Over the past twenty years, the construct of leader identity—the internalization of “leader” into one's self-concept—has experienced an exponential growth in attention among researchers and practitioners alike. This boom in research has yielded broad support for leader identity as an important predictor of leadership outcomes; however, this rapid growth has also created a disjointed construct space with theoretical and methodological challenges. In a systematic review of nearly 200 papers, we apply the existing theoretical framework of multi-dimensional leader identity (Hammond et al., 2017; strength, meaning, level, integration) to organize factors affecting the leader identity construction process as well as three functions leader identity serves—motivation, interpretive lens, and a relational foundation. Finally, we offer guidance to create a road map for the rigorous study and advancement of leader identity research.
Plain language summary
Review of Leader Identity Research
Research on leader identity has grown significantly. This paper reviews published studies to set the stage for future research and practical implications of leader identity in leadership development. We define leader identity, discuss its measurement, and explain how it develops through individual factors, social dynamics, and intentional development and experience. We suggest that leader identity can 1) motivate people to take on and develop their leadership, 2) affect the way people see and interpret situations and information, and 3) set the foundation for relationships with others. We conclude the paper with a set of recommendations to advance research on this topic.
AmitK.PopperM.GalR.Mamane-LevyT.LisakA. (2009). Leadership-shaping experiences: A comparative study of leaders and non-leaders. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 30(4), 302–318. ISSN: 0143-7739. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437730910961658
2.
AntonakisJ.BendahanS.JacquartP.LaliveR. (2010). On making causal claims: A review and recommendations. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(6), 1086–1120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.10.010
AyoobzadehM.BoiesK. (2020). From mentors to leaders: Leader development outcomes for mentors. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 35(6), 497–511. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-10-2019-0591
5.
BardonT.BrownA. D.PuyouF. R. (2021). Citius, Altius, Fortius: Managers’ quest for heroic leader identities. Organization, 30(5), 942–960. https://doi.org/10.1177/13505084211030644
6.
BartelsA. L.WellmanN. (2023). Is it just me, or am I the people’s choice? The stress and performance implications of (in)congruence between self- and other-identification as a leader or follower. Journal of Applied Psychology, 108(10), 1680–1698. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0001090
7.
BatailleC. D.VoughH. C. (2022). More than the sum of my parts: An intrapersonal network approach to identity work in response to identity opportunities and threats. Academy of Management Review, 47(1), 93–115. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2018.0026
8.
BaumeisterR. F. (1999). The self in social psychology. Psychology Press.
9.
BrewerM. B.GardnerW. (1996). Who is this “We"? Levels of collective identity and self-representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(1), 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.1.83
10.
BrueK. L.BrueS. A. (2018). Leadership role identity construction in women’s leadership development programs. Journal of Leadership Education, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.12806/V17/I1/C2
11.
BurkeP. J.StetsJ. E. (2009). Identity theory. Oxford University Press.
12.
ByrneA. E.ChadwickI. C. (2023). How women leaders’ identities coexist through public and private identity endorsements. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 31(1), 59–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/15480518231208576
13.
CazaB. B.MossS.VoughH. (2018). From synchronizing to harmonizing: The process of authenticating multiple work identities. Administrative Science Quarterly, 63(4), 703–745. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839217733972
14.
ChangC.-H.JohnsonR. E. (2010). Not all leader–member exchanges are created equal: Importance of leader relational identity. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(5), 796–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.07.008
15.
ChenL. (2016). Linking leader personality traits to motivation to lead: A self-concept approach. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 44(11), 1913–1925. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2016.44.11.1913
16.
ChenL. (2018). Thinking paradoxically: How and when female narcissistic leaders integrate gender-leader identities. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 46(2), 339–352. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6910
17.
ChiuC. Y. C.BalkundiP.WeinbergF. J. (2017). When managers become leaders: The role of manager network centralities, social power, and followers’ perception of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 28(2), 334–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.05.004
18.
