Ethnobotany,Ethnopharmacology,and Phytochemistry of Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. (Fabaceae): A Narrative Review

Abstract

Calpurnia aurea is a yellow-flowered, multi-stemmed small tree or shrub that grows 3-4 meters tall and is widely distributed across Africa, from South Africa to Eritrea, and also found in southern India. This study aimed to document and synthesize the traditional medicinal uses, phytochemicals, and pharmacological properties of Calpurnia aurea. Relevant literature and information were collected from credible sources, including databases such as PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Google Scholar. In Ethiopian traditional medicine, C. aurea is used to treat a wide range of health conditions, including wounds, giardiasis, malaria, diarrhea, rabies, diabetes, herpes zoster, external parasites, Tinea capitis, leishmaniasis, tapeworm infections, trachoma, ringworm, and hypertension. In addition to Ethiopia, South Africa and Nigeria have used this plant as a traditional treatment mostly for dermatological conditions. Quinolizidine alkaloids and flavonoids are the major phytochemicals that have been isolated from different parts of the plant. Both in vivo and in vitro studies have reported that C. aurea possesses a wide range of pharmacological activities, such as hepatoprotective, antibacterial, antidiarrheal, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antitumor, wound-healing, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, acaricidal and anti-arthritic effects. Some of these activities are linked with ononin, maackiain, medicarpin, and virgiline-type quinolizidine alkaloids. Given the plant's notable chemical and pharmacological potential, further investigation of its remaining isolated compounds, particularly their bioactivities, structure-activity relationships, and safety profiles, could play a vital role in translating traditional medicinal knowledge into modern therapeutic discovery.

Keywords

ethnobotany ethnopharmacology phytochemistry quinolizidine alkaloid

Introduction

The flowering plant family Leguminosae (Fabaceae) contains approximately 650 genera and nearly 20 000 species distributed throughout the world in many ecological settings, from deserts of high latitudes to seasonally dry or wet tropical forests of equatorial regions.^1,2 The genus Calpurnia (Leguminosae) includes seven species that are widely distributed in Africa. C. aurea (Ait.)Benth. (Fabaceae) is one of the species from this genus that grows as a yellow-flowered, multi-stemmed, 3-4 m tall small tree or shrub. It is widely distributed in Africa, ranging from the Cape Province (now known as Eastern Cape, Western Cape, and Northern Cape provinces in South Africa) to Eritrea, and it also occurs in southern India.^3,4 There are three subspecies of C. aurea, namely subsp. (ssp.) aurea (Figure 1), which occur in Ethiopia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zimbabwe, Angola, and West Africa, and ssp. Sylvatica and indica, which are found in Cape Province and India, respectively.⁵ However, recently, ssp. Sylvatica is known to be the same as C. aurea subsp. aurea and has been considered synonymous.⁶

The plant has gained attention due to its wide ethnobotanical use, its various pharmacological studies, and its richness in bioactive compounds. In Ethiopia and other African countries, the cultural and historical significance of C. aurea is underscored by its extensive use for medicinal and ethnoveterinary purposes. Medical conditions such as malaria, syphilis, leishmaniasis, diarrhea, hypertension, skin infections, and helminthiasis have been treated traditionally by using C. aurea in different communities.^7–13 These traditional claims were validated through different pharmacological studies. These studies showed the plant has significant biological activities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and anticancer activities.^4,14–20 The phytochemicals responsible for these activities were also identified, revealing that the plant contains several secondary metabolites, notably quinolizidine alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and terpenoids. Quinolizidine alkaloids are characterized by their bitterness and cytotoxicity; however, they also possess antimicrobial properties and serve as chemical defenses by deterring herbivores from feeding on plant leaves.²¹

A previous review by Beressa, 2021²² has offered a general overview of the plant's ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology, largely within the Ethiopian context. However, it was focused primarily on leaves, while other plant parts (roots, seeds, bark) remain uncovered; it was also limited to qualitative phytochemical screening, with few detailed characterizations of individual compounds. The other review²³ highlights features of C. aurea, but it does not explore the molecular characterization of specific compounds or include comparative analyses of different extracts using standardized assays.

Against the above backdrop, the present narrative review aims to provide a comprehensive synthesis of existing knowledge on ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, and phytochemistry of different parts of Calpurnia aurea from different countries. In addition to this, it also identifies knowledge gaps and recommends future research that can link traditional medicine with scientific validation.

Ethnobotanical Uses of Calpurnia aurea

Various ethnobotanical studies demonstrate the extensive use of C. aurea for traditional medicine throughout the eastern and southern African communities. The plant has different vernacular names across the countries, for example, the South African Zulu people named this plant “umkhiphampethu,” which means maggot-extractor, reflecting immemorial use of the plant to remove wound maggots.¹³ In Ethiopia, it is known locally as “digitta” (Amharic) or “cheka” (Oromiffa).²² Even though the plant has widespread traditional use, ethnobotanical knowledge of C. aurea remains unevenly recorded, with Ethiopia being the most widely studied for ethnomedicinal use, while other regions are comparatively underexplored (Table 1).

