonte et al. (2022) also reported that students identifying as more feminine show higher musical self-concept and greater intrinsic value for music than those identifying as more masculine. Similarly, Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that individuals are more motivated in domains they perceive as consistent with their gender role identity. Taken together, these results suggest that music is often socially constructed as a feminine activity—an interesting paradox given that, historically, music making was largely considered a male privilege.
Beyond gender-related differences, extracurricular engagement also plays a crucial role in shaping motivation. Music learners—students who participate in instrumental or vocal training beyond school—tend to show higher levels of motivation toward music than non-music learners, who only take part in general classroom music (Kiss et al., 2025; McPherson & O’Neill, 2010). Appelgren et al. (2019) found that professional musicians show stronger intrinsic motivation than amateurs or non-musicians, suggesting that intrinsic motivation may actually lead individuals to seek formal training. Similarly, Blanco-Novoa et al. (2021) argue that students choose to engage in music because they value it, and those who plan to continue at higher levels of study display both stronger intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Overall, students who see music as valuable for their future tend to be more motivated to learn it.
Research has also shown that music learners report higher self-concept (Nonte et al., 2022), place greater value on music (Juvonen, 2011; Nonte et al., 2022; Stavrou & Papageorgi, 2021), and express stronger interest in it (Stavrou & Papageorgi, 2021) compared to non-music learners. In addition, participation in musical ensembles has been found to positively influence intrinsic motivation (Blanco-Novoa et al., 2021).
Although voluntary engagement offers clear motivational advantages, compulsory classroom music often tells a different story. This raises the question of what factors contribute to students’ lack of motivation in this setting. One important influence is family background, which can strongly shape musical attitudes. Early exposure to music is likely to enhance motivation to participate in musical activities later in life (Hallam, 2002), and students from musically active families also report higher levels of extrinsic motivation for learning music (Blanco-Novoa et al., 2021). In addition to family-related factors, pedagogical approaches in school music may also be a source of demotivation. Scholars argue that traditional classroom methods are poorly suited to the digital age and increasingly fail to align with students’ needs and interests (Cogdill, 2015; Lowe, 2011). These findings highlight the need to reconsider pedagogical practices to better connect classroom music with the realities and expectations of contemporary students.
Motivation plays a crucial role in students’ engagement and achievement in music learning. Building on this premise, the present study extends the international mapping exercise conducted by McPherson and O’Neill (2010), grounded in expectancy–value theory (EVT), to explore students’ motivation to study music within the Hungarian educational context. While previous research has identified age-related declines, gender differences, and the influence of extracurricular participation on music motivation, much less is known about how these patterns manifest in Hungary—a country with a uniquely strong and historically significant music education tradition. Despite the centrality of the Kodály Concept in Hungarian curricula, no large-scale empirical study has yet examined how this pedagogical framework relates to students’ motivational beliefs and values. Therefore, the present study aims to fill this gap by investigating Hungarian students’ motivation toward school music and other academic subjects, comparing competence beliefs, values, and perceived task difficulty across gender, grade level, and participation in extracurricular music. This approach provides new insights into how the principles of the Kodály Concept are reflected in students’ current motivation toward school music.
The Context of This Article
Eight countries participated in the study by McPherson and O’Neill (2010): Brazil (Hentschke, 2010), China (Xie & Leung, 2011), Finland (Juvonen, 2011), Hong Kong (Leung & McPherson, 2010), Israel (Portowitz et al., 2010), South Korea (Seog et al., 2011), Mexico (González-Moreno, 2010), and the US (McPherson & Hendricks, 2010). Later, the study was also conducted in Australia (McPherson et al., 2015) and South Africa (Venter & Panebianco, 2022). The cross-sectional research examined whether students’ motivation declined over the school years and how countries differed, drawing on EVT. Motivation was analyzed through perceived task difficulty, competence beliefs, and values (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010).
According to EVT, motivation is an achievement-related behavior determined by the belief in success (expectancy) and the importance of a task (value; Eccles, 1983). Task values consist of three components—interest, importance, and usefulness—which can be distinguished empirically, although they remain interrelated, sometimes showing strong correlations (Wigfield & Eccles, 2020). Both expectancy and value are shaped by past experiences and their interpretation; key factors influencing expectancy include competence beliefs and perceived task difficulty. Because academic choices are driven by achievement expectancies, students are more likely to engage in activities they believe they can succeed in and that they find personally meaningful (Eccles, 1983).
The development of individuals’ subjective task values is influenced by social and cultural contexts, identity formation, and basic psychological processes of interpreting and reacting to outcomes. From a developmental perspective, children also internalize adult expectations, learning to value achievement partly to gain approval from parents and teachers (Wigfield & Eccles, 2020). Moreover, EVT emphasizes the situational context as a key factor shaping children's motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This implies that music motivation is affected not only by parents and teachers but also by the classroom environment, highlighting the central role of teachers in fostering students’ engagement.
A large body of EVT research has shown that motivation tends to decline across school years in a variety of subjects and across different countries (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This decline was also evident in the eight-country comparative study of music motivation (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010). Nevertheless, the extent of decline varies across subjects, and cultural differences exist in students’ competence beliefs (Wigfield & Eccles, 2020).
Across most countries, students were less motivated toward music than academic subjects. In the US, music was the least interesting subject (McPherson & Hendricks, 2010). In Hong Kong (Leung & McPherson, 2010), South Korea (Seog et al., 2011), China (Xie & Leung, 2011), and Mexico (González-Moreno, 2010), music was considered less valuable than other subjects, while in Israel it became more difficult in higher grades (Portowitz et al., 2010). Brazil stood out, with increasing values and competence beliefs (Hentschke, 2010). Similarly, South African students found music the most enjoyable of the listed subjects and assigned it relatively high value (Venter & Panebianco, 2022).
