A Review of Phytocompounds of “Leaf of Life” Medicinal Plant ( Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers)

Abstract

“Thuoc bong” or “Song doi” (Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers or Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Kurz., Crassulaceae) is a medicinal plant and a traditional herbal remedy native to Vietnam. It is widely used in folk medicine for treating burns, stopping bleeding, and alleviating inflammation. A total of 82 scientific publications on the phytochemical constituents of various parts of K. pinnata were collected from two reputable databases (PubMed and Google Scholar) using the search terms “Bryophyllum pinnatum” or “Kalanchoe pinnata.” Altogether, 620 phytochemicals have been reported from K. pinnata, belonging to various classes such as bufadienolides, flavonoids, triterpenoids, volatile compounds, organic acids, and others. Additionally, studies on the development of quantification methods and quality control procedures for this medicinal plant were also included. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the chemical constituents of K. pinnata based on credible data sources, contributing scientific evidence to support the medicinal value of this traditional herb.

Keywords

phytochemicals bufadienolides flavonoids triterpens volatile organic compounds

Introduction

Vietnam, known for its rich ecological diversity, is home to thousands of plant species with potential medicinal value. Historically, renowned Vietnamese physicians such as the Buddhist monk-physician Tue Tinh (fourteenth century) and Hai Thuong Lan Ong Le Huu Trac (eighteenth century) emphasized the use of indigenous plants in healing practices. Tue Tinh introduced the foundational concept of “Thuốc Nam” (Southern Medicine), advocating for the principle of “Southern medicine for Southern people,” which stressed the relevance of locally sourced herbal medicines suited to local physiology and climate.¹

Among the widely used medicinal plants in Vietnam is Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers., Crassulaceae, also known as Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Kurz., Crassulaceae, locally referred to as “Thuốc bỏng” or “Sống đời.” This plant has been used traditionally for treating burns, wounds, inflammation, and infections.² Beyond its folkloric applications, recent pharmacological studies have confirmed a wide spectrum of biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, wound healing, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and even anticancer effects.³

The chemical composition of K. pinnata has only been reported by Assis de Andrade et al (2023), together with other Kalanchoe species, with most compounds belonging to the classes of cardiac glycosides and flavonoids. However, their search strategy was limited to only two databases, PubMed and SciFinder, using the keyword “Kalanchoe” up to April 2023, without including the synonymous nomenclature “Bryophyllum pinnatum.”⁴ Therefore, conducted with the aim of updating the chemical constituents of K. pinnata (B. pinnatum) across a broader range of databases and systematically compiling the phytochemical profile of this medicinal plant, thereby providing a valuable foundation for future pharmacological and clinical research.

Methodology

All studies on the chemical constituents of various parts of K. pinnata, including isolation and analysis using modern techniques such as GC, HPLC, and quantification methods, were collected from for reputable databases (PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and Springer Nature) up to August 26, 2025. The search was conducted using the terms “Bryophyllum pinnatum” or “Kalanchoe pinnata.” Review articles and “gray” literature (conference abstracts, theses, and posters) were excluded during the selection process.

Phytochemical Constituents of K. pinnata

A total of 82 scientific articles were identified and collected from two online databases, reporting the presence of 620 phytochemical compounds. In general, the chemical constituents of K. pinnata fall into several major classes, including bufadienolides, flavonoids, triterpenoids, volatile compounds, organic acids, and others.

Bufadienolide Compounds

Phytochemical compounds with a bufadienolide skeleton represent an important group and are believed to contribute significantly to the pharmacological effects of K. pinnata. Bufadienolides are a class of steroidal compounds, some of which exist as cardiac glycosides when glycosidic sugar units are attached. However, to date, no studies have conducted the in vitro or in vivo cardiovascular effects of bufadienolides specifically isolated from K. pinnata. Existing evidence regarding cardiovascular effects has been limited to studies using crude plant extracts. Bufadienolides are structurally characterized by an aglycone skeleton with a steroidal backbone and a γ-pyrone ring at the C₁₇ position.⁵ Unlike other cardiac glycosides, the bufadienolides found in K. pinnata lack a glycosidic linkage between the hydroxyl group at the C₃ position and sugar moieties. Through our literature search, a total of 11 bufadienolide compounds (B1-B11) were identified in K. pinnata (Table 1 and Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Chemical Formula of Bufadienolide Compounds in K. pinnata.

Table 1.

Bufadienolide Compounds in K. pinnata.

N^o	Compound	Part Used	Method
B1	16-Hydroxybersaldegenin acetate⁶ *	L	LC
B2	Bryophyllin A/Bryotoxin C^6–13	WP, L	I, LC
B3	Bryophyllin B⁸	WP	I
B4	Bryophyllin C^10,11	L	I, LC
B5	Bersaldegenin-1-acetate^6,11,12	L	I
B6	Bersaldegenin-2-acetate⁶ *	L	I
B7	Bersaldegenin-3-acetate^{6–8,10–13}	WP	I, LC
B8	Bersaldegenin-4-acetate⁶ *	L	LC
B9	Bersaldegenin-5-acetate⁶ *	L	LC
B10	Bersaldegenin-13,5-orthoacetate^6,10–14	L	I, LC
B11	Daigremontianin¹⁰	L	I

*: The absolute configuration has not yet been described. Note: L: leaf, WP: whole plant, LC: liquid chromatography, I: isolation.

Although some earlier studies reported the presence of two additional compounds, bryotoxin A and bryotoxin B, in K. pinnata,^15,16 these bufadienolides have only been confirmed in K. tubiflorum.⁵ Therefore, they were excluded from this review. In addition to extraction and isolation studies, several bufadienolides from K. pinnata have also been evaluated for specific biological activities through in silico and in vitro approaches (Table 2).

Table 2.

Biological Activities of Bufadienolide Compounds.

Compound	Bioactivity	Type	Results
B2	Anti-cancer	in silico	Binding to vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2, IGFR, C-KIT, RET, Pi3 K, C-Met, MEK-inhibitor, and PDGFR proteins related to hepatocellular carcinoma.¹⁷ Strongest binding to Pi3 K and IGFR with binding energies of −10.6 and −9.2 kcal/mol, respectively.¹⁷
B2	Immunomodulatory activity	in silico	Free binding energy: −66.6975 kcal/mol.¹⁸ Forming 1 hydrogen bond with Arg611 and 10 hydrophobic interactions with amino acids Gln570, Leu563, Met560, Ile747, Thr739, Phe749, Glu748, Thr561, Asn564, and Phe623.¹⁸
B3	Atheroprotective	in silico	Strong binding to AMPK and iNOS proteins at active sites (binding energies: −9.9 and −9.9 kcal/mol).¹⁹ Binding to iNOS was more stable than AMPK.¹⁹
B3	Detoxification	in silico	Good binding to antigen 5 (binding energy: −9.6 kcal/mol).²⁰
B2, B4	Antiparasite	in silico	Strong binding to CYP4G17, CYP6M2, CYP6P3, and CYP9J3 proteins; strongest binding with CYP6P3 (binding energies: −47.7 and −49.4 kJ/mol).²¹ Forming π–π stacking interactions with conserved phenylalanine residues in active sites, along with hydrogen bonding.²¹
B2, B4, B7	Anticancer	in silico	Strong binding to Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase protein (binding energies: −10.7, −9.5, and −8.9 kcal/mol, respectively).²² B2 showed the strongest binding due to the presence of 13,5-orthoacetate group, aldehyde at C₁₀, and hydroxyl groups at C₁₁ and C₁₄.²²
B2	Anticancer	in vitro	Strong cytotoxicity against KB, A-549, and HCT-8 cell lines (IC₅₀: 14, 10, and 30 ng/ml, respectively).⁷
B10	Uterine contraction inhibition	in vitro	Dose-dependent inhibition of intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration increase.²³
B2, B7	Uterine contraction inhibition	in vitro	Downregulated COX-2 gene expression.²⁴ Reduced phosphorylation of NF-κB p65.²⁴
B2, B4	Cytotoxicity	in vitro	Bombyx mori larvae inhibition with IC₅₀ values of 3 and 5 μg/g.⁹
B2, B4, B7	Anticancer	in vitro	Inhibited early antigen activation of Epstein-Barr virus in Raji cells induced by the tumor promoter 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate.¹⁰ IC₅₀ values: 0.4, 1.6, and 3.0 μM, respectively.¹⁰

Flavonoid Compounds

Flavonoids are a widely distributed and important class of secondary metabolites in nature. Chemically, flavonoids consist of a basic aglycone backbone structured in a C6-C3-C6 pattern, and they may occur either in free form (aglycones) or as glycosides when sugar moieties are attached. Depending on the condensation of the three-carbon chain with the C6 rings, the presence of a carbonyl group, and the double bond between C₁ and C₂ of the three-carbon chain, flavonoids are classified into smaller subgroups such as flavanols, flavanonols, flavones, flavonols, flavanones, anthocyanins, catechins, and others.^25,26 In K. pinnata, a total of 75 flavonoid compounds (F1-F75) have been isolated and reported (Table 3 and Figure 2), with flavone and flavonol derivatives being the most abundant, accounting for 84% of the total.