Table 1.

Traditional Uses of Calpurnia aurea.

Place of Utilization	Local Name	Plant Part Used	Mode of Preparation	Route of Administration	Therapeutic Use	References
South Africa	umKhiphampethu	Leaves and roots	Fresh leaves are crushed and applied directly to the scalp or skin. Alternatively, Powdered roots or leaves mixed with water or oil, then rubbed on the skin	Topical	Lice and Itch Relief	^4,13
		Leaves	Fresh leaf sap is expressed and rubbed onto the rash.	Topical	Allergic rashes/caterpillar rash
		Leaves or root	Leaf or root paste is applied directly to wounds. Sometimes, a decoction of leaves is poured over wounds to kill and expel maggots.	Topical	Maggot-Infested Wounds
Nigeria	UR	Seeds	UR	Topical	Abscesses	⁴
Debre Libanos Wereda, Central Ethiopia	Digita	UR	Crush the root and put it on fire and smoke the bedroom of the patient	Inhalation	Spiritual disorder	²⁴
		Leaves	Leaves are chopped and then macerated in water for a few days	Topical (washing the affected site)	External parasites
		UR	Crush the leaves and mix with coffee and make juice with water	Orally	Abdominal pain
Dek Island in Ethiopia	Digita	Leaves	Leaf paste	Topical	Wound	²⁵
Dek Island in Ethiopia	Digita	Leaves	Juice of fresh leaves	Orally	Stomachache, dysentery	²⁵
Gozamin District, Amhara Region	Digita	Leaves	The leaf is squeezed and the fluid is collected	Topical	Wound	²⁶
Zegie, Northwestern Ethiopia	Digita	Leaves	Leaf or seed powder mixed with water or honey is taken orally	Oral	Anthrax	²⁷
Zegie, Northwestern Ethiopia	Digita	Leaves	Leaf paste mixed with water is taken orally	Oral	Dysentery	²⁷
Jabitehnan district, west Gojjam, Ethiopia	Digita	Leaves	UR	UR	Rabies, malaria, Insecticide and insect repellent	²⁸
Minjar-Shenkora District, Ethiopia	Digita	Seeds	Seeds are crushed and pounded	Oral	Diarrhea	²⁹
Shinasha, Agew-awi,and Amhara, Ethiopia	Digita	Seed	UR	Oral	Hypertension,	^11,30
		Root	UR	Oral	Amoebiasis, Giardiasis	¹¹
		Leaves	UR	Oral	Malaria,	^11,30
		Leaves and seeds	UR	Oral	Diarrhea, rabies, diabetes	^11,30
Northern Ethiopia	Digita	Root	The root is roasted	Inhalation	Bronchitis	³¹
Nekemte town, Ethiopia	Ceekaa	Leaves	The leaf is decocted	Oral	Hypertension, diabetes mellitus	¹²
Libo-Kemkem District, Ethiopia	Ceekaa	Leaves	Crush then drink with water	Oral	Bloody diarrhea	³²
		Leaves	Crush, then wash with water	Topical	External parasites
		Leaves	Grind and eat after pounding with honey	Oral	Bilharziasis
WayuTuka District, East Welega, Ethiopia	Ceekaa	Leaves	Fresh leaves soaked in water and washed the body of the calf	Topical	External parasite	³³
		Leaves	Nine juvenile leaves of Calpurnia aurea, 9 leaves of Sennaocci dentalis, and 9 juvenile leaves of Clausena anisate are smashed, and the extracts are taken orally. One cup of tea is given for a man and half cup for Children	Oral	Ascaris
		Leaves	Leaves are crushed and mixed with water	Oral	Snake bite
Harari region, Ethiopia	Cekha	Leaves	UR	UR	Typhoid	³⁴
South Omo, Ethiopia	kaino	Leaves	Freshly chopped or dried and ground leaf mixed with water and applied to the flea and louse-infested areas	Topical	Flea and louse infestation (livestock)	³⁵
KilteAwulaelo District, Tigray, Ethiopia	Hitsawts	Leaves	Crush the leaf and apply the paste on the skin	Topical	Lice and ticks infestation (livestock)	³⁶
			Crush, filter and drink the fluid	Oral	Abdominal pain
			Grind and mix it with a milk product locally called “mancheba” and drink	Oral	Diarrhea
			Grind and mix it with honey and milk and eat it	Oral	Hemorrhoids
			Dry the leaves and mix them with leaves of Datura stramonium and leaves of Clutia abyssinica, grind them, and make a paste with butter and apply on the affected part	Topical	Herpes zoster
			Crush the leaf and apply the paste on the affected part	Topical	Tineacapitis
WonagoWoreda, SNNPR, Ethiopia	UR	Seeds and roots	Seed powder mixed with butter is applied to infected eye	Topical	Eye infection	³⁷
			Powdered fresh/dry root with water is given orally	Oral	Urine retention
			Powdered fresh/dry root with butter is given orally	Oral	Black leg
			Crushed, pounded fresh root with fresh leaf of Vernonia amygdalina mixed with the residue of local beer is given orally	Oral	Anthrax
			Crushed, pounded fresh root with fresh leaf of Parthenium hysterophorus mixed with residue of local beer is given orally	Oral	Blackleg

UR, unreported.