Gender differences were also noted: Girls reported higher competence beliefs and values and perceived music as easier (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010; McPherson et al., 2015). In South Africa, boys assigned slightly higher values, though not significantly (Venter & Panebianco, 2022). Furthermore, music learners placed greater value on music than non-learners (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010).
The Current Education System in Hungary
The current educational policy is outlined in the Hungarian National Public Education Law. Public education begins with preschool at age three, followed by basic education at age six. Elementary school consists of eight grades, divided into two stages: grades one to four and grades five to eight. It provides basic education based on nationally uniform requirements and prepares students for secondary school. Students can choose to attend a high school, a vocational high school, or a vocational school (Act CXC of 2011 on National Public Education, 2011).
Vocational qualifications can be obtained in vocational high schools and vocational schools. Vocational high schools have five grades: During the first four years, students receive general education alongside professional training, while the final year is dedicated exclusively to professional training. Vocational schools provide secondary education specifically for students with special needs (Act CXC of 2011 on National Public Education, 2011).
High school education begins in grade nine and ends in grade twelve; however, some schools offer secondary education starting from grade five or seven. High schools focus on enhancing general literacy and preparing students for the matriculation exam, which includes subjects such as Hungarian language and literature, history, mathematics, a foreign language, and an elective subject chosen by the student. They also serve as a pathway to higher education (Act CXC of 2011 on National Public Education, 2011).
The Kodály Concept in Hungarian Music Education
The Hungarian education system provides two main platforms for music education. Music is taught as a compulsory subject within general education schools, where all students receive basic instruction focused on singing, musical literacy, and general musicianship. In addition to this, primary art schools operate in parallel to general education and cater to students who wish to study music (or other forms of art) more intensively. These institutions offer instrumental or vocal training for a tuition fee, and after approximately six years of study, students may take a basic examination in music, as regulated by the Act CXC of 2011 on National Public Education.
According to the Hungarian National Core Curriculum (Nemzeti Alaptanterv, NAT), music education in general education starts in the first grade of elementary school. There are two music classes per week in grades one to five, and one class per week in grades six to ten. In eleventh grade, there is one class per week for a chosen art subject, which can be music (Educational Research and Development Institute, 2020).
There are schools in which students can enroll in classes with a special curriculum for music. In these specialized music classes, students have more music lessons per week than in regular classes. The requirements and the curriculum are more complex. In Hungary, there are specialized music teachers who are qualified to teach music for grades 1–12. Primary school teachers also receive some music education during their university studies; therefore, they can teach music to students in grades 1–4. In most schools, primary school teachers teach music in the lower grades of primary school, while music teachers handle the other grades. However, only music teachers can teach music in specialized music classes.
Music education in Hungary is based on the Kodály Concept. According to Osvay (2007), the Kodály Concept is a comprehensive approach to music education grounded in Zoltán Kodály's pedagogical writings and practices. Osvay (2007) identified the following key principles of the Kodály Concept:
− Music education should be accessible to all children, supported by a unified curriculum and consistent teaching methods across schools. − Early musical experiences should be rooted in folk traditions before children are introduced to a broader repertoire. − Singing is emphasized as the most natural and universally available instrument, and daily singing is regarded as essential for children's development, comparable to daily physical exercise. − Choral work plays a central role, fostering discipline, cooperation, and the joy of collective achievement. − The concept underscores the importance of early and high-quality musical experiences: Childhood is viewed as a decisive period for shaping musical receptivity, and poor-quality music should be avoided during these formative years. − Pedagogical tools such as relative solmization and the use of pentatonic material facilitate the development of music literacy. − Instrumental study should commence only after a solid foundation in singing has been established. − Ultimately, the Kodály Concept aims to cultivate the whole musician through the balanced development of musical perception, intellect, emotional responsiveness, and technical skill.
Although developed in Hungary, the Kodály Concept has become an influential model of music education worldwide, inspiring curricula, teacher training, and professional organizations across several continents. Its principles are also reflected in the Hungarian National Core Curriculum, which translates these pedagogical ideals into concrete objectives, lesson structures, and repertoire requirements across grade levels.
Through music education, students should enjoy singing and recognize the quality of the arts. According to the National Core Curriculum (Educational Research and Development Institute, 2020), music education in Hungary reflects the principles of the Kodály Concept in the following ways:
− Accessibility and holistic development: Music education should be available to all students and should not only develop musical skills but also creativity, national self-awareness, self-expression, and empathy. It also aims to shape students’ perspectives and appreciation for art. − Folk traditions as the foundation: At the lower level of primary school (grades 1–4), students’ earliest musical experiences are based on Hungarian folk traditions. Their repertoire should include at least 180 folk songs by the end of fourth grade. Hungarian folk dance and traditional singing games are also emphasized, allowing students to experience music through movement and play. − Emphasis on singing and joyful engagement: The most important aim at this early age is for students to enjoy singing and gain as many positive experiences with music as possible. Singing and movement are central parts of every lesson, and students are encouraged to use their own bodies and simple objects to make music. − Pedagogical tools and musical literacy: Relative solmization and the basics of reading musical notation are introduced during the first four years of schooling, supporting the development of musical hearing and rhythmic skills. − Gradual progression and choral work: Skills acquired in the first four years serve as the foundation for the upper level of primary school (grades 5–8). At this stage, the curriculum expands to include masterpieces of music history, historical contexts, and major composers. Choir singing remains a central aspect of music education, fostering discipline and cooperation, even though it is typically offered as an extracurricular activity. − Cultural depth and emotional development: By secondary school, students are expected to possess a broad repertoire of folk songs and musical masterpieces. Music continues to serve as a source of emotional support and personal expression, helping students navigate different emotional stages. They are also encouraged to recognize the broader connections between music, art, and history, and to reflect on the non-musical skills influenced by musical learning.
Nonetheless, potential discrepancies between Kodály-based curricular principles and their classroom realization may have motivational consequences, highlighting the importance of examining students’ engagement within this educational context.