Figure 2.

Chemical Formula of Flavonoid Compounds in K. pinnata.

Table 3.

Flavonoid Compounds in K. pinnata.

N^o	Compound	Part Used	Method
Flavan-3-ol derivatives
F1	Epigallocatechin-3-O-syringate²⁷	AP	I
F2	Epigallocatechin gallate²⁸	L	LC
Anthocyanin derivatives
F3	4’,35,7-Tetrahydroxy-6-methyl-5'-prop-1-en-1-ylamino-anthocyanidin²⁹	L	I
F4	Cyanidin-3-(2G-xylosylrutinoside)³⁰	L	LC
F5	Cyanidin-3-O-α-L-glucoside³¹	L	LC
F6	Malvidin-3-glucoside³⁰	L	LC
F7	Peonidin-3-glucoside³⁰	L	LC
Chalcone derivative
F8	Chalconaringenin²⁸	L	LC
Flavanone and Flavanonol derivatives
F9	5,6,7,8,4'-Pentahydroxyflavanone³²	L	I
F10	Dihydroquercetin/(2R,3R)-taxifolin^28,31	L	LC
F11	Eriodictyol²⁸	L	LC
F12	Prunin²⁸	L	LC
F13	Prunin-6"-O-gallate³⁰	L	LC
Flavone and Flavonol derivatives
F14	3’,4'-Dimethoxyquercetin³³	L	I
F15	3,5,7,3’,5'-Pentahydroxyflavone³⁴	WP	I
F16	4’,5-Dihydroxy-3’,8-dimethoxyflavon-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside³⁵	L	I
F17	4’,5,7-Trihydroxyflavone³⁶	L	I
F18	4’,5,7-Trihydroxy-3’,8-dimethoxyflavon-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside³⁷	L	LC
F19	4"-O-acetylmyricitrin³⁰	L	LC
F20	5,7,4'-Trihydroxy-8,3'-dimethoxyflavone³⁸	L	I
F21	5-Hydroxy-2-(8-hydroxy 4-oxo-4H-chromen-2-yl)-4-oxo-3,4-dihydro-2H-1-benzopyran-7-yl-N-[(2-methylpropoxy) carbonyl] carbamate³⁹	L	I
F22	5'-Methyl-4’,5,7-trihydroxyflavone²⁹	L	I
F23	6"-Acetylhyperin-7-rhamnoside³⁰	L	LC
F24	Acacetin-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside/Linarin^11,12	L	I, LC
F25	Afzelin^28,40,41	WP, L	I, LC
F26	Apigenin²⁸	L	LC
F27	Artemetin³⁰	L	LC
F28	Avicularin²⁸	L	LC
F29	Baicalin²⁸	L	LC
F30	Biorobin³⁰	L	LC
F31	Carlinoside^42,43	L	LC
F32	Casticin³⁰	L	LC
F33	Diosmetin-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside/Diosmin^11,12,30	L	I
F34	Eujambolin³⁰	L	LC
F35	Eupatilin³⁰	L	LC
F36	Flavone^44,45	L	GC
F37	Hispidulin-7-glucuronide²⁸	L	LC
F38	Isoquercitrin⁴⁶	F	I
F39	Isorhamnetin^30,42,43	L	LC
F40	Isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside/Narcissin⁴⁷	L	LC
F41	Isoscoparin-7-O-arabinoside³¹	L	LC
F42	Juglanin²⁸	L	LC
F43	Kaempferitrin^30,40	WP, L	I, LC
F44	Kaempferol^28,30,48,49	L	I, LC
F45	Kaempferol-3-(2"-acetylrhamnoside)³⁰	L	LC
F46	Kaempferol-3-glucoside/Astragalin⁵⁰	L	I
F47	Kaempferol-3-O-α-D-glucopyranoside-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside⁴⁰	WP	I
F48	Kaempferol-3-O-α-L-(2-acetyl) rhamnopyranoside-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside⁴⁰	WP	I
F49	Kaempferol-3-O-α-L-(3-acetyl) rhamnopyranoside-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside⁴⁰	WP	I
F50	Kaempferol-3-O-α-L-(4-acetyl) rhamnopyranoside-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside⁴⁰	WP	I
F51	Kaempferol-3-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl-(1→2)-α-L-rhamnopyranoside/Kapinnatoside^{11–13,31,35,41,51}	L	I, LC
F52	Kaempferol-3-O-α-L-rhamnofuranoside³⁰	L	LC
F53	Kaempferol-3-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→2)-α-L-rhamnopyranoside^11,12	L	I
F54	Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside^13,52	L	LC
F55	Luteolin^27,42,43,53	AP, L	I, LC
F56	Luteolin-7-O-β-D-glucoside⁵³	L	LC
F57	Mauritianin³⁰	L	LC
F58	Miquelianin⁴⁶	F	I
F59	Myricetin^11,28	L	I, LC
F60	Myricetin-3-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl-(1→2)-O-α-L-rhamopyranoside³⁷	L	I, LC
F61	Myricetin-3-O-rhamnopyranoside/Myricitrin^12,31,37	L	LC
F62	Quercetin^{14,28,30,38,39,42,43,46,53,54}	F, L	I, LC
F63	Quercetin-3-(4"-acetylrhamnoside)-7-rhamnoside³⁰	L	LC
F64	Quercetin-3-arabinoside³⁰	L	LC
F65	Quercetin-3-diarabinoside⁵⁰	L	I
F66	Quercetin-3-galactoside³⁰	L	LC
F67	Quercetin-3-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl-(1→2)-α-L-rhamnopyranoside^{11–13,31,35,46,51,54–56}	L, F	I, LC
F68	Quercetin 3-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl-(1→2)-α-L-rhamnopyranoside-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside^11,12	L	I, LC
F69	Quercetin-3-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→2)-O-α-L-rhamopyranoside³⁷	L	LC
F70	Quercitrin^{11–13,30,31,37,41,46,51,54–57} Quercetin-3-O-α-L-rhamopyranoside	L, F	I, LC
F71	α-Rhamnoisorobin⁴⁰	WP	I
F72	Rutin^30,53,58	L, R	LC
F73	Scutellarin²⁸	L	LC
F74	Tricin-5-glucoside²⁸	L	LC
Isoflavonoid
F75	Genistin²⁸	L	LC

Note. L: leaf, F: flower, R: root, AP: aerial part, WP: whole plant, I: isolation, LC: liquid chromatography, GC: gas chromatography.

The bioactivities of several flavonoid compounds are presented in Table 4.

Table 4.

Biological Activities of Flavonoid Compounds.