The plant is used for the treatment and management of over 20 human and animal diseases (ailments) as well as pathogenic and parasitic infections. Some of the medical conditions that are treated and managed by C. aurea include hypertension, diabetes mellitus, wounds, hemorrhoids, diarrhea, malaria, abdominal (stomach) pain, bronchitis, ascaris, anthrax, rabies, Herpes zoster (chickenpox virus), and other conditions.^7–12

Leaves, seeds, roots, and bark are plant parts used for these purposes, but leaves are the most frequently used plant part by the local community. Commonly, it can be prepared by squeezing, crushing, or pounding into juices, pastes, or powders, which are then applied topically for skin diseases, wounds, and ectoparasite infestations^25,32,36 or taken orally for systemic illnesses such as stomachache, dysentery, and ascaris.^25,33

According to the current review, Ethnobotanical use of C. aurea is different across African countries, in Ethiopian the plant is used for both systematic and dermatological aliments such as malaria, diarrhea hypertension, diabetes mellitus, ectoparasite infection and anthrax.^{11,25,30,32,36} Additionally, Ethiopians used it for treating veterinary conditions such as livestock lice and ticks^35,36 as well as spiritual disorders.²⁴ Whereas in South Africa and Nigeria, it is mainly used to treat dermatological conditions, particularly lice infestations, caterpillar rashes, maggot-infested wounds and abscesses.⁴ Despite these variations, the use of C. aurea for infectious and parasitic conditions is a unifying feature across regions, which may be supporting evidence for traditional antimicrobial and antiparasitic remedies. This shows C. aurea is not only a plant embedded by culture, but also with diverse uses in human, veterinary, and ritual medicine.

Phytochemicals of Calpurnia aurea

Except from the root, more than thirty phytochemicals have been isolated and identified from the leaves, seeds, steam, and bark of C. aurea, mainly from Ethiopian and South African C. aurea subsp. Aurea (Table 2). Although various preliminary phytochemical screening showed the presence of Alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, and phenols in the C. aurea,^4,14–16 the phytochemistry of C. aurea is highly dominated by quinolizidine alkaloids (both lupanine-type and virgiline-type) and flavonoids.^19,38–41

Table 2.

Compounds Isolated from Calpurnia aurea.