Students’ Motivation for Music Learning in Hungary
Hungarian research on music learning motivation has grown in recent decades, yet findings consistently highlight challenges. Janurik (2007) showed that students in both primary and secondary school reported fewer positive experiences and higher anxiety in music compared to mathematics or literature. Boys in particular experienced lower levels of flow and engagement, while extracurricular instrumental study was linked to more positive experiences during music lessons. Janurik (2007) concluded that general music lessons often fail to provide sufficiently positive experiences and suggested curricular and methodological reform to strengthen intrinsic motivation.
Studies with seventh graders confirm that music is generally ranked low among school subjects. Janurik and Józsa (2018) found that students placed it 6th of 12, and Janurik et al. (2021) reported it as the least valuable subject. Certain classroom activities, such as sight-reading or compulsory listening to popular music, were disliked, while collaborative music-making had a motivating effect. In both studies, girls reported higher motivation than boys. A similar gender difference was observed in the study by Váradi and Óváry (2021). However, their broader sample (ages 8–13) reflected more positive attitudes, with over 80% of students reporting enjoyment of music lessons.
At the secondary level, Dohány (2014) found that high school students rated music more favorably than vocational high school students, though listening activities were preferred in both groups. Pintér and Csíkos (2020) compared general and specialized music classes: Students in regular classes often dismissed music as irrelevant for their future, while those in specialized classes—supported by stronger family engagement and higher parental education—reported greater involvement. Parents emphasized non-musical benefits, and teachers highlighted the challenge of achieving meaningful outcomes within the limited time allocated for music.
Broader surveys reinforce these findings. Csíkos (2012) found that only 0.5% of seventh graders chose music as their favorite subject, while 2.7% listed it as their least favorite. Chrappán (2017) reported that music consistently ranked near the bottom in both importance and value across primary, secondary, and vocational schools. Cross-sectional studies on subject-specific mastery motivation also confirmed declining engagement in music and art across grade levels (Calchei et al., 2024; Józsa et al., 2017).
Overall, Hungarian research paints a negative picture (Janurik, 2007; Janurik & Józsa, 2018; Janurik et al., 2021). Music is undervalued compared to academic subjects, motivation declines with age, and girls are consistently more positive than boys. However, studies focusing directly on classroom music have relied on small, grade-specific samples and did not employ cross-sectional designs. Broader surveys (e.g., Calchei et al., 2024; Józsa et al., 2017) addressed music motivation in general but did not specifically target classroom music. To date, therefore, no large-scale cross-sectional or longitudinal study has systematically examined students’ motivation to study classroom music. Addressing this gap is essential for understanding how the principles of the Kodály Concept, still central to the Hungarian curriculum, are reflected in students’ actual motivation to learn music in school.
Aim of the Study
This study aims to examine students’ motivation to study music as a school subject in the Hungarian context, where classroom instruction is traditionally based on the Kodály Concept, and to extend previous research by McPherson and O’Neill (2010). Based on the original eight-country mapping exercise, we propose the following research questions:
Is there a decline in students’ competence beliefs and values for school subjects across grades? Is there an increase in students’ perception of task difficulty for school subjects across grades? Are students’ ratings of competence beliefs, values, and task difficulty higher or lower for music compared to other subjects? Is there a difference in competence beliefs, values, and task difficulty for school subjects based on gender or music learning outside of school?
Method
Participants
The study employed a cross-sectional survey design based on self-report data. A total of 4,073 students from Grades 5 to 12 (aged 10–19 years) participated, similar to the original study, and the sample was drawn from 51 schools. The gender distribution was nearly balanced, with 2,025 boys (49.7%) and 2,048 girls (50.3%) completing the questionnaire. Among the participants, 1,409 (34.6%) were music learners—students who were learning a musical instrument or participating in vocal training outside of school, either previously or at the time of the research—while 2,664 were non-music learners. Table 1 presents further details on the sample composition.
Number (and percentage) of participants according to grade, gender, and music learner status.
The participating schools represented diverse contexts, including villages, small and large towns, and the capital city, which enhances the representativeness of the sample. However, as participation was voluntary and schools were recruited through convenience sampling, the findings should be interpreted with caution regarding generalizability.
Ethical approval for the study was granted by the Institutional Review Board of the Doctoral School of Education at the University of Szeged. Introductory letters and consent forms were distributed to schools nationwide. Depending on students’ age, either active or passive parental consent was obtained. Participation was voluntary, and students could withdraw at any time. Data were collected using an online questionnaire (Google Forms) administered during school hours under teacher supervision. As all questions were set as mandatory in the online form, no missing data occurred in the dataset.
Instrument
The questionnaire used in this study was based on the eight-country comparative study by McPherson and O’Neill (2010). The original instrument was obtained from the organizers of that research and includes measures of students’ beliefs and perceptions about various school subjects, including mother tongue, mathematics, science, physical education, art, and music. Most items were responded to on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from strong disagreement to strong agreement. To gain a more comprehensive understanding of the Hungarian educational context, two additional subjects—history and foreign language—were included in the present study.
From the original questionnaire (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010), one item was selected and translated from each motivational component of EVT:
− Competence beliefs: “How good are you at [subject]?” − Interest: “At school, how interesting do you find [subject]?” − Importance: “For you, how important is it to get good results in [subject]?” − Usefulness: “How useful do you think learning these subjects will be for you when you leave school and get a job?” − Task difficulty: “How hard are these subjects for you?”
Each motivational component of EVT was assessed using a single item. Therefore, internal consistency could not be estimated, and the interpretation of these variables should be treated with caution. In addition, the questionnaire included demographic questions. For the purposes of this article, we analyzed school grade, gender, and participation in music lessons outside of school.