Compound	Bioactivity	Type	Results
F71	Antibacterial and antifungal	In vitro	MIC 1 μg/ml against P. aeruginosa, S. typhi, and C. albicans, and 2 μg/ml against S. aureus, C. parapsilosis, and C. neoformans.⁴⁰ similar activity to ciprofloxacin against S. aureus and superior activity against P. aeruginosa.⁴⁰
F70	Antiparasite	In vitro	IC₅₀: 1 μg/ml (Leishmania amazonensis).⁵⁷ Attributing to the quercetin aglycone structure and an additional rhamnosyl unit attached at the C₃ position.^35,57
F62	Antiviral	In vitro	IC₅₀ (HCV): 1.5 μg/ml and a selectivity index greater than 26.7, acting after viral entry.⁵⁴
F24	Neuroprotective	In silico	Nrf2 (−9.2); AChE (−14.0); most stable binding.⁵⁹
F61	Antioxidant, Neuroprotective	In vitro	IC₅₀: DPPH (10.186), lipid peroxidation (25.242), AChE (15.528), BChE (24.326) μg/ml.⁴²
F61	Antidiabetic	In vitro In silico	IC₅₀: amylase (43.84), glucosidase (25.79) μg/ml.⁴⁹ The binding energies to the two proteins were better than those of the positive controls casuarin (MGAM) and acarbose (α-amylase).⁴⁹
F61	Anti-allergic	In vivo	Reducing mast cell degranulation.⁶⁰ Decreasing IL-6 and TNF levels in a dose-dependent manner.⁶⁰ Attenuating respiratory response to methacholine.⁶⁰ Reducing the number of lymphocytes, eosinophils, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, total IgE, ovalbumin-specific IgE, IgG1, IL-5, IL-13, and TNF.⁶⁰
F71	Antioxidant	In vitro	Exhibiting stronger antioxidant activity than ascorbic acid (IC₅₀ values of 0.71 ± 0.09 and 0.96 ± 0.14 μg/ml, respectively).⁴⁰
F62	Detrusor relaxant	In vivo	Reducing the contractile force of the bladder sphincter.⁶¹
F62	Anti-inflammatory	In vivo	Inhibition rates in two vascular permeability models induced by acetic acid and ear edema by croton oil were 50.86% and 63.2%, respectively.⁶²
F33	Antiviral	In silico	Binding to Spike (-9.4), Mpro (-9.0), and ACE2 (-9.4) proteins (SARS-CoV-2).⁶³

Triterpenoid Compounds

Triterpenoids represent a large group of plant-derived secondary metabolites, composed of six hemiterpene units (C₅H₈) condensed together. The biosynthesis begins with the coupling of two farnesyl pyrophosphate molecules to form squalene, which subsequently undergoes enzymatic cyclization and modifications to yield either linear or cyclic triterpenoids, including sterols.⁶⁴ In K. pinnata, a total of 73 triterpenoid compounds (T1-T73) have been identified and reported (Table 5 and Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Chemical Formula of Triterpenoid Compounds in K. pinnata. Note. Glc: glucose.

Table 5.

Triterpenoid Compounds in K. pinnata.

N^o	Compound	Part used	Method
Acyclic triterpenoids
T1	5,7-Bryophollenone diacetate⁶⁵	L	I
T2	Bryophollenone⁶⁵	L	I
T3	β-Citraurin³⁰	L	LC
Lanostane-type tetracyclic triterpenoids
T4	2-(3-Acetoxy-4,4,14-trimethylandrost-8-ene-17-yl) propanoic acid⁶⁶	L	GC
T5	3-Bromo-3β-cholest-5-ene⁶⁷	R	GC
T6	3-Methoxy-3β-cholest-5-ene^67,68	R	GC
T7	(3β,23E)- 9,19-Cyclolanost-23-ene-3,25-diol-3-acetate⁴⁵	R	GC
T8	3β-Cholest-3-ene-3-yl propanoate⁶⁷	R	GC
T9	3β-Cholest-5,22-dien-3-ol⁶⁸	R	GC
T10	3β-Cholest-5-ene-3-yl carbanochloridate⁶⁷	R	GC
T11	3β-Cholest-5-ene-3-yl nonanoate⁶⁸	R	GC
T12	3β-Cholest-5-ene-3-yl tetradecanoate⁶⁷	R	GC
T13	(3β)-Lanosta-8,24-dien-3-ol acetate⁴⁵	R	GC
T14	3β-Phenoxy-24-nor-cholan-5,20(22)-diene⁶⁷	R	GC
T15	3β-Phenoxycholan-5,20(22)-diene^67,68	R	GC
T16	5-Chlorostigmastan-3-yl acetate⁶⁸	R	GC
T17	17α-Hydroxypregnenolone³⁰	L	LC
T18	21-Acetoxypregnenolone^67,68	R	GC
T19	22-Dihydrobrassicasterol⁶⁹	AP	I
T20	24-Ethyl-3,25-cholesteryl diacetate⁶⁵	L	I
T21	24-Ethyl-25-hydroxycholesterol⁶⁵	L	I
T22	24-Ethyldesmosterol⁶⁹	AP	I
T23	24-Epiclerosterol⁶⁹	AP	I
T24	(24R)-Stigmasta-7,25-dienol⁶⁹	AP	I
T25	(24S)-Stigmasta-7,25-dienol⁶⁹	AP	I
T26	(24S)-Stigmast-25-enol⁶⁹	AP	I
T27	25-Methylergosta-5,24(28)-dienol⁶⁹	AP	I
T28	25-Methylergost-24(28)-enol⁶⁹	AP	I
T29	Avenasterol⁶⁹	AP	I
T30	Campesterol^32,67–69	AP, L, R	I, GC
T31	Cholest-8-en-3β-yl acetate⁶⁷	R	GC
T32	Cholesta-3,5-diene^67,68	R	GC
T33	Cholesterol^67,68	R	GC
T34	Clerosterol⁶⁹	AP	I
T35	Codisterol⁶⁹	AP	I
T36	Ergosta-5,24(28)-dienol⁶⁹	AP	I
T37	Isofucosterol⁶⁹	AP	I
T38	Isohyodeoxycholic acid³⁰	L	LC
T39	Lycopersiconol³⁰	L	LC
T40	Methyl (25RS)-3β-acetoxy-5-cholesten-26-oat^67,68	R	GC
T41	Olitoriusin³⁰	L	LC
T42	Pregna-3,5-dien-20-one⁶⁷	R	GC
T43	Sitosterol/β-Sitosterol^{30,34,58,70,71}	AP, WP, S, R, L	I, LC
T44	γ-Sitosterol^67,68	R	GC
T45	β-Sitosteryl acetate^67,68	R	GC
T46	Stigmast-4,20(21),23-trien-3-on⁷²	L	I
T47	Stigmast-5-en-3-yl oleate⁶⁸	R	GC
T48	Stigmast-24-enol⁶⁹	AP	I
T49	Stigmasta-3,5-diene⁶⁸	R	GC
T50	Stigmasta-5-en-3β-ol⁷²	L	I
T51	Stigmasterol^68–70,73	AP, L	I, GC
Dammarane-type tetracyclic triterpenoids
T52	3-Bryophyllyl acetate⁶⁵	L	I
T53	Bryophyllol⁶⁵	L	I
Oleanane-type pentacyclic triterpenoids
T54	3β-Friedelanol/Epifriedelanol^34,74	WP, R	I
T55	18α-Oleanane⁶⁵	L	I
T56	β-Amyrin⁶⁵	L	I
T57	β-Amyrin acetate/β-Amyrin-3-acetate^34,65	L, WP	I
T58	Oleanolic acid⁷⁵	L	GC
T59	Camelledionol³⁰	L	LC
T60	Friedelan-3-one/Friedelin^70,76	AP, L	I, GC
T61	Glut-5(6)-en-3-one³⁴	WP	I
T62	Lucyoside K³⁰	L	LC
T63	Taraxerone³⁴	WP	I
Ursane-type pentacyclic triterpenoids
T64	3α-Acetomethoxy-11α-oxo-12-ursen-24-oic acid³⁰	L	LC
T65	α-Amyrin⁶⁵	L	I
T66	α-Amyrin acetate⁶⁵	L	I
T67	α-Amyrin-β-D-glucopyranoside⁷²	L	I
T68	Bryophollone⁶⁵	L	I
Taraxasterane-type pentacyclic triterpenoids
T69	13,27-Cycloursan-3-one⁷⁰	L	GC
T70	Bryophynol⁶⁵	L	I
T71	ψ-Taraxasterol⁶⁵	L	I
Lupane-type pentacyclic triterpenoids
T72	Lup-20(29)-en-3-yl acetate⁷⁰	L	GC
T73	Lupeol⁷⁶	AP	I

Note. L: leaf, F: flower, R: root, AP: aerial part, WP: whole plant, S: stem, I: isolation, LC: liquid chromatography, GC: gas chromatography.

