Enhancing Performance and Perceived Justice in Hospitality Organizations: An Integrated Model of Gender Diversity Within Top Management Teams

Abstract

Prior research has produced conflicting findings regarding the positive outcomes of having gender diversity within top management teams. These studies have not considered the industry-specific context, the incorporation of binary, agender, and transexual traits, and potential non-financial outcomes, which play a role in organizational performance. Therefore, this paper aims to further this research by offering a research framework that is hospitality specific, highlights the benefits of gender diversity, and delineates the impact of gender diversity on firm performance and organizational justice based upon previous research and theories. The authors introduce potential processes and facilitators influencing the relationship between gender diversity, organizational performance, and organizational justice. These mechanisms have the potential to shape strategic changes, influence employee behaviors, increase service levels, and ultimately provide a competitive advantage.

Keywords

glass ceiling gender diversity top management teams firm performance organizational justice

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Acker

(1990). Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered organizations. Gender & Society, 4(2), 139–158.

Akgunduz

Cin

F. M.

(2015). Job embeddedness as a moderator of the effect of manager trust and distributive justice on turnover intentions. Anatolia, 4, 549–562.

Ali

Konrad

A. M.

(2017). Antecedents and consequences of diversity and equality management systems: The importance of gender diversity in the TMT and lower to middle management. European Management Journal, 35(4), 440–453.

Ali

Kulik

C. T.

Metz

(2011). The gender diversity–performance relationship in services and manufacturing organizations. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(07), 1464–1485.

Ambrose

M. L.

Schminke

(2009). The role of overall justice judgments in organizational justice research: A test of mediation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 491–500.

Ancona

D. G.

Caldwell

D. F.

(1992). Demography and design: Predictors of new product team performance. Organization Science, 3(3), 321–341.

Anglin

A. H.

Wolfe

M. T.

Short

J. C.

McKenny

A. F.

Pidduck

R. J.

(2018). Narcissistic rhetoric and crowdfunding performance: A social role theory perspective. Journal of Business Venturing, 33(6), 780–812.

Ayambila

S. N.

(2018). Gender differences in non-farm micro and small enterprise financial performance in Ghana. The Business & Management Review, 10(1), 126–137.

Barnard

C. I.

(1968). The functions of the executive. Harvard University Press.

10.

Barney

J. B.

(1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 17(1), 99–120.

11.

Barney

J. B.

Wright

P. M.

(1998). On becoming a strategic partner: The role of human resources in gaining competitive advantage. Human Resource Management, 37(1), 31–46.

12.

Bass

Gonzalez

L. J.

Colip

Sharon

Conklin

(2018). Rethinking gender: The nonbinary approach. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 75(22), 1821–1823.

13.

Bassett-Jones

(2005). The paradox of diversity management, creativity and innovation. Creativity and Innovation Management, 14(2), 169–175.

14.

Bazazo

Nasseef

M. A.

Mukattesh

Kastero

Al-Hallaq

(2017). Assessing the glass ceiling effect for women in tourism and hospitality. Journal of Management and Strategy, 8(3), 51–66.

15.

Bear

Rahman

Post

(2010). The impact of board diversity and gender composition on corporate social responsibility and firm reputation. Journal of Business Ethics, 97, 207–221.

16.

Bergmann

B. R.

(1974). Occupational segregation, wages and profits when employers discriminate by race or sex. Eastern Economic Journal, 1(2), 103–110.

17.

Bernardi

R. A.

Bean

D. F.

Weippert

K. M.

(2002). Signaling gender diversity through annual report pictures. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, 15(4), 609–616.

18.

Bharadwaja

Lee

Madera

J. M.

(2018). Customer evaluations of service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors: Agentic and communal differences. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 70, 120–129.

19.

Boone

Veller

Nikolaeva

Keith

Kefgen

Houran

(2013). Rethinking a glass ceiling in the hospitality industry. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 54(3), 230–239.

20.

Brown

J. R.

Dev

C. S.

(1999). Looking beyond RevPAR: Productivity consequences of hotel strategies. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 40(2), 23–33.

21.

Brown-Liburd

Cohen

Zamora

V. L.

(2018). CSR disclosure items used as fairness heuristics in the investment decision. Journal of Business Ethics, 152(1), 275–289.