Data Analysis
We first computed Pearson correlations between the five expectancy–value dimensions specifically for the subject of music. To examine group differences, we conducted a series of independent samples t-tests separately for each school subject. These tests were performed for each of the five expectancy–value dimensions, comparing groups based on music learner status and gender. The significance threshold was set at α = .01.
In addition, we conducted a one-way MANOVA with grade as the independent variable and the items related to the five dimensions of EVT—competence beliefs, interest, importance, usefulness, and perceived task difficulty—as the dependent variables. In cases of significant multivariate effects (p < .001), follow-up univariate ANOVAs were performed. Where appropriate, Games–Howell post hoc tests were used, with α set at .01.
Results
A MANOVA revealed a significant overall effect of grade level on students’ competence beliefs across subjects, F(56, 21,858.31) = 11.9, p < .001, η2 = .02. Figure 1 displays the trends of competence beliefs across different school subjects.
Mean competence beliefs ratings for school subjects, grades 5–12.
In grade 5, students reported the highest competence beliefs in non-academic subjects (physical education, art and music). Physical education (PE) received the highest rating (M = 4.14, SD = 1.08) and maintained the top position throughout primary school. Although it dropped to third place by grade 12 (M = 3.65, SD = 1.27), the overall decrease was relatively small (–0.49).
Art was the second-highest rated subject in grade 5 (M = 4.11, SD = 1.01), but it showed the largest decline across the school years, falling to M = 3.09 (SD = 1.50) by grade 12—a total drop of −1.02 points. Music, initially ranked third in grade 5 (M = 3.71, SD = 1.22), declined steadily in the following years, reaching M = 2.99 (SD = 1.47) by grade 12, becoming the lowest-rated subject by the end of secondary school. These findings are supported by post hoc comparisons, which indicate that competence beliefs in music significantly decline from grades 5–7 to grades 9–12 (see Table 2).
Multivariate (MANOVA) and univariate analyses of grade differences in competence beliefs and perceived task difficulty by subject.
Among academic subjects, history (M = 3.68, SD = 1.08) and foreign language (M = 3.67, SD = 1.16) were rated highest in grade 5. While their trajectories were not entirely consistent, both showed some increase over time. Notably, foreign language stood out as the only subject with a substantial and continuous improvement, reaching the highest competence belief score by grade 12 (M = 4.12, SD = 0.95), with an overall increase of +0.44 points—greater than any other subject.
Mathematics started relatively high in grade 5 (M = 3.62, SD = 1.07), declined during primary school, and showed a slight recovery in the early secondary years. By grade 12, its rating was M = 3.15 (SD = 1.26), indicating a decrease of −0.47. Science exhibited a more consistent downward trend, from M = 3.61 (SD = 1.03) in grade 5 to M = 3.02 (SD = 1.23) in grade 12, resulting in the second-lowest rating among all subjects.
Hungarian remained relatively stable over time, with a slight increase observed. Students reported M = 3.39 (SD = 0.85) in grade 5 and M = 3.50 (SD = 0.89) in grade 12, reflecting modest growth in self-perceived competence.
There was a significant difference in perceived task difficulty across grade levels, as indicated by the MANOVA (F(56, 21,858.31) = 7.48, p < .001, η2 = .02; see Table 2). Based on perceived difficulty, subjects can be grouped into three categories: academic subjects, humanities, and non-academic subjects (Figure 2).
Mean task difficulty ratings for school subjects, grades 5–12.
Mean interest ratings for school subjects, grades 5–12.
Academic subjects (mathematics and science) were consistently rated as the most difficult across all grade levels. In grade 5, science was rated as the most difficult subject (M = 2.70, SD = 1.19), whereas in grade 12, mathematics received the highest difficulty rating (M = 3.18, SD = 1.24).
Subjects classified as humanities (history, Hungarian, and foreign language) were perceived as moderately difficult. The perceived difficulty of foreign language decreased from grade 5 (M = 2.65, SD = 1.30) to grade 12 (M = 2.03, SD = 1.02).
Non-academic subjects (art, music, and PE) were consistently rated as the least difficult. In music, significant differences were found between grade 5 and grades 9 and 11. Art was rated as significantly more difficult in grade 10 compared to grade 7. No significant differences were found across grade levels for PE.
These results indicate that the decline in music motivation cannot be attributed to an increase in perceived task difficulty, as task difficulty in music remained consistently low and stable across grade levels, suggesting that other factors may underlie this decline.
The components of value were analyzed using MANOVA. Interest ratings demonstrated a significant overall decline with grade level, F(56, 21,858.31) = 12.30, p < .001, η2 = .02 (see Table 3). Effect sizes for individual subjects ranged from η2 = .02 to .04, suggesting that grade level explained a small but consistent proportion of the variance in students’ interest.
Multivariate (MANOVA) and univariate analyses of grade differences in values (interest, importance, and usefulness) by subject.
Note. All overall Fs were significant at p < .001.
Importance ratings also differed significantly across grades, F(56, 21,858.31) = 14.28, p < .001, η2 = .03. Effect sizes showed greater variability across subjects, ranging from η2 = .01 to .08. Medium-sized effects were observed for music, art, PE, and science, indicating more pronounced grade-level differences in perceived importance for these subjects.
Usefulness ratings likewise revealed significant grade-level effects, F(56, 21,858.31) = 19.80, p < .001, η2 = .04. Here, effect sizes reached their highest values, with both PE and Hungarian yielding η2 = .10.
Taken together, these findings indicate that students’ perceptions of the value of school subjects decline across grade levels, with the most substantial differences emerging in the perceived usefulness of certain subjects.
Across subjects, history was rated as the most interesting in all grades except grade 7, when science (M = 3.72, SD = 1.08) was highest, and grade 9, when foreign language (M = 3.75, SD = 1.05) received the top rating (Figure 3). Science began with relatively high interest in grade 5 (M = 3.90, SD = 1.10) but dropped steadily to its lowest point by grade 11 (M = 3.04, SD = 1.43). Foreign language ratings peaked in grade 9 (M = 3.75, SD = 1.05).