Compound T43 has been identified in all parts of K. pinnata and has been selected for further studies on its biological activities. T43 exhibited the strongest binding affinity to the glucocorticoid receptor (−106.1340 kcal/mol), forming two hydrogen bonds and fourteen hydrophobic interactions.¹⁸ Additionally, T43 strongly binded to three proteins associated with hepatocellular carcinoma (C-Met, PI3 K, and IGFR) with binding energies of −8.9, −8.8, and −8.7 kcal/mol, respectively.¹⁷

Compounds T51, T56, and T65 all demonstrated favorable docking scores and binding energies against the glutathione S-transferase pi-class protein of the filarial worm Wuchereria bancrofti. Each compound formed a single hydrogen bond (T51 binded to the oxygen in the hydrophobic region of LEU50; T56 binded to the oxygen in the hydrophilic region of THR102; and T65 binded to the positively charged oxygen of ARG95).⁷⁷ For SARS-CoV-2, compound T57 exhibited strong binding to the Spike protein (−9.5 kcal/mol) via one hydrogen bond and thirteen hydrophobic interactions. Meanwhile, compounds T61 and T65 showed high binding affinities to the ACE2 protein (−9.1 and −9.2 kcal/mol, respectively).⁶³ Additionally, compound T65 demonstrated potential for antidiabetic activity due to its strong binding to AMY2A (−9.4 kcal/mol via seven hydrogen bonds, two salt bridges, and one π-stacking interaction) and DPP4 (−8.7 kcal/mol via two hydrophobic interactions).⁴⁷

Volatile Compounds

With the advancement of modern chromatographic techniques, especially GC coupled with MS detectors, a wide variety of volatile constituents in medicinal herbs have been identified and reported, exhibiting great chemical diversity. A total of 381 volatile compounds (V1-V381) have been reported in K. pinnata (Table 6 and Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Chemical Formula of Volatile Compounds in K. pinnata.

Table 6.

Volatile Compounds in K. pinnata.