22.

Burns

J. M.

(1978). Leadership. Harper Torchbooks.

23.

Camelo-Ordaz

Hernandez-Lara

A. B.

Valle-Cabrera

(2005). The relationship between top management teams and innovative capacity in companies. Journal of Management Development, 24(8), 683–705.

24.

Campbell

Mínguez-Vera

(2008). Gender diversity in the boardroom and firm financial performance. Journal of Business Ethics, 83(3), 435–451.

25.

Cannella

A. A.

Jr. Park

J. H.

Lee

H. U.

(2008). Top management team functional background diversity and firm performance: Examining the roles of team member colocation and environmental uncertainty. Academy of Management Journal, 51(4), 768–784.

26.

Catalyst. (2020). Women in the workforce—Global: Quick take. https://www.catalyst.org/research/women-in-the-workforce-global/

27.

Cho

Woods

R. H.

Jang

S. S.

Erdem

(2006). Measuring the impact of human resource management practices on hospitality firms’ performances. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 25(2), 262–277.

28.

Cho

T. S.

Hambrick

D. C.

(2006). Attention as the mediator between top management team characteristics and strategic change: The case of airline deregulation. Organization Science, 17(4), 453–469.

29.

Clevenger

Singh

(2013). Exploring barriers that lead to the glass ceiling effect for women in the U.S. hospitality industry. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 12(4), 376–399.

30.

Cogin

J. A.

Sanders

Williamson

I. O.

(2018). Work-life support practices and customer satisfaction: The role of TMT composition and country culture. Human Resource Management, 57(1), 279–291.

31.

Colquitt

J. A.

Scott

B. A.

Rodell

J. B.

Long

D. M.

Zapata

C. P.

Conlon

D. E.

Wesson

M. J.

(2013). Justice at the millennium, a decade later: A meta-analytic test of social exchange and affect-based perspectives. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 199–236.

32.

Connelly

B. L.

Certo

S. T.

Ireland

R. D.

Reutzel

C. R.

(2011). Signaling theory: A review and assessment. Journal of Management, 37(1), 39–67.

33.

Connolly

McGing

(2007). High performance work practices and competitive advantage in the Irish hospitality sector. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 19(3), 201–210.

34.

Costa

Bakas

F. E.

Breda

Durao

Carvalho

Caçador

(2017). Gender, flexibility and the “ideal tourism worker..” Annals of Tourism Research, 64, 64–75.

35.

Dashper

(2020). Mentoring for gender equality: Supporting female leaders in the hospitality industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 88, 102397.

36.

Dezső

C. L.

Ross

D. G.

(2012). Does female representation in top management improve firm performance? A panel data investigation. Strategic Management Journal, 33(9), 1072–1089.

37.

Dezső

C. L.

Ross

D. G.

Uribe

(2016). Is there an implicit quota on women in top management? A large-sample statistical analysis. Strategic Management Journal, 37(1), 98–115.

38.

DiPietro

(2017). Restaurant and foodservice research: A critical reflection behind and an optimistic look ahead. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 29(4), 1203–1234.

39.

Dixon-Fowler

H. R.

Ellstrand

A. E.

Johnson

J. L.

(2013). Strength in numbers or guilt by association? Intragroup effects of female chief executive announcements. Strategic Management Journal, 34(12), 1488–1501.

40.

Dray

K. K.

Smith

V. R.

Kostecki

T. P.

Sabat

I. E.

Thomson

C. R.

(2020). Moving beyond the gender binary: Examining workplace perceptions of nonbinary and transgender employees. Gender, Work & Organization, 27(6), 1181–1191.

41.

Dwyer

Richard

O. C.

Chadwick

(2003). Gender diversity in management and firm performance: The influence of growth orientation and organizational culture. Journal of Business Research, 56(12), 1009–1019.

42.

Eagly

A. H.

Johannesen-Schmidt

M. C.

Van Engen

M. L.

(2003). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 129(4), 569–591.

43.

Eagly

A. H.

Karau

S. J.

(2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573–598.

44.

Eagly

A. H.

Sczesny

(2019). Gender roles in the future? Theoretical foundations and future research directions. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–3.

45.

Eagly

A. H.

Steffen

V. J.

(1984). Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(4), 735–754.