ChreimS.LangleyA.ReayT.Comeau-ValléeM.HuqJ. L. (2020). Constructing and sustaining counter-institutional identities. Academy of Management Journal, 63(3), 935–964. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2017.0528
19.
Clapp-SmithR.HammondM. M.LesterG. V.PalanskiM. (2019). Promoting identity development in leadership education: A multidomain approach to developing the whole leader. Journal of Management Education, 43(1), 10–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562918813190
20.
CliftonJ. (2014). Small stories, positioning, and the discursive construction of leader identity in business meetings. Leadership, 10(1), 99–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715013504428
21.
CliftonJ. (2018). The in-situ construction of leader identity in a leader’s life story during an alumni talk to MBA students. Leadership, 14(6), 622–643. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715017706644
22.
CliftonJ.DaiW. (2020). A discursive analysis of the in situ construction of (Japanese) leadership and leader identity in a research interview. Implications for leadership research. Leadership, 16(2), 180–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715019856159
23.
CotterK. C. (2021). Global leader self-complexity: Conceptualization and scale validation. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 28(4), 444–464. https://doi.org/10.1177/15480518211030916
24.
CroftC.CurrieG.LockettA. (2015). The impact of emotionally important social identities on the construction of a managerial leader identity: A challenge for nurses in the English National Health Service. Organization Studies, 36(1), 113–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840614556915
25.
CrossS. E.HardinE. E.Gercek-SwingB. (2011). The what, how, why, and where of self-construal. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(2), 142–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868310373752
26.
CrossS. E.BaconP. L.MorrisM. L. (2000). The relational-interdependent self-construal and relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(4), 791–808.
27.
CunninghamJ.SondayL.AshfordS. J. (2022). Do I Dare? The psychodynamics of anticipated image risk, leader identity endorsement, and leader emergence. Academy of Management Journal, 66(2), 374–401. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2018.1258
28.
DayD. V.HarrisonM. M. (2007). A multilevel, identity-based approach to leadership development. Human Resource Management Review, 17(4), 360–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2007.08.007
29.
DayD. V.HarrisonM. M.HalpinS. M. (2009). An integrative approach to approach to leader development, connecting adult development, identity, and expertise. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203809525
30.
DayD. V.LanceC. E. (2004). Understanding the development of leadership complexity through latent growth modeling. In Leader development for transforming organizations (pp. 61–90). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410610102
31.
DayD. V.RiggioR. E.TanS. J.CongerJ. A. (2021). Advancing the science of 21st-century leadership development: Theory, research, and practice. The Leadership Quarterly, 32(5), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2021.101557
32.
DayD. V.SinH. P. (2011). Longitudinal tests of an integrative model of leader development: Charting and understanding developmental trajectories. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(3), 545–560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.04.011
33.
DeRueD. S.AshfordS. J. (2010). Who will lead and who will follow? A social process of leadership identity construction in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 35(4), 627–647. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2010.53503267
34.
DixonS.Niewoehner-GreenJ. E.SmulowitzS.SmithD. N.Rutstein-RileyA.ThomasT. M. (2023). Girls’ and young women’s leader identity development: A scoping review. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 38(7), 896–924. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-03-2022-0108
35.
EbrahimiM.KouchakiM.PatrickV. M. (2020). Juggling work and home selves: Low identity integration feels less authentic and increases unethicality. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 158, 101–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.02.005
36.
ElyR. J.IbarraH.KolbD. M. (2011). Taking gender into account: Theory and design for women's leadership development programs. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10(3), 474–493. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2010.0046
37.
EmeryC.DaniloskiK.HambyA. (2011). The reciprocal effects of self-view as a leader and leadership emergence. Small Group Research, 42(2), 199–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496410389494
38.
EpitropakiO.KarkR.MainemelisC.LordR. G. (2017). Leadership and followership identity processes: A multilevel review. The Leadership Quarterly, 28(1), 104–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.10.003
39.
EpitropakiO.RadulovicA. B.EteZ.ThomasG.MartinR. (2020). Leader-follower transgressions, relationship repair strategies and outcomes: A state-of-the-science review and a way forward. The Leadership Quarterly, 31(1), 101376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2019.101376
40.