N^o	Compound	Part Used	Method
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
V1	1,1-(1,2-Dimethyl-1,2-ethanediyl)-bis-cyclohexane⁷⁸	L	GC
V2	1,6-Dibromo-2-cyclohexylpentane⁷⁹	L	GC
V3	1-Clorooctadecane⁸⁰	L	GC
V4	1-Methyl-2-propylcyclohexane⁸⁰	L	GC
V5	cis-1-(Cyclohexylmethyl)-2-methylcyclohexane⁷⁴	R	GC
V6	2,2-Dimethyldecane⁷⁴	R	GC
V7	2,2-Dimethyltetradecane⁷⁵	L	GC
V8	2,5-Dimethylheptane⁷⁸	L	GC
V9	26,6-Trimethyl-bicyclo[3.1.1]heptane⁸¹	L	GC
V10	2,6,6,9,2’,6’,6’,9'-octamethyl-[8,8’]bi[tricyclo[5.4.0.0^2,9]undecyl]⁴⁵	R	GC
V11	2,6,10,14-Tetramethylpentadecane⁸²	L	GC
V12	2-Cyclohexylundecane⁸²	L	GC
V13	2-Methyldodecane⁸³	L	GC
V14	4,5-Diethyloctane⁸⁰	L	GC
V15	4,6-Dimethyldodecane⁴⁵	R	GC
V16	Cyclohexadecane⁸²	L	GC
V17	Cycloheptane⁷⁸	S	GC
V18	Cyclopentadecane⁸²	L	GC
V19	Cyclotetracosane⁸²	L	GC
V20	Cyclotetradecane⁸²	L	GC
V21	Cyclotridecane⁸²	L	GC
V22	Decahydro-1H-cyclopropa[a]naphthalene⁸⁰	L	GC
V23	Decylcyclohexane⁸⁰	L	GC
V24	Dodecane^74,84	R	GC
V25	Dodecylcyclohexane⁸⁰	L	GC
V26	Dotriacontane⁷⁰	L	GC
V27	Heneicosane^45,80	L, R	GC
V28	Heptadecylcyclohexane⁸⁰	L	GC
V29	Hexacosane⁸⁰	L	GC
V30	Hexadecane^82,84	L	GC
V31	Octahydro-4,7-methano-1H-indene⁷⁹	L	GC
V32	Octylcyclohexane⁸⁰	L	GC
V33	Pentadecane⁸⁴	L	GC
V34	trans-Pinane⁷⁵	L	GC
V35	p-Tercyclohexyl⁸²	L	GC
V36	Tetradecane^74,84,85	L, R	GC
V37	Tetramethyldodecane⁷⁵	L	GC
V38	Tetratriacontane⁷⁰	L	GC
V39	Triacontane⁷⁰	L	GC
V40	Tricosane⁴⁵	R	GC
V41	Tridecane⁸⁴	L	GC
V42	Tritetracontane^78,82	L	GC
V43	Undecane⁷⁴	R	GC
Alkenes and Cycloalkenes
V44	1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-Octahydro-1,4-azulene⁸⁰	L	GC
V45	1a,2,3,4,5,6,7,7a-Octahydro-1H-cyprop[e]azulene⁸⁰	L	GC
V46	cis-1-Methyl-2-(2'-propenyl)cyclopropane⁷⁹	L	GC
V47	2-[1,1-Dimethyl-2-pentenyl]-1,1-dimethylcyclopropane⁴⁵	R	GC
V48	2,3-Dimethyl-pent-1-ene⁷⁹	L	GC
V49	2,5-Dimethylhexa-1,5-diene⁷⁹	L	GC
V50	(Z)-2,6,10-Trimethylundeca-15,9-triene⁸²	L	GC
V51	2,7-Dimethyl-3,6-bis(methylen)-octa-1,7-diene⁷⁸	S	GC
V52	3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-[R-[R,R-(E)]]-hexadec-2-ene⁸¹	L	GC
V53	8,9-Dehydrocycloisolongifolene⁷⁸	S	GC
V54	Alloaromadendrene⁸⁰	L	GC
V55	Aromadendrene⁸⁰	L	GC
V56	α-Bergamotene⁸⁶	L	GC
V57	β-Bisabolene⁷⁸	S	GC
V58	cis-γ-Bisabolene⁸⁶	L	GC
V59	(E)-But-2-enylcyclopropane⁷⁹	L	GC
V60	δ-Cadinene⁸⁶	L	GC
V61	Car-3-ene⁷⁵	L	GC
V62	β-Carotene⁷⁵	L	GC
V63	Caryophyllene/β-Caryophyllene^75,85,86	L	GC
V64	Cetene⁸²	L	GC
V65	α-Cubebene⁸⁶	L	GC
V66	β-Curcumene⁸⁶	L	GC
V67	Docosene⁸²	L	GC
V68	Dodecene⁸⁰	L	GC
V69	(E)-Eicos-3-ene⁸²	L	GC
V70	(E)-Eicos-5-ene^78,82	L, S	GC
V71	(E)-Eicos-9-ene⁸²	L	GC
V72	Eicosa-9,11-diene⁸²	L	GC
V73	β-Elemene⁸⁶	L	GC
V74	Eth-2-enyl-13,3-trimethylcylohexene⁷⁸	L	GC
V75	Germacrene A⁸⁶	L	GC
V76	β-Gurjunene⁷⁸	S	GC
V77	α-Humulene/Humulene^66,86	L	GC
V78	Ledene⁸⁶	L	GC
V79	Limonene/D-Limonene^80,85	L	GC
V80	Nonadecene⁸⁰	L	GC
V81	Octa-1,3-diene⁸⁴	L	GC
V82	Octadec-9-ene/(E)-Octadec-9-ene^70,82	L	GC
V83	Octadecene⁸²	L	GC
V84	Penta-2,3-diene⁷⁹	L	GC
V85	Pentadecene⁸⁰	L	GC
V86	Pentatriacont-17-ene⁸²	L	GC
V87	α-Phellandrene^75,80	L	GC
V88	β-Phellandrene⁷⁵	L	GC
V89	α-Pinene⁸⁰	L	GC
V90	Squalene/Supraene^{45,75,78,80,87}	L, R	GC
V91	(Z)-Tetradec-5-ene⁸²	L	GC
V92	Tetrahydrospirilloxanthin⁶⁶	L	GC
Alkynes
V93	Cyclododecyne⁸³	L	GC
V94	Eicosyne⁷⁰	L	GC
V95	Octadec-9-yne⁸¹	L	GC
V96	Tetradec-4-yne⁸²	L	GC
Aromatic hydrocarbons
V97	1,3-Dimethylbenzene⁸⁰	L	GC
V98	1-Methylethylbenzene⁸⁰	L	GC
V99	1-Ethyl-3-methylbenzene⁸⁵	L	GC
V100	1-Ethyl-4-methylbenzene⁸⁵	L	GC
V101	α-Curcumene⁸⁶	L	GC
V102	o-Cymene⁸⁰	L	GC
V103	p-Cymene⁸⁰	L	GC
V104	Ethylbenzene^80,85	L	GC
V105	Mesitylene⁸⁵	L	GC
V106	Propylbenzene⁸⁵	L	GC
V107	o-Xylene⁸⁰	L	GC
V108	p-Xylene⁸⁵	L	GC
Alcohols and Phenols
V109	1,2,3,3a,4,5,6,7-Octahydro-5-azulenemethanol⁸⁰	L	GC
V110	1,2,3,4,4a,5,6-Heptahydro-2-naphthalenemethanol⁸⁰	L	GC
V111	1-Chloro-3-(5-phenyl-2H-tetrazol-2-yl)propan-2-ol⁸³	L	GC
V112	1-Ethynylcyclohexanol⁸¹	L	GC
V113	2,2-Dimethylpentanol⁷³	L	GC
V114	2,3,4,4a,56,7-Heptahydro-2-naphthalenemethanol⁸⁰	L	GC
V115	2,4-Bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)phenol⁸⁴	L	GC
V116	2,6-Dimethoxyphenol^45,74	R	GC
V117	2-Ethylhexanol⁸⁴	L	GC
V118	2-Methoxyestra-13,5(10)-trien-3,16,17-triol⁷⁰	L	GC
V119	2-Octyldodecanol⁸²	L	GC
V120	3,5,11,15-Tetramethylhexadec-2-en-1-ol⁷⁰	L	GC
V121	[R-[R,R-(E)]]-3,7,11,15-Tetramethylhexadec-2-en-1-ol⁴⁵	R	GC
V122	3,7-Dimethylnon-6-enol⁸³	L	GC
V123	4,5-(11,3-Trimethyl-2-butenyl)-cyclopent-2-enol⁷⁴	R	GC
V124	4α-Ethenylcyclohexanemethanol⁸⁰	L	GC
V125	4-Methylhexanol⁸⁵	L	GC
V126	5-(7a-Isopropenyl-4,5-dimethyl-octahydroinden-4-yl)-3-methylpent-2-enal⁶⁷	R	GC
V127	5-Methyl-2-(1-methylethyl)cyclohexanol⁸⁴	L	GC
V128	5-Phenyl-2H-tetrazol-2-ethanol⁸³	L	GC
V129	12-Methyl-(E,E)-octadeca-2,13-dienol⁸²	L	GC
V130	(17α)-3-Methoxyestra-13,5(10)-trien-14,17-diol⁷⁰	L	GC
V131	Arabitol⁷⁰	L	GC
V132	Behenic alcol⁸⁰	L	GC
V133	Butan-2,3-diol⁷⁰	L	GC
V134	Butylhydroxytoluene/Butylated hydroxytoluene^81,84	L	GC
V135	τ-Cadinol⁸⁰	L	GC
V136	Carvacrol⁸⁶	L	GC
V137	Citronellol⁷⁸	S	GC
V138	(E)-Dec-3-enol⁷⁹	L	GC
V139	(E,E)-Deca-2,4-dienol⁷⁸	S	GC
V140	Decahydro-1H-cycloprop[e]azulen-4-ol⁸⁰	L	GC
V141	Decahydro-1H-cycloprop[e]azulen-7-ol⁸⁰	L	GC
V142	Decahydro-2-naphthalenemethanol⁸⁰	L	GC
V143	Dihydrotachysterol⁶⁸	R	GC
V144	Dotriacontanol⁶⁸	L	GC
V145	Ergosterol⁷³	L	GC
V146	Erythritol⁷⁰	L	GC
V147	trans-Farnesol⁷⁸	L	GC
V148	(-)-Globulol⁸⁰	L	GC
V149	Glycerol/Propanetriol^45,70	L, R	GC
V150	Guaiol⁸⁰	L	GC
V151	Heneicosanol⁷⁸	L	GC
V152	Heptadecan-3-ol⁴⁵	R	GC
V153	Hexacosanol⁷⁰	L	GC
V154	Hexadecanol⁷⁰	L	GC
V155	Hexan-2-ol⁸⁰	L	GC
V156	Hexestrol⁷⁵	L	GC
V157	Hexitol⁷⁰	L	GC
V158	Icosen-1-ol⁷⁰	L	GC
V159	Isolongifolol⁷⁸	S	GC
V160	Isophytol⁷⁵	L	GC
V161	Isoprop-2-enyl-5-methylhept-6-enol⁸³	L	GC
V162	Ledol⁸⁰	L	GC
V163	Levomenthol⁸³	L	GC
V164	α-Methyl-α-[4-methylpentyl]oxiranmethanol⁸³	L	GC
V165	(Z)-p-Menth-2-en-1-ol⁸⁵	L	GC
V166	T-Muurolol⁸⁶	L	GC
V167	Myo-inositol/cis-Inositol^70,75	L	GC
V168	Oct-1-en-3-ol^{45,76,84–86,88}	L, R	GC
V169	(E)-Oct-2-enol⁸⁴	L	GC
V170	Octacosanol⁸⁰	L	GC
V171	Phytol/trans-Phytol^{44,45,70,73,75,78,80,87}	L, S	GC
V172	Propan-1,2-diol⁷⁰	L	GC
V173	Tetradecanol⁷⁸	S	GC
V174	Tocopherol⁷⁰	L	GC
V175	Triacontanol^70,73	L	GC
Ethers
V176	(1α,2β,4β,5α)-3-Oxatricyclo[3.2.1.0^(2,4)]octane⁷⁹	L	GC
V177	1-Chloro-4-methoxybenzene⁷⁴	R	GC
V178	1-Ethoxy-4-[(4-pentylphenyl)ethynyl]benzene⁴⁵	L	GC
V179	2,3-Dihydro-2,5-dimethyl-5H-1,4-dioxepine⁴⁵	R	GC
V180	2,3-Dihydrobenzofuran/Coumarane^45,74	R	GC
V181	2-Ethylfuran⁸⁴	L	GC
V182	2-Pentylfuran⁸⁵	L	GC
V813	cis-9-Oxabicyclo[6.1.0]nonane⁷⁹	L	GC
V184	Caryophyllene oxide^80,86	L	GC
V185	Dillapiol⁸⁶	L	GC
V186	Eicosyl octyl ether⁸²	L	GC
V187	Eucalyptol⁸⁰	L	GC
V188	Ocdecyl-1-rhamnitol⁷⁵	L	GC
V189	Octyloxirane⁸³	L	GC
V190	Tetradecyloxirane⁷⁹	L	GC
Aldehydes
V191	26,6-Trimethylcyclohex-1-en-1-carboxaldehyde/ Cyclocitral/β-Cyclocitral^78,84,85	L	GC
V192	2-Methylpentanal⁸⁰	L	GC
V193	3-(p-Hydroxy-m-methoxyphenyl)-prop-2-enal⁷⁴	R	GC
V194	5-Hydroxymethyl-2-furancarboxaldehyde/5-Hydroxymethylfurfural^45,74	R	GC
V195	5-Methyl-2-furancarboxaldehyde⁴⁵	R	GC
V196	Benzaldehyde⁸⁸	L	GC
V197	Benzalmalonic dialdehyde⁷⁴	R	GC
V198	(E,E)-Deca-2,4-dienal⁷⁹	L	GC
V199	Decanal⁸⁵	L	GC
V200	Dodec-2-enal⁷⁴	R	GC
V201	N-Formylpiperidine⁷⁴	R	GC
V202	cis,cis,cis-Hexadeca-7,10,13-trienal⁷⁹	L	GC
V203	(E)-Hept-2-enal⁷⁹	L	GC
V204	(E,E)-Hepta-2,4-dienal⁷⁹	L	GC
V205	Heptanal⁸⁵	L	GC
V206	(E,E)-Hex-2,4-dienal⁸⁴	L	GC
V207	Hex-2-enal⁸⁴	L	GC
V208	(Z)-Hexadec-7-enal⁸²	L	GC
V209	Hexadecan-7,11-dienal⁸²	L	GC
V210	cis-Hexadecan-11-enal⁸²	L	GC
V211	Hexanal⁸⁴	L	GC
V212	(E)-Non-2-enal^78,84,85	L, S	GC
V213	Nonanal^78,84–86	L	GC
V214	(E)-Oct-2-enal⁸⁴	L	GC
V215	Octanal^84,85	L	GC
V216	Photocitral A⁸⁹	L	GC
V217	(Z)-Tetradec-7-enal⁴⁵	R	GC
V218	(Z)-Tetradec-9-enal⁸²	L	GC
V219	Vitamin A aldehyde⁷⁵	L	GC
Cetones
V220	2,3-Dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one/3,5-Dihydroxy-6-methyl-2,3-dihydro-4H-pyran-4-one^45,74,88	R, L	GC
V221	2,6-Di-tert-butylquinone⁷⁴	R	GC