Name of the Compound	Structure Formula						Class of Compounds	Part of the Plant	Extraction Method/Extracting solvent	Instruments	Geographical Source
Calpurmenine(1)							Alkaloids	Leaves, stem, bark, seeds	Acid–base extraction/Alkaloid extract	UV, IR, mass and ¹³CNMR spectra	Ethiopia and South Africa^19,38,39
Calpurnine(2)							Alkaloids	Stem, bark, seeds, leaves	Acid–base extraction/Alkaloid extract	UV, IR, mass and ¹³CNMR spectra	Ethiopia^4,19,39
Lupanine(3)							Alkaloids	Leaves	alkaloid acid–base extraction	UV, IR, mass and ¹³CNMR spectra	Ethiopia ³⁹
3β,4-alpha,13αTrihydroxylupanine(4)							Alkaloids	Leaves and twinges	alkaloid acid–base extraction	UV, IR, mass and ¹³CNMR spectra.	Ethiopia ³⁹
10, 13-dihydroxylupanine (5)							Alkaloids	Pods	alkaloid acid–base extraction	UV, IR, mass and ¹³CNMR spectra	South Africa³⁸
13α-hydroxylupanine(6)							Alkaloids	Leaves and twinges	alkaloid acid–base	UV, IR, mass and ¹³CNMR spectra	Ethiopia ³⁹
Epilupanine(7)							Alkaloids	Leaves and twinges	alkaloid acid–base	UV, IR, mass and ¹³CNMR spectra	Ethiopia ³⁹
4β-hydroxy-13α-O-(2′-pyrrolylcarbonyl)- lupanine (digittine)(8)							Alkaloids	Leaf	alkaloid acid–base	UV, IR, mass and ¹³CNMR spectra	Ethiopia ⁴²
4β,13α-dihydroxylupanine(9)							Alkaloids	Leaf	alkaloid acid–base	UV, IR, mass and ¹³CNMR spectra	Ethiopia ⁴²
Virgiline(10)							Alkaloids	Leaves and twinges	alkaloid acid–base extraction	UV, IR, mass and ¹³CNMR spectra	Ethiopia ^4,39
Calpaurine (11)							Alkaloids	Leaves	alkaloid acid–base extraction	UV, IR, mass and ¹³CNMR spectra	Ethiopia ³⁹
4β,13α-dihydroxylupanine(12)							Alkaloids	Leaves	alkaloid acid–base	UV, IR, mass and ¹³CNMR spectra	Ethiopia ³⁹
2β-methoxy-13α-O-(2′-pyrrolylcarbonyl) virgiline(13)							Alkaloids	Leaves	ethyl acetate extract	1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry	Kenya^4,43
2α-methoxy-13β-O-(2′-pyrrolylcarbonyl) virgiline(14)							Alkaloids	Stem bark	methanol extract	1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry	Kenya^4,43
3α-O-angelate-2β-hydroxy-13α-O- (2′pyrrolylcarbonyl) virgiline(15)							Alkaloids	Stem bark	methanol extract	1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry	Kenya^4,43
2,3-dehydro-virgiline(16)							Alkaloids	Leaves	ethyl acetate extract	1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry	Kenya^4,43
vicenin-2(17)							Flavonoids	Seeds	UR	UR	South Africa ⁴¹
Butin(18)							Flavonoids	Seeds	UR	UR	South Africa ⁴¹
3'-hydroxydaidzein (19)							Flavonoids	Seeds	UR	UR	South Africa ⁴¹
2-(4-(2-hydroxyethyl) phenyl)-4H- chromen-4-one (20)							Flavonoids	Seeds	Petroleum ether extract	1D NMR (¹H, ¹³C), 2D NMR and LC-MS.	Ethiopia ⁴⁰
apigenin-7-O-β-D-glycoside(21)							Flavonoids	Leaves	solvent–solvent extraction/ chloroform fraction	NMR spectroscopic and mass spectrometry	South Africa⁴⁴
Isorhoifolin(22)							Flavonoids	Leaves	solvent–solvent extraction/ chloroform fraction	¹H and ¹³C NMR data	South Africa ⁴⁴
Ononin (23)							Flavonoids	Leaves and stem bark	Maceration /methanol extract	¹H and ¹³C NMR data	Kenya⁴⁵
Maackiain (24)							Flavonoids	Leaves and stem bark	Maceration /methanol extract	¹H and ¹³C NMR data	Kenya⁴⁵
8-O-methylretusin (25)							Flavonoids	Leaves and stem bark	Maceration /methanol extract	¹H and ¹³C NMR data	Kenya⁴⁵
Medicarpin(26)							Flavonoids	Leaves and stem bark	Maceration /methanol extract	¹H and ¹³C NMR data	Kenya⁴⁵
methyl (E)-34,5- trimethoxycinnamate(27)							Flavonoids	Leaves and stem bark	Maceration /methanol extract	¹H and ¹³C NMR data	Kenya⁴⁵
Rhoifolin(28)							Flavonoids	Leaves and stem bark	Maceration /methanol extract	¹H and ¹³C NMR	Kenya⁴⁵
3-acetoxy-9-methoxypterocarpan (29)							Flavonoids	Stem and bark			South Africa ¹⁹.

	R₁	R₂	R₃	R₄	R₅	R₆
4′,5,7-trihydroxyisoflavone / genistein (30)	H	OH	H	OH	OH	H	Flavonoids	Stem and bark	Methanol/ethyl acetate extract	¹H and ¹³C NMR, IR, UV, and MS data	South Africa ¹⁹.
5′,7-dihydroxy-3′- methoxyisoflavone (31)	OH	H	OCH₃	H	OH	H	Flavonoids	Stem and bark
7-hydroxy-4′,8- dimethoxyisoflavone (32)	H	OCH₃	H	H	OH	OCH₃	Flavonoids	Stem and bark	dichloromethane extract
7-acetoxy-4′,8- dimethoxyisoflavone (33)	H	OCH₃	H	H	OC(O)CH₃	OCH₃	Flavonoids	Stem and bark	Hexane fraction/Soxhlet
3′,7-dihydroxy-4′,8- dimethoxyisoflavone (34)	OH	OCH₃	H	H	OH	OCH₃	Flavonoids	Stem and bark	dichloromethane extract
1-(2,4-bis(dimethylamino)cyclopentyl) heptan-4 one (35)							Aminoketone	Seed	Methanol extract	1H NMR and 13C NMR LC-MS	Ethiopia⁴⁶
(E)-methyl 14-hydroxy- 10-methyltetradec-2-Enoate (36)							Fatty-acid	Seed	Ethyl acetate	1D NMR (proton 1H, carbon 13C), 2D NMR and LC-MS.	Ethiopia⁴⁰
1-(2-(3-((E)-buta1,3-dienyl) cyclopentyl)ethyl)benzene (37)							Alkylbenzene	Seed	Methanol	1D NMR (proton 1H, carbon 13C), 2D NMR and LC-MS.	Ethiopia ⁴⁰
Methyl mannose (38)							Methylated sugar	Leaves	Ethanol	GCMS	South Africa⁴⁷
Terepthalic acid(39)							Dicarboxylic acid	Leaves	Ethanol	GC-MS	South Africa⁴⁷

UR, unreported; UV, Ultraviolet Spectroscopy; IR, Infrared Spectroscopy; 1H &¹³C NMR, Proton & Carbon-13 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance; GC-MS, Gas chromatography –Mass Spectrometry; LC-MS, Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry.