EpsteinS. (1973). The self-concept revisited: Or a theory of a theory. American Psychologist, 28(5), 404–414. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034679
GamboaL. C. L.IlacE. J. D.CaranganA. M. J. M.AgidaJ. I. S. (2021). Queering public leadership: The case of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender leaders in the Philippines. Leadership, 17(2), 191–211. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715020953273
43.
GanzM.Lee CunninghamJ.Ben EzerI.SeguraA. (2022). Crafting public narrative to enable collective action: A pedagogy for leadership development. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 22(2), 169–190. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2020.0224
44.
GaravanT. N.McGarryA.WatsonS.D’Annunzio-GreenN.O’ BrienF. (2015). The impact of arts-based leadership development on leader mind-set: A field experiment. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 17(3), 391–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422315588358
45.
GardnerW. L.AvolioB. J. (1998). The charismatic relationship: A dramaturgical perspective. Academy of Management Review, 23(1), 32–58. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1998.192958
46.
GeorgeM. M.StraussK.MellJ. N.VoughH. C. (2023). When “who I am” is under threat: Measures of threat to identity value, meanings, and enactment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 108(12), 1952–1978. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0001114
47.
GjerdeS.LadegårdG. (2019). Leader role crafting and the functions of leader role identities. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 26(1), 44–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051818774553
48.
GloorJ. L.RehbockS. K.KarkR. (2023). Critical events at critical times? A gendered identity approach on the path to (sustainable) leadership. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 932998. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.932998
49.
GrønC. H.AndersenL. B. (2023). Developing perceived and experienced identity: How leadership training affects leadership identity. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 44(2), 268–294. 10.1177/0734371X221146718
50.
GoslingE. (2022). The role of the officers’ mess in inclusive military leader social identity construction. Leadership, 18(1), 40–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/17427150211063675
51.
GuillénL.MayoM.KorotovK. (2015). Is leadership a part of me? A leader identity approach to understanding the motivation to lead. The Leadership Quarterly, 26(5), 802–820. 10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.05.001
52.
HammondM. M.Clapp-SmithR.PalanskiM. E. (2017). Beyond (just) the workplace: A theory of leader development across multiple domains. Academy of Management Review, 42(3), 481–498. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2014.0431
53.
HannahS. T.BalthazardP. A.WaldmanD. A.JenningsP. L.ThatcherR. W. (2013). The psychological and neurological bases of leader self-complexity and effects on adaptive decision-making. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(3), 393–411. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032257
54.
HannahS. T.WoolfolkR. L.LordR. G. (2009). Leader self-structure: A framework for positive leadership. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(2), 269–290. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.586
55.
HarariM. B.ParolaH. R.HartwellC. J.RiegelmanA. (2020). Literature searches in systematic reviews and meta-analyses: A review, evaluation, and recommendations. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 118, 103377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103377
56.
Haslam, S. A., Gaffney, A. M., Hogg, M. A., Rast, D. E. III., & Steffens, N. K. (2022). Reconciling identity leadership and leader identity: A dual-identity framework. The Leadership Quarterly, 33(4), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/du24t
57.
HillerN. J. (2005). An examination of leadership beliefs and leadership self-identity: Constructs, correlates, and outcomes. The Pennsylvania State University.
HoytC. L.BurnetteJ. L.InnellaA. N. (2012). I can do that: The impact of implicit theories on leadership role model effectiveness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(2), 257–268. 10.1177/0146167211427922
60.
HumphreysJ. H.NovicevicM. M.SmothersJ.Pane HadenS. S.HayekM.WilliamsW. A.Jr.ClaytonR. W. (2015). The collective endorsement of James Meredith: Initiating a leader identity construction process. Human Relations, 68(9), 1389–1413. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714556292
61.
IbarraH.SnookS.Guillé´n RamoL. (2010). Identity-based leader development. In NohriaN.KhuranaR. (Eds.), Handbook of leadership theory and practice (pp. 657–678). Harvard Business Review Press.
