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Abstract

In Myanmar, a country generally recognised to be economically and politically less developed than its neighbours in the South East Asia Region, children have to be obedient. Traditional teaching styles, characterised by rote learning and teacher ascendancy, have dominated the education sector for decades. This is reflective of traditional societal norms that accept, almost unquestionably, the need for younger people to follow the direction of their elders or those in society considered to be in a position of rank or authority. For students in class, asking questions to the teacher, expressing an opinion or giving feedback and taking part in discussions are somehow taboo. Starting from around 10 years ago, with the introduction of what has become known by its acronym, the child-centred approach, shifting teacher hegemony became a priority of the government and alternative education providers. The child-centred approach, as it is interpreted in Myanmar, seeks to encourage teachers to step out of their role of ‘class director’ and engage children in constructing and managing their own learning experience. There have been numerous constraints to introducing this new methodology including the examination system, a rigid adherence to the set curriculum and textbooks and teacher pupil ratio. Moreover, according to current reviews and evaluation of the child-centred approach, teacher understanding of the concept is not always well developed and change not always supported by peers, school leadership or the community. However, the process has begun and an increasing number of schools are being encouraged to use this approach in line with current education sector reform. This critical change of teaching approach in Myanmar schools has the potential to have a significant impact on the dynamics of traditional social mores and structures, particularly as it is further reinforced by the rapidly developing economy and increasing exposure to outside influences. Tension is developing between the more conservative adult world and children and young people who appear increasingly eager to question traditional thinking. This article explores the potential and nascent impact and consequences on communities and Myanmar society resulting from the child-centred approach and the changing expectations young people have on the education system in the context of broader societal change.

Keywords

Buddhism child–adult relationships child-centred approach classroom discipline corporal punishment culture and religious believes education in Myanmar Myanmar primary education traditional thinking

Introduction

King Min Don, the second last King of the Kone Baung Dynasty in Myanmar who lived from 1852 to 1878 was well known for his reverence and dedication to Buddhist thought and teaching. When he was a child he was sent to a monastery to learn the basic tenets of this religion. During that period, as is the case today, novices were expected to do many chores around the monastery. A story is told that one day the young Min Don was assigned a special task by the Abbot; to keep a piece of dried fish safe for the following day. When it came time to prepare the fish, however, it was nowhere to be found. The young King had neglected his duty. As a result, Min Don was severely beaten; until his skin was lacerated and bleeding the story tells us. Why did the Abbot treat the young kind so cruelly? His rationale was simple, if the young King could not even look after a piece of dried fish, how then would he care for an entire country (Ko Nyan, 2014)?

The story above is part of a prescribed text from the Myanmar language textbook that is studied by all primary schools in the country and is often referred to by teachers and parents alike, in support of corporal punishment. It is illustrative of the way in which discipline has been maintained in classrooms and, indeed, more widely in a country long ruled by a military regime. It reflects the belief in the teacher as one who should always be respected and never questioned and has resulted in classrooms that rely heavily on rote learning and memorisation. With the recent modernisation of Myanmar though, long-held assumptions about school discipline and learning are being brought into question. Over the past 5 years, a new approach to learning and teaching has been introduced known as the Child-Centred Approach or the CCA. While there is a wide range of interpretations of the CCA, at a very basic level, the approach suggests that children should be far more active in the learning process and that teaching should be structured around the needs of the child. As will be shown, this approach is not very well understood by parents or teachers and school principals. It is often seen as allowing children to do what they want in the classroom and to simply have fun. While this is not necessarily the main goal of the CCA, current practice has the potential to alter well-established codes of conduct and discipline, not only within the school environment but also more widely, between children and their parents or other adults within the community or society at large. Such changes may or may not be beneficial.

In order to better understand these emerging dynamics, this article uses existing research and documentation from Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO) and United Nations (UN) project reports to present a meta-analysis exploring the linkages between the changes of education in Myanmar and its impact on cultural practices and child–adult relationships. This article explores the potential and expected impact and consequences on communities and Myanmar society resulting from the CCA and the changing expectations young people have on the education system in the context of broader societal change.