46.

Eagly

A. H.

Wood

(1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54(6), 408–423.

47.

Eagly

A. H.

Wood

(2012). Social role theory. In Van Lange

Kruglanski

A. W.

Higgins

E. T.

(Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology, (pp. 458–476). SAGE.

48.

Eagly

A. H.

Wood

Diekman

A. H.

(2000). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal. In Eckes

Trautner

H. M.

(Eds.), The developmental social psychology of gender (pp. 123–174). Lawrence Erlbaum.

49.

Ekoja

Agbaeze

Namah

Ajoku

(2020). Female entrepreneurship and socioeconomic development: From the Social Feminist Theory (SFT) Versus Theory of Need of Achievement (TNA) of entrepreneurial personality trait and intention perspective. International Journal of Management, 11(9), 1296–1306.

50.

Ely

R. J.

(2004). A field study of group diversity, participation in diversity education programs, and performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(6), 755–780.

51.

Feeney

S. A.

Lewis

(2004). Women at the top, better bottom line. Workforce Management, 83(3), 22.

52.

Fischer

E. M.

Reuber

A. R.

Dyke

L. S.

(1993). A theoretical overview and extension of research on sex, gender, and entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Venturing, 8(2), 151–168.

53.

Flabbi

Macis

Moro

Schivardi

(2019). Do female executives make a difference? The impact of female leadership on gender gaps and firm performance. The Economic Journal, 129(622), 2390–2423.

54.

Francoeur

Labelle

Sinclair-Desgagné

(2008). Gender diversity in corporate governance and top management. Journal of Business Ethics, 81(1), 83–95.

55.

Fulford

M. D.

(2005). That’s not fair: The test of a model of organizational justice, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment among hotel employees. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 4(1), 73–84.

56.

Furunes

Mykletun

R. J.

(2007). Why diversity management fails: Metaphor analyses unveil manager attitudes. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 26(4), 974–990.

57.

Ganson

K. T.

Gould

Holcomb

(2020). Exploring the experiences of male MSW students in the social work learning environment. Journal of Social Work Education, 58(1), 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2020.1764892

58.

Garcia-Lillo

Claver-Cortes

Ubeda-Garcia

Marco-Lajara

Zaragoza-Saez

P. C.

(2018). Mapping the “intellectual structure” of research on human resources in the “tourism and hospitality management scientific domain.” International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 30(3), 1741–1768.

59.

García-Rodríguez

F. J.

Dorta-Afonso

González-de-la-Rosa

(2020). Hospitality diversity management and job satisfaction: The mediating role of organizational commitment across individual differences. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 91, 102698.

60.

Gibson

Fernandez

(2018). Gender diversity and non-binary inclusion in the workplace: The essential guide for employers. Jessica Kingsley.

61.

Gottfredson

L. S.

(2002). Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription, compromise, and self-creation. Career Choice and Development, 4, 85–148.

62.

Grant

R. M.

(1991). The resource-based theory of competitive advantage—Implications for strategy formulation. California Management Review, 33(3), 114–135.

63.

Greenberg

(2001). Setting the justice agenda: Seven unanswered questions about “what, why, and how.” Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58, 210–219.

64.

Greening

D. W.

Turban

D. B.

(2000). Corporate social performance as a competitive advantage in attracting a quality workforce. Business and Society, 39, 254–281.

65.

Groschl

Arcot

(2014). Female hospitality executives and their effects on firm performance. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 14(3), 143–151.

66.

Guchait

Abbott

J. L.

Lee

C. K.

Back

K. J.

Manoharan

(2019). The influence of perceived forgiveness climate on service recovery performance: The mediating effect of psychological safety and organizational fairness. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 40, 94–102.

67.

Guillet

B. D.

Kucukusta

Xiao

(2012). An examination of executive compensation in the restaurant industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(1), 86–95.

68.

Guillet

B. D.

Pavesi

Hsu

C. H.

Weber

(2019). Is there such thing as feminine leadership? Being a leader and not a man in the hospitality industry. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 31(7), 2970–2993.

69.

Gupta

V. K.

Han

Mortal

S. C.

Silveri

S. D.

Turban

D. B.

(2018). Do women CEOs face greater threat of shareholder activism compared to male CEOs? A role congruity perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(2), 228–236.