Mathematics showed a significant decline from grade 5 (M = 3.61, SD = 1.15) to grade 8 (M = 3.04, SD = 1.14). Interest increased in grade 9 (M = 3.10, SD = 1.23), surpassing both grade 8 and grade 10 (M = 3.17, SD = 1.19), before declining again in later grades.
PE interest was significantly higher in grades 5–7 compared to grades 9–12, with a marked drop between grade 8 (M = 3.37, SD = 1.28) and grade 9 (M = 2.92, SD = 1.29). Hungarian followed a similar declining pattern, with grade 5 students (M = 3.22, SD = 0.92) reporting significantly higher interest than grades 7–12; grade 11 (M = 2.71, SD = 1.05) reported the lowest interest.
Art and music showed parallel trajectories. Art peaked in grade 5 (M = 3.45, SD = 1.24), declined until grade 8 (M = 2.91, SD = 1.22), rose in grade 9 (M = 3.01, SD = 1.29), and then steadily decreased to grade 12 (M = 2.42, SD = 1.32). Music was consistently rated as the least interesting subject at every grade level. In grade 5 (M = 2.69, SD = 1.28), it was 0.53 points lower than Hungarian, the second lowest-rated subject. Interest in music declined through primary school, rebounded slightly in grade 9 (M = 2.62, SD = 1.16), and reached its lowest value in grade 12 (M = 2.02, SD = 1.18).
Mathematics emerged as the most important subject in grade 5 (M = 4.54, SD = 0.75), with ratings significantly higher than in subsequent grades (see Figure 4). Across all grade levels, mathematics maintained relatively high importance, showing only a modest decline by grade 12 (M = 3.96, SD = 1.23).
Mean importance ratings for school subjects, grades 5–12.
Foreign language learning was also rated as consistently important from grades 5 to 12, starting with M = 4.42 (SD = 0.94) in grade 5 and remaining stable throughout, culminating in the highest rating among all subjects in grade 12 (M = 4.15, SD = 1.02).
History showed a gradual decline from grade 5 (M = 4.39, SD = 0.86) to grade 11 (M = 3.89, SD = 1.12), followed by a slight rebound in grade 12 (M = 4.14, SD = 1.01), though this difference was not statistically significant.
Science ratings began to decrease after grade 7 (M = 4.29, SD = 0.84), when values were significantly higher compared to later secondary grades, reaching their lowest in grade 12 (M = 3.30, SD = 1.41).
Hungarian followed a pattern similar to history. Its highest values were observed in grade 5 (M = 4.26, SD = 0.80), significantly higher than in most other grades. Ratings declined steadily until grade 11 (M = 3.68, SD = 1.11), followed by a slight, nonsignificant increase in grade 12 (M = 3.87, SD = 1.02).
Among the non-academic subjects, grades 5 and 6 consistently received significantly higher ratings compared to later grades. Physical education showed a small spike in grade 11 (M = 3.23, SD = 1.38), but otherwise declined from grade 5 (M = 4.03, SD = 1.19) to grade 12 (M = 2.75, SD = 1.37). Art and music displayed similar downward trajectories, with music starting at M = 3.44 (SD = 1.33) in grade 5 and declining steadily to M = 2.18 (SD = 1.30) in grade 12, making it the least important subject at every grade level. Art followed the same trend, beginning at M = 3.71 (SD = 1.24) in grade 5 and dropping to M = 2.32 (SD = 1.37) by grade 12.
Foreign language (M = 4.48, SD = 0.93) and mathematics (M = 4.48, SD = 0.83) started at the same value in grade 5, being the two most useful subjects (see Figure 5). While mathematics showed a continuous decline and reached M = 3.47 (SD = 1.25) by grade 12, foreign language remained the only subject that is stable throughout the school years, ending at M = 4.44 (SD = 0.87).
Mean usefulness ratings for school subjects, grades 5–12.
Science (M = 3.90, SD = 1.14), Hungarian (M = 3.78, SD = 1.03), history (M = 3.63, SD = 1.21), and physical education (PE; M = 3.72, SD = 1.35) were also perceived as relatively useful subjects in grade 5. Science still had a relatively high value in grade 7 (M = 3.77, SD = 1.10), but compared to this, its perceived usefulness decreased significantly in the upper grades of secondary school, reaching M = 3.13 (SD = 1.51) by grade 12. Hungarian showed the highest value in grade 5 (M = 3.78, SD = 1.03) and steadily decreased until grade 11 (M = 2.70, SD = 1.11). In grade 12 (M = 2.82, SD = 1.17), the trajectory changed slightly , although this increase is not significant. A significant drop can also be observed in PE between the end of primary school (grade 9: M = 2.51, SD = 1.29) and the beginning of secondary school (grade 9: M = 2.51, SD = 1.29), after which the decreasing trend continued until grade 12 (M = 2.46, SD = 1.38). History decreased until grade 8 (M = 2.86, SD = 1.16) and then maintained a relatively stable level throughout secondary school (grade 12: M = 2.88, SD = 1.30).
Similarly to the other motivational components, the usefulness of art and music were rated the lowest across all grade levels. Both art (M = 3.19, SD = 1.34) and music (M = 2.43, SD = 1.33) were significantly higher in grade 5 compared to later grades. Although both showed a steady decrease, differences among the higher grades are not statistically significant.
To examine the interrelations among the five motivational dimensions, we computed Pearson correlations for the subject of music (see Table 4). The results showed that competence beliefs were significantly related to interest (r = .41, p < .01), importance (r = .37, p < .01), and usefulness (r = .30, p < .01). Interest also showed significant correlations with importance (r = .42, p < .01) and usefulness (r = .48, p < .01). Furthermore, there was a significant positive correlation between importance and usefulness (r = .43, p < .01).