Methodology

The study is a comprehensive documentary review constructed around two main themes, cultural practices and disciplinary approaches as they are changing and the evolution of the CCA within Myanmar primary school classrooms¹ employing the use of tertiary data. Data sources include related scientific journal publications, online publications and accredited web-sources, evaluation reports and policy and guideline documents. Document searches were conducted through search engines such as Google Scholar and Internet-based public access domains. Documents included those published by Government agencies (e.g. Ministry of Education, and Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development); UN agencies (e.g. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)), International Organisations and NGOs (e.g. World Bank and Pyoe Pin). The Boolean search query comprised the key words under the two themes.

Inclusion criteria were as follows. Documents in English and/or Myanmar language produced between 1989 and 2014.

Exclusion criteria were as follows. Abstracts only; articles published in journals not meeting quality criteria in terms of peer review or journal impact factor; and articles demonstrating flaws in their methodological approach.

Reference management. A list of materials retrieved by the search was created and documents marked which included relevant information. Marked materials were then reviewed in depth to determine and/or confirm initial identified relevance. Finally, a database of selected documents was created and referenced using American Psychological Association (APA) referencing.

Analysis. Information was classified into qualitative and quantitative data. A comparative content analysis using matrix displays was conducted for qualitative data. A descriptive analysis using frequencies, distributions and ratios was conducted for quantitative data.

Study limitations: There were a number of limitations of this study:

Limiting document to those published in English or Myanmar;

A number of relative studies did not have published articles;

There may have been data-reliability issues with some of the studies examined despite sticking to the criteria above.

Background

Myanmar, bordered by Bangladesh, India, China, Laos and Thailand, is the poorest country (Global Finance, 2015) in the South East Asia Region. According to the recently conducted 2014 Census, the population of Myanmar is 51,419,420, with a significantly higher proportion of people living in rural areas; 35,019,635 or 68.1 % (Myanmar Department of Population, 2014). There are over 100 distinct language groups in Myanmar, each with its own history and related cultural evolution. This article does not attempt to differentiate between these various cultures but focuses on the mainstream Myanmar Buddhist culture.

Buddhism is one of the main influencing factors of cultural expectations and standards around the behaviour of children, particularly as this relates to respect towards one’s elders. Myanmar is a predominantly Buddhist country. Buddhist teaching identifies five most precious things. Buddhists are taught to value these above all: the Buddha; the teachings of Buddha (also called Dharma); Monks; Parents; and teachers. In Buddhist teaching, all five are of equivalent importance. Any improper behaviour or even prejudice towards any of these five brings guilt and shame upon that person. This teaching and the need to show respect, in particular to monks, permeate the minds and mind-set of Myanmar Buddhists from childhood. As a result, children grow up reluctant to question or disagree, let alone argue with monks, teachers or parents. Parents and teachers, on the other hand, do not seem to hold children with the same respect, using a variety of ways, including corporal punishment, to discipline them. Indeed corporal punishment is the norm rather than the exception in most Myanmar households, particularly in rural areas. The inspired universal truth in Myanmar seems to be that parents and teachers always act in the best interests of their children and so, whatever they do is fair and reasonable.

Education in Myanmar

Education has long been a priority in Myanmar society, having played a major role within Buddhist monastic institutions from the Bagan era (849–1247 AD). In addition to religious instruction, monasteries would also teach people how to read and write. The tradition of monastic schools continues to this day, with the monastic school system now being the second largest provider of government education in Myanmar.² From early times then, Myanmar has prided itself on being one of the most literate societies in the region (Lorch, 2007). After independence in 1948, a number of changes were introduced into the education sector including the introduction of Burmese as the medium of instruction and the creation of new textbooks to support patriotism (Education Encyclopedia – State University, 2014). Following the military coup in 1962, the education system was gradually distorted as the government sought to control personal freedoms and introduce a socialist regime. Whereas in many countries in the region, education advanced over the 1960s, 1970s and 1990s the evolution of the sector in Myanmar was stunted. In the late 1980s, Myanmar student-led pro-democracy protests ended in a military takeover of the country which lasted until 2010. During this period, education was further dismantled, particularly the tertiary sector. Universities were closed for long periods of time. Most courses were only offered by distance education, meaning that students never needed to congregate on a university campus, hence, reducing the likelihood of student activism. (Oxford Burma Alliance, 2014).