70.

Hambrick

D. C.

(2007). Upper echelons theory: An update. Academy of Management Review, 32(2), 334–343.

71.

Hambrick

D. C.

Cannella

A. A.

Jr. Pettigrew

(2001). Upper echelons: Donald Hambrick on executives and strategy. The Academy of Management Executive, 15(3), 36–44.

72.

Hambrick

D. C.

Cho

T. S.

Chen

M.-J.

(1996). The influence of top management team heterogeneity on firms’ competitive moves. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41(4), 659–684.

73.

Hambrick

D. C.

Mason

P. A.

(1984). Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 9(2), 193–206.

74.

Handika

R. F.

Wibowo

(2018). Top management team diversity, the strategic isomorphism and firms’ performance: A study in the Indonesian banking industry. Academy of Strategic Management Journal, 17(3), 1–14.

75.

Heider

(1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. Wiley.

76.

Hemdi

M. A.

Nasurdin

A. M.

(2007). Investigating the influence of organizational justice on hotel employees’ organizational citizenship behavior intentions and turnover intentions. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 7(1), 1–23.

77.

Hemdi

M. A.

Nasurdin

A. M.

(2008). Investigating the influence of organizational justice on hotel employees’ organizational citizenship behavior intentions and turnover intents. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 7(1), 1–23.

78.

Hentschel

Heilman

M. E.

Peus

C. V.

(2019). The multiple dimensions of gender stereotypes: A current look at men’s and women’s characterizations of others and themselves. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–19.

79.

Hicks-Clarke

Iles

(2000). Climate for diversity and its effects on career and organisational attitudes and perceptions. Personnel Review, 29(3), 324–345.

80.

(2013). Revisiting the glass ceiling: Career progression for women in the hotel industry. Boston Hospitality Review, 2(Winter), 33–36.

81.

Homberg

Bui

H. T.

(2013). Top management team diversity: A systematic review. Group & Organization Management, 38(4), 455–479.

82.

Hoobler

J. M.

Masterson

C. R.

Nkomo

S. M.

Michel

E. J.

(2018). The business case for women leaders: Meta-analysis, research critique, and path forward. Journal of Management, 44(6), 2473–2499.

83.

Huffman

A. H.

Mills

M. J.

Howes

S. S.

Albritton

M. D.

(2021). Workplace support and affirming behaviors: Moving toward a transgender, gender diverse, and non-binary friendly workplace. International Journal of Transgender Health, 22(3), 225–242.

84.

Hwang

M. J.

(2007). Asian social workers’ perceptions of glass ceiling, organizational fairness and career prospects. Journal of Social Service Research, 33(4), 13–24.

85.

Ismail

(2018, November 23). Women’s role and position in hospitality. The Asean Post. https://theaseanpost.com/article/womens-role-and-position-hospitality

86.

Jehn

K. A.

Bezrukova

(2004). A field study of group diversity, workgroup context, and performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(6), 703–729.

87.

Jehn

K. A.

Northcraft

G. B.

Neale

M. A.

(1999). Why differences make a difference: A field study of diversity, conflict and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(4), 741–763.

88.

Joshi

Roh

(2009). The role of context in work team diversity research: A meta-analytic review. Academy of Management Journal, 52(3), 599–627.

89.

Kalargyrou

Costen

(2017). Diversity management research in hospitality and tourism: Past, present and future. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 29(1), 68–114.

90.

Karadas

Karatepe

O. M.

(2018). Unraveling the black box: The linkage between high-performance work systems and employee outcomes. Employee Relations, 41(1), 67–83.

91.

Karatepe

O. M.

(2011). Procedural justice, work engagement, and job outcomes: Evidence from Nigeria. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 20(8), 855–878.

92.

Khan

R. S.

Sultana

(2017). Breaking the gender barrier: Success stories of active participation of women in hospitality industry in Bangladesh. European Journal of Social Sciences, 54(2), 134–147.

93.

Kim

W. G.

Cho

Brymer

R. A.

(2013). Determinants affecting comprehensive property-level hotel performance: The moderating role of hotel type. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 34, 404–412.

94.