Correlation between motivational components of music.
Note. ** p < .01.
The correlation matrix supports the assumptions of EVT, as perceived task difficulty showed negative associations with all other motivational components. The strongest negative correlation was found between task difficulty and competence beliefs (r = –.42, p < .01). Additionally, task difficulty was negatively, though weakly, related to interest (r = –.18, p < .01), importance (r = –.09, p < .01), and usefulness (r = –.08, p < .01). Overall, the correlations indicate that the motivational dimensions are strongly interrelated in the context of music education.
Table 5 displays means for gender differences across subjects and motivational components. In the case of music, girls scored significantly higher in all components except for task difficulty, where boys reported higher values. A similar pattern was observed in art, while an opposite trend was found in PE: Girls perceived it as significantly more difficult, whereas boys scored higher in all other motivational dimensions.
Motivation subscale means for school subjects by gender.
Note. B = boy, G = girl. Pairs with significant differences are marked in bold, with an asterisk indicating the higher value. * p < .01.
Based on the results, boys tended to report higher competence beliefs and values in mathematics, history, and science, while girls showed a preference for Hungarian and foreign languages. However, these gender differences were not significant across all components.
Girls generally scored higher on the motivational components related to humanities subjects, while boys showed stronger competence beliefs and values in science-related subjects.
Differences in motivation subscale means between music learners and non-music learners are shown in Table 6. Music learners scored significantly higher in competence beliefs (ML = 3.75, NML = 3.37), usefulness (ML = 2.13, NML = 1.92), interest (ML = 2.66, NML = 2.40), and importance (ML = 3.00, NML = 2.86) in music, while non-music learners perceived the subject as more difficult (ML = 1.63, NML = 1.87).
Motivation subscale means for school subjects by music learner status.
Note. ML = music learner, NML = non-music learner. Pairs with significant differences are marked in bold, with an asterisk indicating the higher value. * p < .01.
In art, music learners also reported significantly higher competence beliefs (ML = 3.85, NML = 3.73), usefulness (ML = 2.68, NML = 2.56), and interest (ML = 3.16, NML = 3.01), while non-music learners found it more difficult (ML = 1.74, NML = 1.66). While music learners showed a clear preference for artistic subjects, non-music learners scored higher on all value-related components for PE.
In academic subjects, the differences between the two groups were generally smaller. However, music learners reported higher competence beliefs in math (ML = 3.40, NML = 3.29), Hungarian (ML = 3.41, NML = 3.35), and science (ML = 3.49, NML = 3.35). Music learners also rated usefulness significantly higher in foreign languages (ML = 4.50, NML = 4.44), history (ML = 3.15, NML = 3.06), and science (ML = 3.71, NML = 3.62).
Discussion
This study examined students’ motivation toward music in comparison with other school subjects. Drawing on EVT, motivation was assessed through students’ competence beliefs, values, and perceived task difficulty. The results are broadly consistent with both international and national findings. Overall, competence beliefs and values declined across grade levels, while task difficulty increased. Music was among the lowest-rated subjects throughout schooling, and both gender and extracurricular music learning both influenced motivation: Girls and music learners reported more positive attitudes than boys and non-music learners.
Among Hungarian students in our sample, motivation tends to decline from grade 5 to grade 12. Humanities subjects showed more stable values than academic subjects, while foreign language emerged as an exception, as students reported higher competence beliefs by the end of secondary school. The steepest declines were observed in the non-academic subjects. Art and physical education began with relatively high ratings in grade 5 but showed substantial decreases by grade 12. Music followed a similar trajectory, yet its decline was the sharpest: From relatively high levels in grade 5, it became the lowest-rated subject by the end of secondary school. Although several studies based on the EVT have also reported a general decline in motivation during schooling (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020), the particularly sharp decrease observed in music is concerning. The decline in music motivation appears to be driven primarily by decreases in value components—especially interest and perceived usefulness—rather than by changes in perceived competence or task difficulty. According to Wigfield and Eccles (2020), the development of individuals’ subjective task values is shaped by social and cultural contexts, identity formation, and by psychological processes involved in interpreting and reacting to performance outcomes. In this context, the relatively low social status of music and its limited perceived usefulness as a school subject may further contribute to the decline in students’ motivation. From the perspective of EVT, these social and cultural factors may weaken the subjective value students assign to music, thereby contributing to the motivational decline.
These patterns suggest that students’ perceptions of their own competence diminish as they progress through school. This trend partially differs from the findings of Józsa et al. (2014), who reported no significant differences in Hungarian students’ general competence ratings. However, while Józsa et al. focused on general competence, our study revealed subject-specific competence beliefs. This suggests that students’ self-perceptions may be more vulnerable when evaluated in relation to individual school subjects than in terms of overall self-evaluation. As Wigfield and Eccles (2020) note, young children often hold optimistic views of their abilities, but during middle childhood this optimism tends to give way to more realistic—and sometimes more negative—self-assessments.
When looking at values, non-academic subjects were generally rated lowest, with music consistently emerging as the least interesting, least important, and least useful at all grade levels. These findings are in line with earlier Hungarian studies. Janurik (2007) also found that students reported fewer positive experiences in music compared to math and Hungarian, while Calchei et al. (2024) showed a sharp decline in mastery motivation in music across grades. Csíkos (2012) and Chrappán (2017) reported that students consistently rated music less positively than other school subjects. Similarly, Janurik and Józsa (2018) as well as Janurik et al. (2021) found that music occupied a lower position compared to most academic subjects in students’ value ratings.
Academic subjects in our sample, such as mathematics and science, also showed declines, but these were less pronounced, while humanities subjects remained mostly stable. Foreign language represented a clear exception: Students increasingly recognized its importance, and especially its usefulness, toward the end of secondary school, most likely reflecting its strong role in higher education requirements and employment opportunities. These findings suggest that although values generally diminish during schooling, contextual and societal factors can reinforce the perceived utility of certain subjects, as illustrated by the case of foreign language learning.