Following the 2010 election of the so-called civilian government, change in the education sector has increasingly become a national priority. A Comprehensive Education Sector Review (CESR) process was launched in 2012 coordinated by the Myanmar Ministry of Education in collaboration with UN, a number of donor nations and significant interest from the NGO sector. At the same time, a civil society-led initiative known as the National Network on Education Reform (NNER) was formed in opposition and to provide community input to the reform process. The ongoing reforms have lead to the development of a number of laws and regulations to guide the evolution of a new era of education in Myanmar. However, there has been significant dissatisfaction with the reforms to date and students have once again taken to the streets in protest.

A current analysis of basic education would suggest that the concerns being raised by student activists have some relevance. Currently, there is no real basic education curriculum in Myanmar, simply a series of textbooks (Myanmar Ministry of Education, 2013) P28. Students sit monthly chapter tests where they must simply regurgitate information straight from these texts. There is no regular ‘curriculum’ review and the texts themselves are seen to be extremely ‘Myanmar-centric’, ignoring the rich histories (and often contradictory interpretations) of the many ethnic groups that make up Myanmar.

Whatever the results of the reforms, from even before the process began, there has been a significant movement in the Myanmar basic education sector for an evolution from the traditional didactic teacher-led to a learner-centred approach, particularly in primary school classrooms. This has resulted in the training of thousands of teachers in what is known in Myanmar as the ‘CCA’ or the child-centred approach.

Child-Centred Approach (CCA) in Myanmar

The idea of the Child-Centred Approach can be traced back to the idea of ‘learning by doing’ by American Philosopher, Psychologist and Education Reformer, John Dewey (1859–1952). In the late 1960s, the approach was widely used in American schools (Lambie and Williamson, 2004).

The concept of CCA varies significantly from the current practice found in traditional classrooms in Myanmar. A teacher in a child-centred classroom is seen as a ‘facilitator’ of learning, rather than an instructor. She or he assists students in learning (acquiring knowledge and skills) without providing direct instruction but by providing a supportive and favourable learning environment. The teacher’s ultimate role is to guide and support within the class while allowing each student to explore his or her own potential (Lall, 2010). Typically, a CCA classroom will allow children to investigate and question, working in groups or independently without the didactic instruction that characterised the formal classrooms of previous generations.

In a CCA, school children’s attitudes might be expected to change; they would be happy to come to school and actively engage with their learning and school activities. Teachers might observe fewer absences and improvement in the performance of the students. In a CCA classroom, children’s confidence may increase and they would no longer be afraid to ask questions. Children would begin to question and develop their own sense of logic, not simply accept as truth whatever teachers say. Ultimately, children will begin to question and make decisions about their own lives and learning.

As the CCA has developed, so have varying definitions; however, it is possible to identify certain principals of the CCA that seem to apply to all. These might be summarised as follows:

Orientation to the needs of the child where lessons provide opportunities for children to address their needs and requirements.

Active self-regulated learning by children through which knowledge can be discovered.

A well-designed learning environment with at most 25 students in a class and a seating structure that allows eye contact and communication between students.

Social learning as a method and a goal that learning is used as a shared social process where children can present their needs and learn simultaneously.

Broad understanding of performance and ability that the pupil’s status is not only justified by the memorised facts laid by the school, but focussing on the abilities and competencies to perform well enough for the desired outcome and to develop their personalities.

Addressing performance assessments in an encouraging manner that students must be involved in deciding how to demonstrate their learning and by showing their positive results.

Conducive school community that school administrators, teachers, pupils and parents all coordinate and work together in a respectful, professional and committed way for the conducive school community (Initiative Neues Lernen, 2014).

It is not only the way the classroom operates that differentiates a CCA from a traditional classroom. Discipline, in particular, is seen in a different light. Punishment is limited, if not all together replaced by incentivising learning. Corporal punishment is totally banned. ‘Positive discipline’ becomes paramount in a CCA school (UNICEF, 2009).