Kirkman

B. L.

Tesluk

P. E.

Rosen

(2004). The impact of demographic heterogeneity and team leader-team member demographic fit on team empowerment and effectiveness. Group & Organization Management, 29(3), 334–368.

95.

Kloutsiniotis

P. V.

Mihail

D. M.

(2020). High performance work systems in the tourism and hospitality industry: A critical review. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 32(7), 2365–2395.

96.

Kobayashi

Kondo

(2019). Organizational justice, psychological distress, and stress-related behaviors by occupational class in female Japanese employees. PLOS ONE, 14(4), e0214393.

97.

Koburtay

Syed

Haloub

(2019). Congruity between the female gender role and the leader role: A literature review. European Business Review, 31(6), 831–848.

98.

Konrad

A. M.

Kramer

Erkut

(2008). Critical mass: The impact of three or more women on corporate boards. Organizational Dynamics, 37, 145–164.

99.

Krishnan

H. A.

Park

(2005). A few good women—On top management teams. Journal of Business Research, 58(12), 1712–1720.

100.

Lathabhavan

(2019). Glass ceiling beliefs, performance, and turnover intention through work engagement. International Journal of Environment, Workplace, and Employment, 5(4), 304–321.

101.

Lee

H. J.

Park

J. H.

(2006). Top team diversity, internationalization and the mediating effect of international alliances. British Journal of Management, 17(3), 195–213.

102.

Leonard

J. S.

Levine

D. I.

Joshi

(2004). Do birds of a feather shop together? The effects on performance of employees' similarity with one another and with customers. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(6), 731–754.

103.

Chen

(2018). Board gender diversity and firm performance: The moderating role of firm size. Business Ethics, 27(4), 294–308.

104.

Singal

(2017). CEO attributes and firm performance in the hospitality industry. The Journal of Hospitality Financial Management, 25(2), 77–89.

105.

Liao

Subramony

(2008). Employee customer orientation in manufacturing organizations: Joint influences of customer proximity and the senior leadership team. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(2), 317–328.

106.

Litwin

Ngan

H. F. B.

Atembe

(2019). Attitudes towards female managers in Austrian and Macau tourism industry. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 39, 1–8.

107.

Liu

Fisher

Chen

(2018). CEO attributes and firm performance: A sequential mediation process model. Academy of Management Annals, 12(2), 789–816.

108.

López-Cabarcos

M. Á.

Machado-Lopes-Sampaio-de Pinho

A. I.

Vázquez-Rodríguez

(2015). The influence of organizational justice and job satisfaction on organizational commitment in Portugal’s hotel industry. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 56(3), 258–272.

109.

Luanglath

Ali

Mohannak

(2019). Top management team gender diversity and productivity: The role of board gender diversity. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, 38(1), 71–86.

110.

Luong

K. T.

Knobloch-Westerwick

Niewiesk

(2020). Superstars within reach: The role of perceived attainability and role congruity in media role models on women’s social comparisons. Communication Monographs, 87(1), 4–24.

111.

Madera

J. M.

(2018). Situational perspective taking as an intervention for improving attitudes toward organizations that invest in diversity management programs. Journal of Business and Psychology, 33(3), 423–442.

112.

Madera

J. M.

Dawson

Neal

J. A.

(2017). Managers’ psychological diversity climate and fairness: The utility and importance of diversity management in the hospitality industry. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 16(3), 288–307.

113.

Madera

J. M.

Dawson

Neal

J. A.

(2018). Why investing in diversity management matters: Organizational attraction and person–organization fit. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 42(6), 931–959.

114.

Madera

J. M.

Sundermann

J. M.

Hebl

(2019). Top management gender diversity and organizational attraction: When and why it matters. Archives of Scientific Psychology, 7(1), 90–101.

115.

Marco

(2012). Gender and economic performance: Evidence from the Spanish hotel industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(3), 981–989.

116.

Mayer

R. C.

Gavin

M. B.

(2005). Trust in management and performance: Who minds the shop while the employees watch the boss? Academy of Management Journal, 48(5), 874–888.

117.

McKinsey & Company. (2021). Women in the workplace. https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/diversity-and-inclusion/women-in-the-workplace

118.

Menicucci

Paolucci

Paoloni

(2019). Does gender matter for hotel performance? Evidence from the Italian hospitality industry. International Journal of Tourism Research, 21(5), 625–638.