V222	3,4-Dihydroxy-1,6-bis(3-methoxyphenyl)-hexa-2,4-dien-1,6-dione⁴⁴	L	GC
V223	3,4-Epoxyhexan-2-one⁷³	L	GC
V224	3,6-Dimethyl-5-oxo-1,2,3,5-tetrahydroimidazo[1,2-a]pyrimidine⁸²	L	GC
V225	4,5-Dimethyl-3-methylen-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]heptan-7-one⁸⁹	L	GC
V226	5-Ethyl-2(5H)-furanone⁸⁴	L	GC
V227	5-Isopropyl-4-(trifloromethyl)-1H-pyrimidin-2-one⁸⁹	L	GC
V228	6-Methylhept-5-en-2-one⁸⁵	L	GC
V229	6-Methylheptan-2-one⁸⁴	L	GC
V230	Aurin⁶⁶	L	GC
V231	Benzophenone⁷⁴	R	GC
V232	Butyrolactone⁸⁸	L	GC
V233	Cyclohexylethanone⁸⁰	L	GC
V234	(E)-Geranylacetone⁸⁵	L	GC
V235	Heptan-2-one⁸⁴	L	GC
V236	Heptadecan-9-one⁸⁰	L	GC
V237	Hexahydropseudoionone⁷⁸	L, S	GC
V238	β-Ionone/trans-β-Ionone^78,86	L	GC
V239	Pent-1-en-3-one⁸⁴	L	GC
V240	Pulegone⁸⁵	L	GC
V241	Seudenone⁸⁵	L	GC
Carboxylic acids
V242	2-Hydroxydocosanoic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V243	2-Hydroxytetracosanoic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V244	2-Keto-D-gluconic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V245	34,5-Trihydroxybenzoic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V246	3-Hydroxyanthranilic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V247	3-Methyl-2-(2-phenylethyl)butanoic acid⁸⁰	L	GC
V248	10-Bromoundecanoic acid⁸²	L	GC
V249	Aconitic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V250	Arachidic acid/Eicosanoic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V251	Docos-13-enic acid/Erucic acid^44,45,82	L	GC
V252	Docosanoic acid/Behenic acid^70,80	L	GC
V253	(Z)-Eicos-9-enoic acid⁸²	L	GC
V254	Erythronic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V255	Gluconic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V256	Glyceric acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V257	Heptadecanoic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V258	Hexacosanoic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V259	Palmitic acid/Hexadecanoic acid^{44,45,58,70,79,86,88,89}	R, L	GC
V260	Hexadecenoic acid⁷⁵	L	GC
V261	Hexanoic acid⁸¹	L	GC
V262	Isocitric acid^31,70	L	GC, LC
V263	Lactic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V264	Linoleic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V265	Linolenic acid/α-Linolenic acid^30,70	L	GC, LC
V266	Malic acid^31,51,70	L	GC, LC
V267	Malonic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V268	Myristic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V269	Octacosanoic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V270	Octadec-9-enoic acid/(E)-Octadec-9-enoic acid^79,82	L	GC
V271	cis-Octadec-13-enoic acid⁸²	L	GC
V272	trans-Octadec-13-enoic acid⁷⁹	L	GC
V273	Octadeca-9,12-dienoic acid/Linoelaidic acid^30,75,81	L	GC, LC
V274	Octadecanoic acid^45,88	R	GC
V275	Oleic acid^{30,44,45,70,82,88}	L	GC, LC
V276	Oxalic acid⁸⁴	L	GC
V277	Pentadecanoic acid^70,74	L, R	GC
V278	Pentanoic acid⁸⁴	L	GC
V279	Stearic acid/Octadecanoic acid^30,45,70,88	L	GC, LC
V280	Succinic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V281	Tetracosanoic acid/Lignoceric acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V282	Tetradecanoic acid⁴⁵	R	GC
V283	Threonic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V284	Tricosanoic acid⁷⁰	L	GC
V285	cis-Vaccenic acid⁷⁹	L	GC
Esters
V286	1-Benzyl-3-isopropyl-5-(1-allylindol-3-yl)-5-tert-butyloxycarbonylpyrrol-3-one⁸⁹	L	GC
V287	2,3-Dihydroxypropyl (Z)-octadec-9-enoate⁸²	L	GC
V288	2-Hexyl 2-ethylbutyrate⁷⁹	L	GC
V289	2-Hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl hexadecanoate⁴⁵	R	GC
V290	2-Nitroestra-13,5(10)-trien-16,17-diacetate⁷⁰	L	GC
V291	4-Clorophenyldecyl dimethylmanlonate⁷⁹	L	GC
V292	9-(Nona-1,3-dienyloxy)methyl non-8-enoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V293	Benzyl 1-[(1-hydroxy-4-oxo-1-phenyltetrahydroquinolin-3-yl)carbamoyl]cyclohexan-1-carboxylate⁶⁶	L	GC
V294	Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate⁸⁰	L	GC
V295	Cycloheptanehexol⁶⁶	L	GC
V296	Dimethyl 5-oxotetrahydrofuran-2,3-dicarboxylate^45,87	L	GC
V297	Dibutyl phthalate^80,82	L	GC
V298	Diisooctyl phthalate⁸²	L	GC
V299	Dodec-2-en-1-yl pentadecaflorooctanoate⁸³	L	GC
V300	Dodecyl-3,5-diflorophenyl oxalate⁸²	L	GC
V301	Ethenyl dodecanoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V302	Ethyl 1-piperidincarboxylate⁷⁴	R	GC
V303	Ethyl 4-ethoxybenzoate⁴⁵	R	GC
V304	Ethyl 4-methyloctanoate⁸³	L	GC
V305	Ethyl 9-hexadecenoate⁷³	L	GC
V306	Ethyl docosanoate⁷³	L	GC
V307	Ethyl linoleate⁷³	L	GC
V308	Ethyl octadeca-9,12,15-trienoate⁷³	L	GC
V309	Ethyl octadecanoate⁷³	L	GC
V310	Ethyl palmitate⁷³	L	GC
V311	Heptadecyl heptaflorobutyrate⁸²	L	GC
V312	Heptadecyl pentadecaflorooctanoate⁸²	L	GC
V313	cis-Hex-3-enyl hexadecyl fumarate⁸²	L	GC
V314	Isobutyl docosanoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V315	Isobutyl myristate⁷⁹	L	GC
V316	Isopropyl myristate^45,78	S, R	GC
V317	(S)(+)-(Z)-13-Methylpentadec-11-enol acetate⁷⁹	L	GC
V318	Methyl 6-methyloctanoate⁸³	L	GC
V319	Methyl 8-methylnonanoate⁸³	L	GC
V320	Methyl 9-oxononanoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V321	Methyl 14-methylpentadeanoate⁸²	L	GC
V322	Methyl 15-methylheptadecanoate⁸²	L	GC
V323	Methyl 18-methylnonadecanoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V324	Methyl decanoate⁸³	L	GC
V325	Methyl docosa-8,11,14-trienoate⁴⁵	R	GC
V326	Methyl docosanoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V327	Methyl dodecanoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V328	cis-Methyl eicos-11-enoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V329	Methyl eicosa-11,14-dienoate⁴⁵	R	GC
V330	Methyl (Z)-hexadec-9-enoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V331	Methyl hexadecanoate⁷⁹	L, R	GC
V332	Methyl heptanoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V333	Methyl non-7-enoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V334	Methyl oct-2-ynoate⁸²	L	GC
V335	Methyl (E)-oct-3-enoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V336	Methyl octadec-11-enoate⁸²	L	GC
V337	Methyl cis,cis,trans-octadeca-6,9,11-trienoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V338	Methyl octadeca-9,10-dienoate⁸³	L	GC
V339	Methyl (E,E)-octadeca-9,11-dienoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V340	Methyl octadeca-9,12-dienoate^45,82	R	GC
V341	Methyl octadeca-10,13-dienoate	L	GC
V342	Methyl octadecanoate^44,45	L	GC
V343	Methyl octanoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V344	Methyl stearate^79,82	L	GC
V345	Methyl tetracosanoate^45,79	L, R	GC
V346	Methyl tetradecanoate⁷⁹	L	GC
V347	(Z,Z)-Octadeca-6,13-dienyl acetate⁸²	L	GC
V348	Pentadecyl heptafluorobutyrate⁸²	L	GC
V349	Pentadecyl tricloroacetate⁸²	L	GC
V350	Triacetin⁸⁰	L	GC
V351	Undecyl pentadecafluorooctanoate⁸³	L	GC
Amines
V352	1,4,4a,5,6,9,10,10a-Octahydro-11,11-dimethyl-1,4-methanocycloocta[d]pyridazine⁸³	L	GC
V353	Benzenepropanamine⁷⁸	S	GC
V354	N-Methylglycine⁷⁵	L	GC
V355	Phenylglycine⁷⁵	L	GC
V356	Pyrrolidine⁸⁰	L	GC
Amides
V357	2,2-Diethylacetamide⁸⁰	L	GC
V358	N-Benzyl-2-(5-phenyl-2H-tetrazol-2-yl)acetamide⁸³	L	GC
V359	(Z)-Hexadecanamide⁷⁸	S	GC
V360	Octadecanamide⁷⁵	L	GC
V361	Oleamide⁷⁸	L, S	GC
Others
V362	1,4-Hexadecansultone⁸³	L	GC
V363	2-(2-Methylcyclohexylidene)-hydrazincarboxamide⁴⁵	R	GC
V364	2,4-Dimethyltetrahydro-2H-thiopyran-1,1-dioxide⁸⁹	L	GC
V365	2-Furfurylthiol⁷⁹	L	GC
V366	3,4,5,6-Tetrahydro-7-methoxy-2H-azepine⁷⁹	L	GC
V367	3,4-Epoxytetrahydrothiophen-1,1-dioxide⁸⁸	L	GC
V368	3α-(Trimethylsiloxy)cholest-5-ene⁷⁵	L	GC
V369	4-Diethylaminophenyl isothiocyanate⁸³	L	GC
V370	13-Butoxy-13-borabicyclo[7.3.0]tridecane⁸³	L	GC
V371	Bacteriochlorophyll-c-stearyl⁸³	L	GC
V372	Diethyl 1-bromo-2-phenylcyclopropanphosphonate⁸³	L	GC
V373	Dimethyl sulfoxide⁸⁹	L	GC
V374	Geraniol tert-butyldimethyl silyl ether⁷⁵	L	GC
V375	Hexadecamethylcyclooctasiloxane⁸⁰	L	GC
V376	Lauric anhydride⁷⁹	L	GC
V377	Nonyl pentan-2-yl sulfite⁷⁹	L	GC
V378	Octadecyl prop-1-en-2-yl carbonate⁸²	L	GC
V379	Silver decanoate⁸³	L	GC
V380	Stearohydrazide⁷⁹	L	GC
V381	Tetradecamethylcycloheptasiloxane⁸⁰	L	GC