The novel quinolizidine alkaloids, such as calpurnine and calpurmenine, were among the first isolated compounds from the leaf part of C. aurea. Then, subsequent investigations reported several more quinolizidine alkaloids, which are characteristic chemotaxonomic markers for the family, Fabaceae.^19,39,42 Unusual virgiline-type alkaloids, including 2α-methoxy-13β-O-(2′-pyrrolylcarbonyl) virgiline, 3α-O-angelate-2β-hydroxy-13α-O-(2′-pyrrolylcarbonyl) virgiline, and 2,3-dehydro-virgiline were also identified and isolated from Kenyan C. aurea.^21,43 As shown in Table 2, in addition to the quinolizidine alkaloids, the flavonoids such as vicenin-2 (6,8-di-β-D-glucopyranosyl-5,7,4'-trihydroxyflavone), butin (7,3’, 4'-trihydroxyflavanone), 3'-hydroxydaidzein (7,3’,4’ trihydroxyisoflavone), and pterocarpans were isolated from the seeds, stem, and bark of C. aurea.^19,41

Beyond secondary metabolites, proteinaceous agglutinins (lectins) were isolated from seeds of C. aurea. These agglutinins are known to specifically cause hemagglutination of human erythrocytes of groups A and B.⁴⁸

Overall, the above phytochemical findings highlight the diversity of secondary metabolites present in the plant and reveal that most of the isolated compounds have not yet been evaluated for their pharmacological activities. The following table (Table 2) shows the chemical structure and class of isolated compounds from C. aurea, including compounds that have not been investigated for biological activities.

Ethnopharmacological Properties of Calpurnia aurea

Experimental studies have validated several traditional medicinal uses of C. aurea. These studies were done by using crude extract and solvent fraction and more recently, isolated compounds. Even though leaf, seed, stem, and bark are evaluated for pharmacological activities, leaf and seed part of C. aurea are the most studied parts for this purpose with methanol as primary solvent. These studies showed antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antioxidant, anti-malarial, antihypertensive, anti-diarrheal, anticancer, acaricidal, and hepatoprotective effect of C. aurea.^3,49

Antimicrobial Activity

In an in vitro study, crude 80% methanolic root extracts of C. aurea were tested against mycobacteria (M. tuberculosis and M. bovis), and found to possess anti-mycobaterial activity based on minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranging from 25-100 μg/mL.⁵⁰ Acetone leaf extract of C. aurea was also found to be active against Gram-positive strains such as E. faecalis, B. cereus and S. aureus and three Gram-negative strains, E. coli, S. typhimurium, and P. aeruginosa.⁵¹ The Methanol extract of C. aurea (Ait.) Benth. at a concentration of 200 mg/mL had the highest mean zone of inhibition (4.66 mm) when compared to other selected plants.⁵² The antibacterial action of the methanol crude leaf extracts of C. aurea was much higher than that of its stem. The antibacterial effect of C. aurea at the MIC of 0.1 mg/mL was also higher than that of standard gentamycin at the MIC of 100 mg/mL.⁴

The above effects may be because of the active compounds within the plant. The pure compound, 1-(2,4-bis(dimethylamino)cyclopentyl) heptan-4-one(35) from Methanolic Seeds extract of Ethiopian C. aurea showed antibacterial activity against S. typhi, E. coli, S. paratyphi, S. typhimurium, Shigella spps, P. aeuroginosa, and S. aureus with MIC value ranges from 25.8 to 78 mg/mL.⁴⁶ Methyl (E)-3,4,5-trimethoxycinnamate(27) from leaves and from leaves and stem bark of Kenyan C. aurea also exhibited antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis, with a MIC of 16.6 μg/mL, the same as the positive control oxytetracycline.⁴⁵

Recent study from south Africa have evaluated the quorum sensing (QS) inhibitory potential of ethanolic leaf extract of C. aurea. QS is responsible for antimicrobial resistance development in bacteria through expression of virulence factors and biofilm formation. From this extract, the compound methyl mannose (38) was predicted as strong inhibitor of quorum sensing with the highest docking score of −7.0 kcal/mol to the active site of Chromobacterium violaeum quorum sensing regulate protein (CviR).⁴⁷

Overall, these findings support the traditional use of the plant in the management of tuberculosis and other bacterial diseases.

Beyond antibacterial activity, C. aurea from Kenya has also shown antifungal activities. Rhoifolin (28) ononin (23), 8-O-methylretusin (25), maackiain(24), and medicarpin (26) from the leaves and stem bark of Kenyan C. aurea also exhibited antifungal activity against Mucor hiemalis and Schizosaccharomyces pombe, with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 66.6 μg/mL.⁴⁵

Virgiline type Quinolizidine alkaloids, namely, 2β-methoxy-13α-O-(2′-pyrrolylcarbonyl) virgiline(13), 2α-methoxy-13β-O-(2′-pyrrolylcarbonyl) virgiline(14), 3α-O-angelate-2β-hydroxy-13α-O-(2′-pyrrolylcarbonyl) virgiline(15), 2,3-dehydro-virgiline(16) from its leaf, and stem bark showed antidermatophytic activity against Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton interdigitale, Trichophyton benhamiae, Microsporum canis, and Nannizzia gypsea, which are common causative agents for tinea infections in humans. The antidermatophytic action of all the identified quinolizidine alkaloids was demonstrated, with MICs ranging from 37.5 µg/mL to 300 µg/mL (Table 3).^4,43 These antidermatophytic activities can validate the traditional use of the plant for Tinea capitis in Kilte Awulaelo district, Tigray, Ethiopia.³⁶

Table 3.