62.
IbarraH.WittmanS.PetriglieriG.DayD. V. (2014). Leadership and identity: An examination of three theories and new research directions. In DayD. V. (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Leadership and Organizations (pp. 285–301). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199755615.013.015
63.
JacksonE. M.JohnsonR. E. (2012). When opposites do (and do not) attract: Interplay of leader and follower self-identities and its consequences for leader–member exchange. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(3), 488–501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.12.003
64.
JenningsR. E.LanajK.KoopmanJ.McNamaraG. (2022). Reflecting on one's best possible self as a leader: Implications for professional employees at work. Personnel Psychology, 75(1), 69–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12447
65.
JohnsonR. E.VenusM.LanajK.MaoC.ChangC.-H. (2012). Leader identity as an antecedent of the frequency and consistency of transformational, consideration, and abusive leadership behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(6), 1262–1272. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029043
66.
JohnsonS. K.MurphyS. E.RiggioR. E. (2023). Developing leader identity across the lifespan. New Directions for Student Leadership, 2023(178), 21–30. 10.1002/yd.20551
67.
KakarikaM.LianidouT.QuY. (.BlighM. C. (2022). Organizational behaviour in the COVID-19 context: Effects of supervisor-directed deviance on retaliation against subordinates. British Journal of Management, 33(1), 435–454. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.12579
68.
KarelaiaN.GuillénL. (2014). Me, a woman and a leader: Positive social identity and identity conflict. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 125(2), 204–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.08.002
69.
KarkR. (2011). Games managers play: Play as a form of leadership development. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10(3), 507–527. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2010.0048
70.
KarkR.MeisterA.PetersK. (2022). Now you see me, now you don’t: A conceptual model of the antecedents and consequences of leader impostorism. Journal of Management, 48(7), 1948–1979. 10.1177/0149206321102035
71.
KjellströmS.StålneK.TörnblomO. (2020). Six ways of understanding leadership development: An exploration of increasing complexity. Leadership, 16(4), 434–460. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715020926731
72.
KleinK. J.ZiegertJ. C.KnightA. P.XiaoY. (2004). A leadership system for emergency action teams: Rigid hierarchy and dynamic flexibility. Academy of Management Journal, 47(6), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.2307/20159634
73.
KoernerM. M. (2014). Courage as identity work: Accounts of workplace courage. Academy of Management Journal, 57(1), 63–93. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.0641
74.
KragtD.DayD. V. (2020). Predicting leadership competency development and promotion among high-potential executives: The role of leader identity. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01816
75.
KragtD.GuenterH. (2018). Why and when leadership training predicts effectiveness: The role of leader identity and leadership experience. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 39(3), 406–418. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-11-2016-0298
76.
KukenbergerM. R.D'InnocenzoL. (2020). The building blocks of shared leadership: The interactive effects of diversity types, team climate, and time. Personnel Psychology, 73(1), 125–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12318
77.
KwokN.HanigS.BrownD. J.ShenW. (2018). How leader role identity influences the process of leader emergence: A social network analysis. The Leadership Quarterly, 29(6), 648–662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.04.003
78.
KwokN.ShenW.BrownD. J. (2021). I can, I am: Differential predictors of leader efficacy and identity trajectories in leader development. The Leadership Quarterly, 32(5), 648–662. 29(6). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2020.101422
79.
LanajK.FoulkT. A.JenningsR. E. (2022a). Improving the lives of leaders: The beneficial effects of positive leader self-reflection. Journal of Management, 49(8), 2595–2628. https://doi.org/10.1177/01492063221110205
80.
LanajK.GabrielA. S.ChawlaN. (2021). The self-sacrificial nature of leader identity: Understanding the costs and benefits at work and home. Journal of Applied Psychology, 106(3), 345–363. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000505
81.
LanajK.JenningsR. E.AshfordS. J.KrishnanS. (2022b). When leader self-care begets other care: Leader role self-compassion and helping at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 107(9), 1543–1560. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000957
82.