Note. L: leaf, R: root, S: stem, LC: liquid chromatography, GC: gas chromatography.

Other Compounds

In addition, 80 other phytochemical compounds (O1-O80) have been identified and reported in K. pinnata (Table 7 and Figure 5). Among these, compound O1 exhibited antioxidant activity in the DPPH free radical scavenging assay, with an IC₅₀ value of 66.58 μg/ml.⁹⁰ Compound O19 demonstrated inhibitory activity against the HCV with an IC₅₀ of 6.1 μg/ml and a selectivity index > 10.7, effective both during and after viral entry.⁵⁴ Compounds O35 and O36 showed antiviral activity against HHV and VAVC, with IC₅₀ values of 2.5 and 2.9 μg/ml, and 3.1 and 7.4 μg/ml, respectively. In the VAVC virus spread inhibition assay, the IC₅₀ values of these two compounds were 1.63 and 13.2 μg/ml, respectively. At a concentration of 20 μg/ml, compound O35 reduced viral yield by nearly 2-log. Finally, compound O35 inhibited the thymidine kinase-mutant HHV-2 strain, with an IC₅₀ of 4.5 μg/ml in the complete cytopathic effect inhibition assay and inhibited HHV-1 with an IC₉₀ of 3.0 μg/ml in the viral yield reduction assay.⁹¹

Figure 5.

Chemical Formula of Other Compounds in K. pinnata.

Table 7.

Other Compounds in K. pinnata.