Pharmacological Activities of Extracts and Compounds Isolated from Calpurnia aurea.

Pharmacological Activity	Part/s Used for the Study	Type of Extract or/and Isolated Compound/s	Model Used and Study Design	Observations	Reference
Antioxidant activity	leaf and stem	Methanol extract	In-vitro methods;1) DPPH radical scavenging activity2) ABTS radical scavenging activity3) FRAP method4) In-vitro anti-bacterial activity	Leaves and stem extracts of Calpurnia aurea possess antioxidant activities	⁴
Anti-mycobacterial activity	Root	80% methanol	In-vitro anti-mycobacterial activity	The root extract showed promising antimycobacterial activity againstM. tuberculosis and M. bovis strains	⁵⁰
anti-bacterial activity	Leaf	80% methanol	In-vitro anti-bacterial activity	The extract showed good antibacterial activity	¹⁷
Antidiarrheal activity	Leaf	80% methanol	Castor oil induced diarrhea	Leaf extract of C. aurea showed good antidiarrheal activity	¹⁷
Anticancer activity	stem and bark	Isoflavones isolated from the stem and bark of the plant	In-vitro anti-cancer activity	The isoflavones showed moderate activity against the renal, melanoma and breast cancer cell lines tested against	¹⁹
Hepatoprotective activity	Seed	70% Ethanol	HAART induced hepatotoxicity in rats	The plant extract showed hepatoprotective effect	⁴⁹
Anti-arthritic activity	Leaf	Acetone	in vitro methods (Assay of nitric oxide production and viability of LPS-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages, 15-lipoxygenase inhibitory assay, protein denaturation assay)	The study revealed the acetone extract possesses promising antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activity	⁵³
Antihypertensive activity	Seed	80% methanol	In vivo (normotensive and hypertensive rats), and Ex vivo (guinea pig thoracic aortic rings)	The hydroalcoholic extract showed in vivo hypotensive and antihypertensive effects and ex vivo aorta relaxing effect	¹⁶
Anti-bacterial activity	Leaf	Methanol and Chloroform	In-vitro anti-bacterial activity	Both methanol and chloroform extracts of C. aurea leaves showed antibacterial activity	⁵²
Wound healing and anti-inflammatory	Leaf	80% methanol	In vivo	The hydroalcoholic extract showed wound healing and anti-inflammatory activities in mice	⁵⁴
Antidiabetic activity	Leaf	80% methanol	Normoglycemic, oral glucose-loaded, and STZ-induced diabetic mice	Hydromethanolic extract of the leaves showed significant antihyperglycemic activity in STZ-induced diabetic mice	⁵⁵
Antidiabetic activity	Seed	80% methanol	Normoglycemic, oral glucose-loaded, and STZ-induced diabetic mice	Hydromethanolic extract of the seeds showed significant hypoglycemic, antihyperglycemic and antihyperlipidemic activity	²⁰
Antidermatophytic activity against Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton interdigitale, Trichophyton benhamiae, Microsporum canis, and Nannizzia gypsea	Leaves	2β-methoxy-13α-O-(2′-pyrrolylcarbonyl) virgiline,(13)	Bronth microdilution assay	MIC for T. rubrum 150 µg/mLMIC for T. interdigitale 300 µg/mLMIC for T. benhamiae: not activeMIC for M. canis:150 µg/mLMIC for N. gypsea: 150 µg/mLPositive control MIC for all strains,Miconazole 0.260 µg/mL, Voriconazole 0.390 µg/mL	^4,43
	Stem and bark	2α-methoxy-13β-O-(2′-pyrrolylcarbonyl) virgiline(14)		Not active against T. rubrumMIC for T. interdigitale 300MIC for T. benhamiae: not activeMIC for M. canis: 300MIC for N. gypsea:150
	Stem and bark	3α-O-angelate-2β-hydroxy-13α-O-(2′pyrrolylcarbonyl) virgiline (15)		MIC for T. rubrum 300MIC for T. interdigitale 300not active against T. benhamiae:MIC for M. canis :150MIC for N. gypsea :75
	leaves	2,3-dehydro-virgiline (16)		MIC for T. rubrum 150,MIC for T. interdigitale not activeMIC for T. benhamiae: 300MIC for M. canis 150MIC for N. gypsea 75
In vitro acaricidal activity against Rhipicephalus turanicus ticks	leaves	Apigenin-7-O-β-D-glycoside (21)	adult immersion test	LC50 and LC90 values 1.35 and 0.65 mg/mL, and Cypermethrin (positive control) 0.6 and 1.09 mg/ mL, respectively	⁴⁴
	leaves	Isorhoifolin (22)		LC50 and LC90 values: 3.95 and 1.71 mg/mL Cypermethrin (positive control) 0.6 and 1.09 mg/mL, respectively	⁴⁴
Antifungal activity against Mucor hiemalis and Schizosaccharomyces Pomb	Leaves and Stem bark	Ononin (23)	Serial dilution assay	MIC of 66.6 μg/mL; positive control, Nystatin(8.3 μg/mL)	⁴⁵
	Leaves and Stem bark	Maackiain (24)	Serial dilution assay	MIC of 66.6 μg/mL; positive control, Nystatin (8.3 μg/mL)
	Leaves and Stem bark	8-O-methylretusin (25)	Serial dilution assay	MIC of 66.6 μg/mL; positive control, Nystatin (8.3 μg/mL)
	Leaves and Stem bark	Medicarpin(26)	Serial dilution assay	MIC of 66.6 μg/mL; positive control, Nystatin(8.3 μg/mL)
	Leaves and Stem bark	Rhoifolin (28)	Serial dilution assay	MIC of 66.6 μg/mL; positive control, Nystatin (8.3 μg/mL)
Cytotoxic and antiproliferative properties, with IC50 values between 15 μg/mL and 24 μg/mL against the KB3.1 and L929 cell lines.	Leaves and Stem bark	Maackiain (24)	MTT assay against mouse fibroblast (L-929) and human endocervical adenocarcinoma (KB-3.1) cell lines	IC50 value of 24 μg/mL against the KB3.1 and L929 cell lines.
	Leaves and Stem bark	8-O-methylretusin (25)		IC50 values of 15 μg/mL and 24 μg/mL against the KB3.1 and L929 cell lines, respectively
	Leaves and Stem bark	Medicarpin(26)		IC50 value of 20.0 μg/mL against the KB3.1
	Leaves and Stem bark	Methyl (E)-34,5-trimethoxycinnamate (27)		shows IC50 values of 15 μg/mL against L929 cell lines
	Leaves and Stem bark	Rhoifolin (28)		shows IC₅₀ value of 23 μg/mL against the KB3.1
Antidermatophytic activity against T. rubrum, T. interdigitale, T. benhamiae, M. canis, N. gypsea	Leaves and Stem bark	8-O-methylretusin (25)	Bronth microdilution assay	Concentration (MIC) range of 6.6-75 µg/mL
Antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis	Leaves and Stem bark	Methyl (E)-34,5-trimethoxycinnamate (27)	Serial dilution assay	minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 16.6 μg/mL, same as the positive control oxytetracycline	⁴⁵
in vitro anticancer activity against breast (MCF7), renal (TK10), and melanoma (UACC62) human cell lines using an in-house method	Stem and bark	3’,7-dihydroxy-4’,8-dimethoxyisoflavone (34)	In vitro anticancer activity	Induced Growth inhibitions (GI50 values) of 45.81, 27.35, and 31.92 µ/mL against (MCF7), (TK10), and (UACC62), respectively Positive control, Etoposide 4.88, 0.74, and 0.57µ/mL, respectively	¹⁹
Antibacterial activities against S. typhi, E. coli, S. paratyphi, S. typhimurium, Shigella spps, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus	Seeds	1-(2,4-bis (dimethylamino) cyclopentyl) heptan-4-one (35)	microplate method	MIC value ranges from 25.8 to 78 mg/mL	⁴⁶
Anti-quorum sensing potential	Leaves	Methyl mannose (38)	Insilico molecular docking against the CviR protein	Docking score −7.0 kcal/mol	⁴⁷