LanajK.GabrielA. S.JenningsR. E. (2023). The importance of leader recovery for leader identity and behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 108(10), 1717–1736. 10.1037/apl0001092
83.
LankaE.TopakasA.PattersonM. (2020). Becoming a leader: Catalysts and barriers to leader identity construction. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 29(3), 377–390. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2019.1706488
84.
LapierreL. M.NaidooL. J.BonaccioS. (2012). Leaders’ relational self-concept and followers’ task performance: Implications for mentoring provided to followers. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(5), 766–774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.01.001
85.
LattaG. F. (2021). Eliciting the true self: The effects of doctoral education on students’ implicit leadership theories and authentic leader identity development. Journal of Research on Leadership Education, 16(1), 30–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/1942775119858638
86.
LeeJ.SondayL.AshfordS. J. (2016). It’s a matter of identity: The dynamics of leader identity and leadership behavior in organizations. Paper presented at the 76th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Anaheim, CA.
LordR. G.EpitropakiO.FotiR. J.HansbroughT. K. (2020). Implicit leadership theories, implicit followership theories, and dynamic processing of leadership information. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 7, 49–74. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012119-045434 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012119-045434
91.
LordR. G.HallR. J. (2005). Identity, deep structure and the development of leadership skill. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(4), 591–615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.06.003
92.
LugarC. W.Garrett-ScottS.NovicevicM. M.PopoolaI. T.HumphreysJ. H.MillsA. J. (2020). The historic emergence of intersectional leadership: Maggie Lena Walker and the independent order of St. Luke. Leadership, 16(2), 220–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715019870375
93.
MarchiondoL. A.MyersC. G.KopelmanS. (2015). The relational nature of leadership identity construction: How and when it influences perceived leadership and decision-making. The Leadership Quarterly, 26(5), 892–908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.06.006
MartinR.EpitropakiO. (2001). Role of organizational identification on implicit leadership theories (ILTs), transformational leadership and work attitudes. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 4(3), 247–262. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430201004003005
96.
McBrideA.HoweL. C.GootyJ.BanksG. C. (2024). Seeing with counterfactual lenses: Alternative assumptions at the intersection of leadership and identity. The Leadership Quarterly, 35(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2023.101769
MeisterA.SinclairA.JehnK. A. (2017). Identities under scrutiny: How women leaders navigate feeling misidentified at work. The Leadership Quarterly, 28(5), 672–690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.01.009
99.
MiddletonE. D.WalkerD. O.ReichardR. J. (2019). Developmental trajectories of leader identity: Role of learning goal orientation. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 26(4), 495–509. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051818781818
100.
MiscenkoD.GuenterH.DayD. V. (2017). Am I a leader? Examining leader identity development over time. The Leadership Quarterly, 28(5), 605–620. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.01.004
101.
MoherD.LiberatiA.TetzlaffJ.AltmanD. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151(4), 264–269. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00135
102.
MurphyS. E.EnsherE. A. (2008). A qualitative analysis of charismatic leadership in creative teams: The case of television directors. The Leadership Quarterly, 19(3), 335–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.03.006
103.
MurphyS. E.JohnsonS. K. (2011). The benefits of a long-lens approach to leader development: Understanding the seeds of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(3), 459–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.04.004
104.
NieberleK. W.ActonB. P.BraunS.LordR. G.FuY. (2024). Leader identity on the fly: Intra-personal leader Identity Dynamics in response to strong events. Journal of Business and Psychology, 39(3), 755–778. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-023-09906-7
105.
PalanskiM. E.HammondM. M.KhazanchiS. (2022). Leader development in work and volunteer contexts: Expected practice and unexpected opportunities. Organizational Dynamics, 51(4), 100935. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2022.100935
106.
PalanskiM. E.ThomasJ. S.HammondM. M.LesterG. V.Clapp-SmithR. (2021). Being a leader and doing leadership: The cross-domain impact of family and friends on leader identity and leader behaviors at work. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 28(3), 273–286. https://doi.org/10.1177/15480518211005452
107.