Despite the training of teachers in Myanmar on the CCA and the changing policy environment, the uptake of this new approach has been met with a significant number of barriers. Centralised exams and chapter tests, the need to stick rigidly to textbooks, classroom size and teacher-pupil ratio all mean that making a shift towards the CCA has become challenging (Lall, 2010). An evaluation of the Monastic Education Enhancement Programme (MEEP) looked at the uptake of the CCA in monastic schools in parts of the country. Twenty-two indicators of the CCA being utilised in classrooms were assessed in a sample of 581 teachers, all of whom had received formal training and in-class mentoring on using the CCA. Only 11 of the indicators (50%) were observed in just over half of the teachers (MEEP, 2014). A further study looking at 50 monastic schools across Myanmar conducted in 2010–2011 showed that there were significant challenges in the adoption of the CCA, particularly a lack of understanding and acceptance of the value of this new approach by teachers and school administrators. Although a majority of the teachers and headmasters were willing to practice the CCA in the classroom, teachers often expressed concerns about the time needed explaining that teaching with the CCA methods takes up more class time, threatening their ability to get through the curriculum. It was found that other more practical issues prevented the uptake of the CCA such as a lack of teaching and learning aids in schools and class numbers (Pyoe Pin Programme, Myanmar Youth Forum and Phaung Daw Oo Basic Integrated Monastic High School, 2012).

However, despite the challenges, significant effort has been put into moving to the CCA classrooms. In particular, a set of standards are being finalised that contain competencies for education officers, teacher educators, head teachers and basic education teachers in the CCA as part of UNICEF’s support to the education sector. In addition, since 2014, over 70,000 new teachers have been trained in the CCA and sent out around the country in a bid to increase access of students to education and increase the primary school completion rate. Whether or not teachers will be able to utilise the CCA in the classroom remains to be seen; however, there has been little formal reflection on the impact of such a significant shift in educational approach on adult-child relationships should the CCA take hold.

Change in the classroom, however, is not the only factor that might influence the nature of child-adult relationships. Along with the education sector, the economic opening up of country means that children and young people are being exposed to a radically different life and world views to that of their parents, particularly in the rapidly expanding urban centres such as Yangon and Mandalay.

Economic and social changes of the country

Myanmar is a country on the move. Political changes have resulted in an upswing of economic development with Yangon, the business capital of the country, seeing unprecedented change and growth. Foreign Direct Investment in Myanmar increased to US$176.34 million in June 2014 (Trading Economics, 2014). The last recorded Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita in Myanmar was US$1324.61 dollars in 2012, when adjusted by purchasing power parity (PPP) and a significant improvement seen compared with US$739.58 in 2004 (World Bank, 2014). More and more foreigners are entering into the country. From 2012 to 2014, an average of more than 180,000 tourists arrived in Myanmar in each month (Myanmar Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development, 2014), nearly as much as the entire year only 5 years ago. Myanmar nationals are also increasingly travelling abroad.

Information technologies have advanced significantly, in particular, penetrating the youth market. The key entry point here is the increasing mobile phone coverage in the country. Only 5 years ago, the cost of a SIM card for a mobile phone was over US$2500 putting basic communications out of the hands of all but the wealthy. Since the elections in 2010, prices have dropped to international standards (around US$2.00 per card) and there are currently around five million (10%) of the population using phones. The two international telecommunication companies now operating in Myanmar, Ooredoo and Telenor, have committed to expand coverage to up to 70% of the population within next 5 years (Furberg, 2014). Even children are playing with laptops, tablets and smart-phones. If nothing else, this points to the increasing exposure of Myanmar nationals to the outside world and, along with that, confronting issues which will enable children and young people to see that the lives of their peers in other societies are vastly different to their own.

Indeed, urban Myanmar children, when the author was a child, were expected to spend their time either in the classroom or in private tuition. Now children spend their leisure time in the virtual world of movies, computer games and social media, while both parents struggle to make money.