Anti-Diabetic, Anti-Lipidemic, and Anti-Hypertensive Activity

The three doses (100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg, and 400 mg/kg) of crude hydromethanolic leaf extract of C. aurea fed to a streptozotocin induced diabetic mice showed a significant (P < .05) antihyperglycemic activity at the seventh and 14th day of repeated daily dose administration when compared to the negative diabetic control.⁵⁵ Furthermore, seed extract of C. aurea exhibited blood glucose-lowering activity in normoglycemic and hyperglycemic animal models, and it improved body weight loss and diabetic dyslipidemia in diabetic mice after 14 days of treatment.²⁰

Hydromethanolic leaf extract of C. aurea also exhibited lipid-lowering activity.⁵⁶ The administration of 400 mg/kg of C. aurea leaf extract significantly (P < .05) lowered serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL), serum cholesterol, and serum triglyceride levels, while the same dose had significantly elevated serum high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels.⁵⁶ The hydroalcoholic seed extract also possessed hypotensive and antihypertensive effects. It is reported that seed extracts caused a dose-dependent relaxation of aorta precontracted with potassium chloride (KCl) at a concentration of 5-250 mg/L, with a maximum relaxation of 92.1% achieved at 250 mg/L. The reported mechanism was found to be independent of the muscarinic and histamine receptors as well as ATP-dependent K+ channels, cyclo-oxygenase enzymes, cGMP/NO pathway, and the endothelium system. The effect produced by seed extract caused a rightward shift of the Ca++ dose response curves, like the effect produced by verapamil, indicating that it produced vaso relaxation by inhibiting extracellular Ca2+ influx.¹⁶