Consistent with our results, declining competence beliefs and values were also reported in the eight-country comparison study (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010). That study revealed a significant difference across grade levels, with the youngest students reporting the highest values and the oldest students the lowest. However, the drastic decrease in competence beliefs for music in our sample appears exceptional compared to the other countries. In contrast, music was the only subject in the Brazilian sample to show increasing competence beliefs (Hentschke, 2010). This special case may be explained by the fact that music education in Brazil at that time was limited to a relatively small number of schools, especially private institutions. It is therefore likely that students with more privileged family backgrounds participated in music education, and for them, music held greater value within the family context as well.
There is a clear gap between the perceived task difficulty of academic and non-academic subjects. Subjects like math and science tend to get more difficult across grades, a trend that is also evident in international studies (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010). However, in contrast, art, music, and PE remained stable throughout the school years. This suggests that the decline in music motivation is unlikely to be driven primarily by the subject becoming more difficult. Rather, it raises the possibility that other factors, such as the material itself or teaching methods, may contribute to students’ low motivation. Although the present study did not assess classroom practices, the limited allocation of one or two weekly music lessons may constrain opportunities for the kind of experiential teaching that is prescribed in the National Core Curriculum.
Similar to the findings of the international comparison study by McPherson and O’Neill (2010), the present results also indicate that girls hold more positive attitudes toward music than boys. Girls scored significantly higher in competence beliefs, interest, importance, and usefulness, whereas boys tended to perceive music as more difficult. As Nonte et al. (2022) argue, such gender differences should be explicitly addressed in teacher training, since music classes are often less attractive for boys.
A comparable pattern was observed in relation to extracurricular music learning. Students who engaged in music education outside of school achieved significantly higher scores in competence beliefs and across all value components, while those restricted to school-based music lessons tended to report greater difficulty. These findings are consistent with earlier Hungarian studies (Janurik, 2007; Janurik & Józsa, 2018; Janurik et al., 2021; Pintér & Csíkos, 2020; Váradi & Óváry, 2021).
Taken together, these results highlight a particularly vulnerable position of music within the participating Hungarian schools and may point to broader challenges for school music in Hungary that require further investigation. Students consistently undervalue music, and their motivation declines more sharply than in other subjects. From an expectancy–value perspective, the fact that the decline is driven mainly by value components indicates that current classroom music provision needs to support students more effectively in finding school music interesting, important, and useful. Although the present study did not investigate specific pedagogical approaches, this suggests that curriculum design and teaching methods should be examined with regard to how they foster these value components.
In summary, this study adds Hungarian data—where the national curriculum for music is formally grounded in the Kodály concept—to the international body of evidence, confirming key predictions of EVT with a large and diverse sample. The findings suggest that declining value components, particularly interest and perceived usefulness, rather than increasing task difficulty, explain the loss of motivation for school music. In practical terms, this calls for teaching approaches that make music lessons more meaningful and relevant to students’ lives by enhancing students’ interest in and perceived usefulness of school music.
Implications in the Light of the Kodály Concept
In Hungary, the National Core Curriculum and the framework curricula for music are formally grounded in the Kodály Concept. Within this regulatory framework, teachers are required to use state-approved music textbooks, which are likewise designed on the basis of Kodály's pedagogical principles. Although we can reasonably assume that most teachers broadly follow these regulations in their everyday practice, the extent and manner in which this occurs in individual classrooms may vary considerably. The present study did not collect data on classroom practices, teachers’ use of Kodály-based methods, or the specific repertoire used in lessons. The reflections in this section are therefore interpretive and indirect: They situate students’ reported motivation within the officially Kodály-based system of Hungarian school music education, rather than providing a direct evaluation of Kodály pedagogy.
The Kodály Concept emphasizes accessibility, experiential music-making, and the holistic development of the child. One of its central aims, also reflected in the National Core Curriculum, is that all children should enjoy singing and accumulate many positive musical experiences. Our findings, however, show that many students in the participating schools perceive school music as relatively uninteresting and of low usefulness, and that motivation declines sharply across grade levels. From an expectancy–value perspective, this pattern suggests that, for a substantial proportion of learners, school music may not be experienced as particularly meaningful, relevant, or inclusive, despite the universal and holistic ambitions of the Kodály-based system.
The central role of singing and choral work in the Kodály tradition presupposes that collective vocal music-making can be a source of joy and social bonding. Our results, however, show marked gender differences, with boys reporting lower values and higher perceived difficulty, and clear advantages for students engaged in extracurricular music learning. Although we did not examine classroom practices directly, these patterns suggest that the ways in which singing and group music-making are organized and framed in school may not support all student groups equally well, particularly adolescent boys, and that experiences outside school may play an important compensatory role.
A further implication concerns students’ perceptions of the usefulness of school music. Kodály's holistic vision, echoed in the curriculum, attributes broad educational and personal benefits to music education, including the development of creativity, emotional responsiveness, and social skills. Yet in our data, music consistently received low ratings for perceived usefulness compared with other subjects. This suggests that many students may not be aware of, or do not attribute relevance to, these broader benefits in relation to their own lives, which in turn may contribute to their low motivation.
From an expectancy–value perspective, a key challenge for Kodály-inspired teaching in today's schools is therefore to foster students’ interest in, and perceived usefulness of, music as a school subject. Overall, our findings do not evaluate Kodály's pedagogical ideas as such, but they do raise important questions about how these ideas are currently translated into classroom practice, and how Kodály-inspired and other approaches might be adapted and combined so that they more effectively support the motivational needs of today's students.
Conclusion
As early as 2007, Janurik pointed out the unfavorable situation of music education in Hungary and suggested the need for methodological and curricular renewal. Since then, several Hungarian studies have raised similar concerns (Janurik & Józsa, 2018; Janurik et al., 2021). Nevertheless, almost two decades later, music lessons are still poorly regarded, and no radical changes have taken place in either the curriculum or the teaching methods.