PetriglieriG.PeshkamA. (2022). Stranger leaders: A theory of marginal leaders’ conception of learning in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 65(4), 1240–1273. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2019.0162
108.
PetriglieriG.PetriglieriJ. L. (2015). Can business schools humanize leadership?Academy of Management Learning & Education, 14(4), 625–647. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2014.0201
RehbockS. K.HubnerS. V.KnipferK.PeusC. V. (2023). What kind of leader am I? An exploration of professionals’ leader identity construal. Applied Psychology, 72(2), 559–587. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12389
111.
ReiseS. P.BonifayW. E.HavilandM. G. (2013). Scoring and modeling psychological measures in the presence of multidimensionality. Journal of Personality Assessment, 95(2), 129–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2012.725437
112.
RethlefsenM. L.KirtleyS.WaffenschmidtS.AyalaA. P.MoherD.PageM. J.KoffelJ. B. (2021). PRISMA-S: An extension to the PRISMA statement for reporting literature searches in systematic reviews. Systematic Reviews, 10(39), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-020-01542-z
113.
RodgersM. S.KimT. Y.ChenT.DavidE. (2023). Effects of leader group prototypicality on leadership outcomes through leader identity threat: The moderating effects of leader perceptions of organizational support. Journal of Management Studies, 61(4), 1427–1456. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12927
114.
RusD.van KnippenbergD.WisseB. (2010). Leader self-definition and leader self-serving behavior. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(3), 509–529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.03.013
115.
RuschE. A.BrunnerC. C. (2013). Transforming leadership identity in a virtual environment: Learning about the leading self. Journal of Transformative Education, 11(1), 45–69. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541344613489351
116.
RyanN. F.HammondM.MacCurtainS.CrossC. (2021). Overcoming risk for women in leader identity development. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 36(1), 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-03-2019-0178
117.
Sanchez-HuclesJ. V.DavisD. D. (2010). Women and women of color in leadership: Complexity, identity, and intersectionality. American Psychologist, 65(3), 171–181. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017459
118.
SchedlitzkiD.EdwardsG.KempsterS. (2018). The absent follower: Identity construction within organisationally assigned leader–follower relations. Leadership, 14(4), 483–503. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715017693544
SchynsB.KieferT.FotiR. J. (2020). Does thinking of myself as leader make me want to lead? The role of congruence in self-theories and implicit leadership theories in motivation to lead. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 122, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103477
121.
SchynsB.BraunS. H.XiaY. (Emma). (2023). What motivates narcissistic individuals to lead? the role of identity across cultures. Personality and Individual Differences, 206, 112107. 10.1016/j.paid.2023.112107
122.
SelentaC.LordR. G. (2005). Development of the levels of self-concept scale: Measuring the individual, relational, and collective levels. Unpublished manuscript.
123.
SettlesI. H. (2004). When multiple identities interfere: The role of identity centrality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(4), 487–500. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203261885
124.
ShamirB.EilamG. (2005). What's your story?” A life-stories approach to authentic leadership development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 395–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.005
125.
ShaughnessyS. P.CoatsM. R. (2018). Leaders are complex: Expanding our understanding of leader identity. In RiggioR. (Ed.), What’s Wrong with Leadership? (pp. 173–188). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315163604
126.
SosikJ. J.DworakivskyA. C. (1998). Self-concept based aspects of the charismatic leader: More than meets the eye. The Leadership Quarterly, 9(4), 503–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1048-9843(98)90013-3
127.
StewartD.VerbosA. K.BirminghamC.BlackS. L.GladstoneJ. S. (2017). Being Native American in business: Culture, identity, and authentic leadership in modern American Indian enterprises. Leadership, 13(5), 549–570. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715016634182
128.
SveningssonS.AlvessonM. (2003). Managing managerial identities: Organizational fragmentation, discourse and identity struggle. Human Relations, 56(10), 1163–1193. https://doi.org/10.1177/00187267035610001
129.