Antioxidant Activity

Extracts of different parts of C. aurea were investigated in extensive in vitro experimental methods and showed significant antioxidant activity, as shown in Table 3. This effect may be linked to their high flavonoid content, which can scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). This antioxidant effect may lead to a decrease in oxidative stress in the body, which is associated with various diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes, and cancer.⁵⁷

Anticancer Activity

The bark and stem of C. aurea were investigated phytochemically for the first time and yielded five isoflavones (30-34) and the quinolizidine alkaloid, calpurnine(2), were isolated (Table 2). Isoflavones showed anticancer activity with 3’,7-dihydroxy-4′,8-dimethoxyisoflavone(34) being the most active against the renal, melanoma, and breast cancer cells among all the compounds tested.¹⁹

Anti-Malarial Activity

The leaf extract of C. aurea was tested against chloroquine-sensitive Plasmodium berghei (1 × 10⁷parasites/mouse) infection in mice, and the study indicated that the hydromethanolic leaf extract has promising anti-plasmodial activity.⁵⁸ In the other study, the 80% methanol leaf extract of C.aurea was evaluated for its in-vivo antimalarial activity in a 4-day suppressive assay against Plasmodium berghei infected mice, and the extract showed a significant (P < .05) antimalarial activity at doses of 400 and 600 mg/kg with chemosuppression values of 38.22 ± 17.87% and 46.51 ± 3.67%, respectively.¹⁴

Wound Healing and Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Wound healing activity of the 80% methanol extract of the leaves of Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth was evaluated using excision and incision wound models, and the anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using the carrageenan-induced hind paw edema model in mice. The study demonstrated that 80% methanol extract of the leaves of Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth has wound healing and anti-inflammatory effects. Additionally, the aqueous and ethyl acetate fractions showed wound healing activities.⁵⁴

Anti-Diarrheal Activity

The anti-diarrheal activity of 80% methanol leaf extract of C. aurea was investigated in the castor oil-induced diarrhea, and it significantly delayed the onset of diarrhea, and reduced the frequency of defecation (total number of fecal output) and weight of feces.¹⁷

Hepatoprotective Effect

The hepatoprotective effect of Calpurnia aurea seed extract was evaluated against highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) induced liver toxicity in rats by monitoring serum levels of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), as well as through histopathological analysis. Additionally, the antioxidant properties of the seed extract were assessed by examining its effects on the liver antioxidant profile altered by highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) treatment. The findings suggested that the seed extract possesses hepatoprotective potential, thereby supporting its traditional ethnopharmacological use.⁴⁹

Acaricidal Activity

Acaricidal activity of C. aurea from Kenya was assessed by using the adult immersion test against Rhipicephalus turanicus ticks. The study found chloroform fraction of C. aurea was the most active fraction with a 24 h LC50 and LC90 of 28.64, and21.53 mg/mL, respectively. The study also identified two acaricidal compounds, apigenin-7-O-β-D-glycoside (21) and isorhoifolin (22), with LC50 and LC90 values of 1.35 and 0.65 mg/mL; 3.95 and 1.71 mg/mL, respectively, which were comparable to the LC50 and LC90 values of cypermethrin (0.6 and 1.09 mg/mL, respectively).⁴⁴

Conclusion

Calpurnia aurea has a rich history of traditional use for treating diverse ailments, many of which have been substantiated by in vivo and in vitro pharmacological investigations. This validates the importance of indigenous ethnobotanical knowledge in uncovering bioactive compounds. Nevertheless, further comprehensive studies are warranted to elucidate its efficacy, toxicity, and active constituents for safe therapeutic application.

Methods

Data were collected from legitimate databases such as PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Google Scholar using key terms “Calpurnia aurea” OR “C. aurea” AND “ethnobotanical use” OR “botanical use” OR “traditional medicine” OR “herbal medicine” OR “pharmacological” OR “ethnopharmacological” OR “bioactivity” OR “phytochemical” OR “Bioactive compound” in each database. The synonyms and different local names were retrieved from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) database and other trusted online sources. Only original literatures written in English and accessible through institutional subscriptions, open-access platforms, or author requests were included. Relevant data on the ethnobotanical, ethnopharmacological, and phytochemical aspects of C. aurea were carefully screened and extracted from original studies published from 1957 to 2025. A total of 58 references are included in this scientific review. The literature search was conducted from November 2024 to September 2025.

Figure 1.

Picture of Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. subsp. aurea.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Wollo University for providing the necessary facilities for this work.

ORCID iDs

Yaschilal Muche Belayneh

Abel Andualem

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate

Not applicable.

Authors’ Contribution

YMB drafted and conceived the initial draft of the manuscript. AA and SF reviewed the initial draft and prepared the final version of the manuscript for Journal submission. All authors read and approved the final draft of the manuscript. All authors are accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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