It is important to emphasize that we do not consider the Kodály Concept itself to be problematic. However, there is limited empirical evidence regarding how faithfully the concept is implemented in classrooms, and actual practice may diverge from curricular prescriptions in various ways. In light of our motivational findings, it seems important to examine how Kodály's pedagogical principles are currently interpreted and combined with other approaches in everyday teaching, rather than assuming that a single tradition can, on its own, meet all students’ needs under present conditions. It is also possible that some teachers already engage their students more successfully by complementing Kodály-based pedagogy with additional, more innovative methods, but such practices remain to be documented in future research.
Our findings must also be considered in light of the structural context. Early experiences are crucial for shaping motivation, yet little is known about how younger children perceive music lessons in Hungary. We can only assume that students in the lower grades—where singing, play, and movement should dominate—may be more motivated than older students. However, music in grades 1–4 is often taught by generalist primary teachers rather than music specialists, which may pose challenges.
Motivation is also shaped by students’ beliefs about musical ability. Explaining that musicality is not a fixed trait but a skill that can be developed through practice fosters engagement (Ruth & Müllensiefen, 2021). Students’ motivation depends less on whether musical abilities are truly innate and more on their own beliefs about the malleability of such abilities (Evans, 2015). Accordingly, teachers should emphasize that effort and persistence are more important than talent alone (Cogdill, 2015). Practical and authentic activities that connect with students’ everyday experiences can further stimulate curiosity and motivation (Lowe, 2011). In this respect, incorporating elements such as creative music-making, songwriting, or music technology may provide meaningful pathways for learners (Cogdill, 2015). These approaches can also be effectively combined with Kodály-based practices.
The value that students associate with music lessons likely reflects broader societal perceptions and parental attitudes. Many may believe that music education is limited to the development of musical skills, which are seen as unnecessary for those who do not pursue a music career or play an instrument. However, music learning contributes to the development of non-musical skills as well. It has been shown to enhance reading and text comprehension (Hallam, 2019; Reifinger, 2018), language learning (Gómez-Domínguez et al., 2019), empathy and emotion regulation (Cho, 2019; Ros-Morente et al., 2019; Váradi, 2022). Teachers should emphasize these broader benefits to encourage intrinsic motivation (Bernabé-Valero et al., 2019).
Despite Hungary's reputation as “Kodály's country,” with its strong musical traditions, students’ motivation shows a more pronounced decline compared to the other countries included in McPherson and O’Neill's (2010) study. Our results align with previous Hungarian research and highlight the urgent need for renewal in music education. On the basis of the present data, we cannot determine to what extent this situation is attributable to the way Kodály's ideas are currently implemented in classrooms, to broader structural and societal factors, or to their interaction. Nevertheless, it seems important that future practice explores how Kodály-inspired approaches can be combined with methods that acknowledge students’ interests—including high-quality popular music—while reinforcing growth-oriented beliefs about musical ability and providing authentic, meaningful experiences. Future research should map students’ preferences, test innovative methodologies, and examine how these can be combined with established traditions.
A primary limitation of the present study concerns measurement. In contrast to previous research, each component of EVT was represented by a single item, which may have reduced the internal consistency and reliability of the constructs. The sampling procedure also limits the generalizability of the findings, as participants were drawn from several, but not all, regions of Hungary, and schools took part on a voluntary basis. Moreover, we did not collect detailed data on differences between schools, such as teachers’ qualifications, their use of Kodály-based or alternative methodological approaches, or the socio-economic and cultural characteristics of the student population. It is likely that these school-, teacher-, and community-level factors also shape students’ motivational profiles. Furthermore, the questionnaire was administered under teacher supervision during school hours, which may have influenced students’ responses. Finally, the cross-sectional design precludes any causal interpretation of the results.
In light of these limitations, future research should employ more comprehensive measurement instruments, extend sampling to a broader range of regions and school types, and use longitudinal designs to capture developmental changes in students’ motivation across grade levels and to provide stronger evidence for causal relationships. It would also be valuable to combine large-scale motivational surveys with qualitative and mixed-method studies of classroom practice in the officially Kodály-based system. Such work could address school-, teacher-, and community-level differences more directly and explore, for example, how repertoire choices, singing activities, and other core elements of the tradition are interpreted by contemporary students, and how they can be combined with newer approaches, including creative music-making and selected elements of popular music culture. This may help to clarify how Kodály's principles are implemented in practice and how they can be adapted and revitalized so that they continue to support students’ motivation in the current educational and cultural context.
Footnotes
Action Editor
José Luis Aróstegui, University of Granada, Music Education Department.
Peer Review
Antonio Fernández Jiménez, University of Granada, Department of Didactics of Musical, Plastic and Body Expression.
One anonymous reviewer.
Author Contributions
All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Ethical Approval and Informed Consent Statements
The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of University of Szeged, Doctoral School of Education (1/2024, February 2, 2024).
Introductory letters and consent forms were distributed to participating schools. Depending on students’ age, either active or passive informed consent was obtained from parents/legal guardians prior to data collection. Participation was voluntary and students were informed that they could withdraw at any time without consequence.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: University of Szeged Open Access Fund, Grant ID: 8274. This study was funded by the Scientific Foundations of Education Research Program of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and by the Digital Society Competence Centre of the Humanities and Social Sciences Cluster of the Centre of Excellence for Interdisciplinary Research, Development and Innovation of the University of Szeged. The authors are members of the New Tools and Techniques for Assessing Students Research Group.
Data Availability Statement
The data are not publicly available due to restrictions in the ethical approval and privacy/confidentiality requirements. De-identified data may be made available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request, subject to approval by the relevant ethics body and completion of any required data-sharing agreements.