TuM.-H.BonoJ. E.ShumC.LaMontagneL. (2018). Breaking the cycle: The effects of role model performance and ideal leadership self-concepts on abusive supervision spillover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(7), 689–702. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000297
130.
UnsworthK. L.KragtD.Johnston-BillingsA. (2018). Am I a leader or a friend? How leaders deal with pre-existing friendships. The Leadership Quarterly, 29(6), 674–685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.07.003
131.
Van De MieroopD.CliftonJ.VerhelstA. (2020). Investigating the interplay between formal and informal leaders in a shared leadership configuration: A multimodal conversation analytical study. Human Relations, 73(4), 490–515. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726719895077
132.
Van De MieroopD. (2020). A deontic perspective on the collaborative, multimodal accomplishment of leadership. Leadership, 16(5), 592–619. 10.1177/1742715019893824
133.
Van KnippenbergB.Van KnippenbergD.De CremerD.HoggM. A. (2005). Research in leadership, self, and identity: A sample of the present and a glimpse of the future. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(4), 495–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.06.006
134.
van QuaquebekeN.van KnippenbergD.EckloffT. (2011). Individual differences in the leader categorization to openness to influence relationship: The role of followers’ self-perception and social comparison orientation. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 14(5), 605–622. 10.1177/1368430210391311
135.
VenusM.JohnsonR. E.ZhangS.WangX. H.LanajK. (2019). Seeing the big picture: A within-person examination of leader construal level and vision communication. Journal of Management, 45(7), 2666–2684. 10.1177/0149206318761576
136.
WaldmanD. A.GalvinB. M.WalumbwaF. O. (2013). The development of motivation to lead and leader role identity. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 20(2), 156–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051812457416
137.
WallaceD. M.TorresE. M.ZaccaroS. J. (2021). Just what do we think we are doing? Learning outcomes of leader and leadership development. The Leadership Quarterly, 32(5), 101494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2020.101494
138.
WeickK. E.SutcliffeK. M.ObstfeldD. (2005). Organizing and the process of sensemaking. Organization Science, 16(4), 409–421. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1050.0133
139.
WellmanN.AshfordS. J.Sanchez-BurksJ.DeRueD. S. (2022). Leading when the boss is present: How leadership structure schemas affect leadership behavior. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 29(3), 249–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/15480518221076767
140.
WilliamsM. J. (2014). Serving the self from the seat of power: Goals and threats predict leaders’ self-interested behavior. Journal of Management, 40(5), 1365–1395. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314525203
141.
WolfgrammR.PouwhareR.HenryE.SpillerC.TuazonG. F. (2022). Investigating collective memory in the enactment of Māori leadership identities. Leadership, 18(5), 627–655. https://doi.org/10.1177/17427150221096206
142.
YamawakiN. (2008). The roles of independent self-construal and concerns for face on advising rape victims to report to police in Japanese and US college students. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 39(4), 478–492. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022108318133
143.
YipJ.TrainorL. L.BlackH.Soto-TorresL.ReichardR. J. (2020). Coaching new leaders: A relational process of integrating multiple identities. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 19(4), 503–520. https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/amle.2017.0449 https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2017.0449
144.
ZaarS.Van den BosscheP.GijselaersW. (2020). How business students think about leadership: A qualitative study on leader identity and meaning-making. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 19(2), 168–191. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2017.0290
145.
ZhengW.KarkR.MeisterA. L. (2018). Paradox versus dilemma mindset: A theory of how women leaders navigate the tensions between agency and communion. The Leadership Quarterly, 29(5), 584–596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.04.001
146.
ZhengW.MeisterA.CazaB. B. (2021). The stories that make us: Leaders’ origin stories and temporal identity work. Human Relations, 74(8), 1178–1210. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726720909864
147.
ZhengW.MuirD. (2015). Embracing leadership: A multi-faceted model of leader identity development. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 36(6), 630–656. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-10-2013-0138