Gazing into the future: Potential changes in child–adult relationships

Myanmar’s changing political and economic realities seem unstoppable. They are also taking place at an unprecedented rate. Education, like many other sectors is caught up in profound change but there has been little time for the nation to stop and reflect on the impact of such change, particularly on culture and established social relationships. While expressed neither as positive or negative outcomes, the following issues, influenced by the underlying philosophy of the CCA, should be considered:

1. A breakdown of the current belief structure of child–adult relationships

Children have been used to accepting adult guidance and direction without question. Teachers, in particular, hold positions of great authority in the minds of children. With the introduction of CCA, it is possible that children will no longer believe whatever teachers (and indeed adults in general) say without question. They will, instead, be looking for explanations and understanding rather than simply accepting as fact anything they are told. Classroom discipline could deteriorate as a result and the social fabric of adult-child relationships could be undermined. Obviously, this is not a startling or new concept in an international sense but it is in Myanmar.

2. Impact on traditional thinking, culture and religious believes

The focus on critical thinking encouraged through the CCA may have the effect of causing children to begin to doubt and question the moral and spiritual beliefs that have underpinned much of Myanmar’s culture (Furedi, 2009). In the past, these have provided a framework in which interpersonal relationships, including those between adults and children, develop. Will children, simply shun these beliefs and look more towards western cultures for answers, simply mimicking the lives of children from the developed world? Already the speed with which technology has taken off and the apparent changes in style and dress and the language of young people would indicate that this may be the case. It could be argued that some Myanmar traditions such as paying respect in speaking to elders, listening with respect to the speech of old people, obeying the instructions of parents and teachers are already disappearing, particularly in the main urban centres of Yangon and Mandalay. Does the CCA encourage such behaviour and, if so, what will be the long-term impact on relationships between children and adults?

3. Greater motivation to learn

In contrast to the two points above, studies have shown that the CCA can promote student motivation, upgrade student’s interpersonal skills and develop peer communication (Schooley, 2012). For many years, particularly since the military takeover of the country in 1988, schools have become increasingly oppressive environments. As teacher salaries dropped and teachers forced into charging tuition fees for after-school classes, there has been a gradual erosion of confidence in the teaching profession and the value of schooling. The CCA may indeed breathe new life into a flawed system. Teaching and learning in different ways, making a break from what many see as the traditional, into group work may see increasing harmony not only in the classrooms but also in the home and society at large.

4. A new kind of citizen

Other studies have shown that the CCA can actually reduce disruptive behaviour, promote discovery/active learning and encourage one’s own learning (Morrison, 2013). From this perspective, it could be argued that the CCA is one factor that will influence development trends in the country in the longer term as children schooled in this new method take places in business and political leadership. A new breed of adults who show initiative and creativity in their work, public and social lives could have a major impact on some of those traditional factors that arguably have held back Myanmar’s development in the past.

Discussion and conclusion

The use of student-centred learning appears to be reflective of today’s society where choice and democracy are important concepts; however, the question still exists in Myanmar as to whether or not it is an effective approach to learning. Several studies (e.g. Lonka and Ahola, 1995; Lea et al., 2003) would suggest that it is. However, the approach has been facing challenges in Myanmar and has its detractors. Some suggest the CCA is too big a shift of cultural values and educational approaches and that it leaves the teacher confused (Thein Lwin, 2012). The crucial question may be, how can we optimise the approach to fit more within the framework of Myanmar culture and society? As educational reform in Myanmar continues at a rapid pace, the risk of quick-fix solutions to profoundly complex needs should be carefully analysed and assessed and then adapted to meet local contexts. Policy makers and experts who are working for education reform in the country must consider how to maximise the advantages of the CCA as well as how to mitigate the consequences.

Footnotes

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Notes

Author biography

Win Han Oo is a researcher and programme manager at the Burnet Institute, Myanmar. His research focuses are on Health and Education. Dr Win Han Oo is also involved in a number of local charities and organisations supporting children and young people in Myanmar.

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The evolution of cultural practices: Are changes to education in Myanmar leading to a shift in the way in which child–adult relationships are constructed?