119.

Miller

Triana

M. D. C.

(2009). Demographic diversity in the boardroom: Mediators of the board diversity—Firm performance relationship. Journal of Management Studies, 46, 755–786.

120.

Milliken

F. J.

Martins

L. L.

(1996). Searching for common threads: Understanding the multiple effects of diversity in organizational groups. Academy of Management Review, 21(2), 402–433.

121.

Mooney

S. K.

(2020). Gender research in hospitality and tourism management: Time to change the guard. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 32(5), 1861–1879.

122.

Mor Barak

M. E.

Cherin

D. A.

Berkman

. (1998). Organizational and personal dimensions in diversity climate: Ethnic and gender differences in employee perceptions. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 34(1), 82–104.

123.

Morgan

Pritchard

(2019). Gender matters in hospitality. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 76, 38–44.

124.

Murphy

Torres

Ingram

Hutchinson

(2018). A review of high performance work practices (HPWPs) literature and recommendations for future research in the hospitality industry. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 30(1), 365–388.

125.

Murray

A. I.

(1989). Top management group heterogeneity and firm performance. Strategic Management Journal, 10(S1), 125–141.

126.

Nadiri

Tanova

(2010). An investigation of the role of justice in turnover intentions, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behavior in hospitality industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 29, 33–41.

127.

Niehoff

B. P.

Enz

C. A.

Grover

R. A.

(1990). The impact of top-management actions on employee attitudes and perceptions. Group & Organization Studies, 15(3), 337–352.

128.

Nieves

Quintana

(2018). Human resource practices and innovation in the hotel industry: The mediating role of human capital. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 18(1), 72–83.

129.

Nishii

Gotte

Raver

(2007). Upper echelon theory revisited: The relationship between upper echelon diversity, the adoption of diversity practices, and organizational performance (CAHRS Working Paper #07-04). Cornell University.

130.

O’Neill

J. W.

(2011). Hotel occupancy: Is the three-year stabilization assumption justified? Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 52(2), 176–180.

131.

Oppong

(2014). Upper echelons theory revisited: The need for a change from causal description to casual explanation. Management: Journal of Contemporary Management Issues, 19(2), 169–183.

132.

Opstrup

Villadsen

A. R.

(2015). The right mix? Gender diversity in top management teams and financial performance. Public Administration Review, 75(2), 291–301.

133.

Ozdemir

Upneja

(2012). Board structure and CEO compensation: Evidence from U.S. lodging industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(3), 856–863.

134.

Pelled

L. H.

Eisenhardt

K. M.

Xin

K. R.

(1999). Exploring the black box: An analysis of work group diversity, conflict and performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(1), 1–28.

135.

Penrose

E. T.

(1995). The theory of the growth of the firm. Oxford University Press.

136.

Pereira-Moliner

Molina-Azorín

J. F.

Tarí

J. J.

López-Gamero

M. D.

Pertursa-Ortega

E. M.

(2021). How do dynamic capabilities explain hotel performance? International Journal of Hospitality Management, 98, 103023.

137.

Quintana-García

Marchante-Lara

Benavides-Chicón

C. G.

(2018). Social responsibility and total quality in the hospitality industry: Does gender matter? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(5), 722–739.

138.

Raes

A. M.

Bruch

De Jong

S. B.

(2013). How top management team behavioural integration can impact employee work outcomes: Theory development and first empirical tests. Human Relations, 66(2), 167–192.

139.

Rao

Tilt

(2016a). Board composition and corporate social responsibility: The role of diversity, gender, strategy and decision making. Journal of Business Ethics, 138(2), 327–347.

140.

Rao

Tilt

(2016b). Board diversity and CSR reporting: An Australian study. Meditari Accountancy Research, 24(2), 182–210.

141.

Ray

Muhanna

W. A.

Barney

J. B.

(2005). Information technology and the performance of the customer service process: A resource-based analysis. MIS Quarterly, 29(4), 625–652.

142.

Repetti

(2020). How hospitality firm executive diversity affects firm performance. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 32(9), 2777–2792.

143.

Rhee

H. T.

Yang

S. B.

(2015). Does hotel attribute importance differ by hotel? Focusing on hotel star-classifications and customers’ overall ratings. Computers in Human Behavior, 50, 576–587.

144.

Richard

O. C.

(2000). Racial diversity, business strategy, and firm performance: A resource-based view. Academy of Management Journal, 43(2), 164–177.

145.

Richard

O. C.

Barnett

Dwyer

Chadwick

(2004). Cultural diversity in management, firm performance, and the moderating role of entrepreneurial orientation dimensions. Academy of Management Journal, 47(2), 255–266.

146.

Russen

Dawson

Madera

J. M.

(2021a). Gender discrimination and perceived fairness in the promotion process of hotel employees. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 33(1), 327–345.

147.

Russen

Dawson

Madera

J. M.

(2021b). Gender diversity in hospitality and tourism top management teams: A systematic review of the last 10 years. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 95, 102942.

148.

Ryan

M. K.

Haslam

S. A.

(2005a). The glass cliff: Evidence that women are over-represented in precarious leadership positions. British Journal of Management, 16(2), 81–90.

149.

Ryan

M. K.

Haslam

S. A.

(2005b). The glass cliff: Implicit theories of leadership and gender and the precariousness of women’s leadership positions In Schyns

Meindl

J. R.

(Eds.), Implicit leadership theories: Essays and explorations (pp. 137–160). Information Age.

150.

Santos

F. J.

Roomi

M. A.

Liñán

(2016). About gender differences and the social environment in the development of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Small Business Management, 54(1), 49–66.

151.

Schoemaker

P. J.

Heaton

Teece

(2018). Innovation, dynamic capabilities, and leadership. California Management Review, 61(1), 15–42.

152.

Spence

(1973). Job market signaling. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 87(3), 355–374.

153.

STR. (2022). How are hotels classified by STR? https://str.com/data-insights/resources/faq

154.

Tang

T. W.

Tang

Y. Y.

(2012). Promoting service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors in hotels: The role of high-performance human resource practices and organizational social climates. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(3), 885–895.

155.

Teece

D. J.

(2018). Business models and dynamic capabilities. Long Range Planning, 51(1), 40–49.

156.

Uyar

Kilic

Koseoglu

M. A.

Kuzey

Karaman

A. S.

(2020). The link among board characteristics, corporate social responsibility performance, and financial performance: Evidence from the hospitality and tourism industry. Tourism Management Perspectives, 35, 100714.

157.

Vial

A. C.

Napier

J. L.

(2018). Unnecessary frills: Communality as a nice (but expendable) trait in leaders. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1–15.

158.

Walker

(2017). Parallel narratives: Resistance strategies of low-wage female hospitality workers and nineteenth-century black enslaved females. Labor History, 58(3), 372–395.

159.

Weinzimmer

L. G.

Michel

E. J.

Franczak

J. L.

(2011). Creativity and firm-level performance: The mediating effects of action orientation. Journal of Managerial Issues, 23(1), 62–82.

160.

Wellalage

N. H.

Locke

(2013). Women on board, firm financial performance and agency costs. Asian Journal of Business Ethics, 2(2), 113–127.

161.

Richard

O. C.

Triana

M. D. C.

Zhang

(2022). The performance impact of gender diversity in the top management team and board of directors: A multiteam systems approach. Human Resource Management, 61(2), 157–180.

162.

Xiao

O’Neill

J. W.

Mattila

A. S.

(2012). The role of hotel owners: The influence of corporate strategies on hotel performance. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 24(1), 122–139.

163.

Xie

Kwok

Wang

(2017). Monetizing managerial responses on TripAdvisor: Performance implications across hotel class. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 58(3), 240–252.

164.

Yang

Wang

(2014). The impacts of top management team characteristics on entrepreneurial strategic orientation. Management Decision, 52(2), 378–409.

165.

Yeh

C. M.

Trejos

(2015). The influence of governance on tourism firm performance. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(4), 299–314.

166.

Zhang

Rajagopalan

(2010). Once an outsider, always an outsider? CEO origin, strategic change, and firm performance. Strategic Management Journal, 31(3), 334–346.

167.

Zhang

Wiersema

M. F.

(2009). Stock market reaction to CEO certification: The signaling role of CEO background. Strategic Management Journal, 30, 693–710.