N^o	Compound	Part used	Method
Organic acids
O1	2-Furoic acid³⁰	L	LC
O2	2-Hydroxystearic acid³⁰	L	LC
O3	3-O-Caffeoylquinic acid/Chlorogenic acid⁴⁸	L	LC
O4	3-Furoic acid³⁰	L	LC
O5	3-Methylpimelic acid³⁰	L	LC
O6	4-O-Caffeoylquinic acid⁴⁸	L	LC
O7	5-O-Caffeoylquinic acid⁴⁸	L	LC
O8	9,10-Epoxyoctadecenoic acid³⁰	L	LC
O9	Caffeic acid^14,31,52,90	L, R	LC, I
O10	Citric acid³¹	L	LC
O11	Coumaric acid/p-Coumaric acid^14,52	L	LC
O12	cis-p-Coumaroylglutaric acid³¹	L	LC
O13	trans-p-Coumaroylglutaric acid³¹	L	LC
O14	Dihydrowyerone acid³⁰	L	LC
O15	Docosatrienoic acid³⁰	L	LC
O16	Dodecanoic acid³⁰	L	LC
O17	Eicosapentaenoic acid³⁰	L	LC
O18	Ferulic acid^38,71	L	I
O19	Gallic acid^{27,38,39,52,54}	AP, L	I
O20	Heptanoic acid³⁰	L	LC
O21	Isoferulic acid³⁸	L	I
O22	Isolimonic 16-17-lactone acid³⁰	L	LC
O23	Jasmonic acid³⁰	L	LC
O24	γ-Linolenic acid³⁰	L	LC
O25	Quinic acid⁵¹	L	LC
O26	all-trans-Retinoic acid³⁰	L	LC
O27	Ricinoleic acid³⁰	L	LC
O28	Sciadonic acid³⁰	L	LC
O29	Stearidonic acid³⁰	L	LC
O30	Suberic acid³⁰	L	LC
O31	Succinic semialdehyde acid³⁰	L	LC
O32	Syringic acid¹⁴	L	LC
O33	Tridecanoic acid³⁰	L	LC
O34	Undecanoic acid³⁰	L	LC
Glycosides
O35	(1R,2S,3S)-[1-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-3-(hydroxymethyl)-6,7-dimethoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)]methyl-β-D-xylopyranoside⁹¹	R	I
O36	3-O-(4-Hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzoyl)-6-O-(3-hydroxy-5-methoxy)phenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside⁹¹	R	I
O37	4'-O-β-D-Glucopyranosyl-cis-p-coumaric acid¹¹	L	I
O38	Oct-1-en-3-O-α-L-arabinosyl-(1→6)-glucopyranoside⁹²	L	I
Carbohydrates and their derivative
O39	D-Allose⁴⁵	L	GC
O40	Fructose^52,70	L	GC, LC
O41	Glucose^52,70	L	GC, LC
O42	Hexose⁷⁰	L	GC
O43	Mannose⁵²	L	LC
O44	Methyl-α-D-glucopyranoside⁸⁸	L	GC
O45	Styracitol⁷⁵	L	GC
O46	Sucrose⁷⁰	L	GC
Others
O47	2-(Dec-9-enyl)-phenanthrene⁶⁵	L	I
O48	4-Hydroxyestrone³⁰	L	LC
O49	17a-Hydroxypregnenolone³⁰	L	LC
O50	24,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D³⁰	L	LC
O51	L-Acetylcarnitine³⁰	L	LC
O52	Asacoumarin A³⁰	L	LC
O53	Austroinulin³⁰	L	LC
O54	Bilobalid A³⁰	L	LC
O55	Cardiospermine⁹³	L	I
O56	Cubebininolide³⁰	L	LC
O57	Docosanamide³⁰	L	LC
O58	Dodecanyl octadec-9-enoate⁷²	L	I
O59	β-Doradecine³⁰	L	LC
O60	Digeranyl³⁰	L	LC
O61	α-Dihydroartemisinine³⁰	L	LC
O62	Ethyl arachidonate³⁰	L	LC
O63	Ethyl hexadecanoate³⁰	L	LC
O64	Ethyl methan carboxamide³⁰	L	LC
O65	S-Furanopetasitine³⁰	L	LC
O66	β-D-Glucopyranosyl syringate^11,12	L	I
O67	Isomytiloxanthine³⁰	L	LC
O68	Lauroyl diethanolamide³⁰	L	LC
O69	Lutein³⁰	L	LC
O70	Limonexic acid³⁰	L	LC
O71	Linoleamide³⁰	L	LC
O72	Methyl (2E,6Z)-dodecadienoate³⁰	L	LC
O73	Methyl-δ-ionone³⁰	L	LC
O74	Palmitic amide³⁰	L	LC
O75	Panaquinquecol-1³⁰	L	LC
O76	Sarmentosine⁹³	L	I
O77	Sutherlandine⁹³	L	I
O78	Tridecyl phloretate³⁰	L	LC
O79	Undecanyl octadec-9-enoate⁷²	L	I
O80	β-Vatirenene³⁰	L	LC

Note. L: leaf, R: root, AP: aerial part, I: isolation, LC: liquid chromatography, GC: gas chromatography.

Quality Control

In addition to studies on extraction, isolation, and chemical composition analysis, the literature also includes reports on the quantification of phytochemical compounds in K. pinnata, employing a wide range of techniques from basic analytical methods to advanced and complex instrumentation. Table 8 presents the results of quality control studies of the herbal material, while Table 9 shows studies on developing quantification procedures for compounds in K. pinnata.

Table 8.

Quality Control Studies of K. pinnata.

N^o	Authors		Results
1	Shruti et al⁹⁴	Moisure: 1.31% Alcohol extractives: 16% Total phenolic content: 232.9 μg/ml Total flavonoid content: 54.96 μg/ml Total alkaloid content: 18.8 mg/10 ml	Water extractives: 35% Total ash: 9.5% Water soluble ash: 2.25% Acid insoluble ash: 0.5% Foaming index: 400
2	Waititu et al⁹⁵	Total phenolic content: 67.82 (water extract) and 92.51 mg GAE/100 g (ethanolic extract). Total flavonoid content: 23.70 (water extract) and 13.18 mg QE/100 g (ethanolic extract).
3	Odigi et al⁹⁶	Content	Leaf	Stem	Root
		Alkaloid	18.72%	15.52%	5.70%
		Tannin	12.40%	10.63%	3.64%
		Saponin	2.46%	2.10%	1.20%
		Flavonoid	2.36%	1.96%	0.98%
		Terpenoid	3.77%	2.78%	3.27%
		Phenolic	10.48%	8.76%	8.59%
		Protein	3.79%	2.96%	5.93%
4	Nnaebue et al⁹⁷	Content	Cold water extract (%)	Hot water extract (%)	Methanolic extract (%)	Ethanolic extract (%)
		Alkaloid	6.65 ± 0.02	8.20 ± 0.05	7.94 ± 0.01	7.45 ± 0.02
		Flavonoid	2.26 ± 0.01	3.55 ± 0.01	8.54 ± 0.02	10.91 ± 0.12
		Saponin	1.24 ± 0.01	1.30 ± 0.02	3.34 ± 0.02	4.95 ± 0.02
		Tannin	2.88 ± 0.10	4.82 ± 0.00	3.89 ± 0.12	3.03 ± 0.01
		Anthocyanine	0.00 ± 0.00	0.16 ± 0.01	324 ± 0.02	3.26 ± 0.01
		Cardiac glycoside	1.67 ± 0.02	3.80 ± 0.10	4.44 ± 0.02	5.22 ± 0.01
		Protein	0.11 ± 0.00	0.06 ± 0.02	9.50 ± 0.18	13.30 ± 0.22

Note. GAE: gallic acid equivalence, QE: quercetin equivalence.

Table 9.

Studies on Quantitative Methods for Active Compounds in Kalanchoe pinnata.

N^o	Authors	Method	Results
1	Kamboj et al⁹⁸	HPTLC	Sample: petroleum ether fraction extract, benzene fraction extract, chloroform fraction extract, acetone fraction extract, and methanol fraction extract from aerial parts. Chromatographic conditions: + Mobile phase: chloroform – ethanol (9.8:0.2). +Mobile phase volume: 10 ml. +Saturation time: 20 min. +Temperature: room temperature. +Mobile phase migration distance: 8 cm. +Sample band width: 6 mm. +Reagent: 5% sulfuric acid in methanol, dried at 105 ^oC for 5 min. +Observation: after 30 min under UV light. +Detection wavelength: 490 nm. Results: 10, 7, 10, 8, and 9 peaks were detected respectively.
2	Sharma et al⁹⁹	HPTLC	Sample: methanolic extract of leaves, stems, and roots. Reference compound: tannic acid. Chromatographic conditions: +Mobile phase: toluene – ethyl acetate – formic acid (5:4:1). + Saturation time: 20 min. +Temperature: room temperature. +Mobile phase migration distance: 90 mm. +Sample volume: 10 μl. +Quantification wavelength: 270 nm. Results: tannic acid content in methanolic extracts of leaves, stems, and roots were 0.082 ± 0.087, 0.040 ± 0.08, and 0.112 ± 0.09 mg/g, respectively.
3	Coutinho et al⁴⁶	HPLC – DAD	Sample: aqueous extract of leaves and flowers. Reference compounds: F38, F58, F62, F67, and F70. Chromatographic conditions: +Column: Phenomenex C18 (4.6 mm × 250 mm; 5 μm). +Column temperature: 26 ^oC. +Mobile phase: formic acid pH 3.2 (A) – ACN (B). +Gradient program: 0-10 min (0%–20%B), 10-15 min (20%–25%B), 15-20 min (25%–30%B), 20-30 min (30%–50%B), 30-45 min (50-100%B). +Flow rate: 1 ml/min. +Detection wavelength: 254 nm. Results: +Content of F38, F58, F62, F67, and F70 in flower extract were 0.21, 0.79, 1.87, 0.12, and 0.25%, respectively. +Except F58 and F67, the content of F38, F62, and F70 in leaf extract were 0.03, 2.26, and 0.32%, respectively.
4	Kamboj et al¹⁰⁰	HPTLC	Sample: ether petroleum ether extract of leaves and stems. Reference compound: T51. Chromatographic conditions: +Mobile phase: chloroform – ethanol (9.8:0.2). +Mobile phase volume: 10 ml. +Saturation time: 20 min. +Temperature: room temperature. +Mobile phase migration distance: 8 cm. +Sample band width: 6 mm. +Reagent: 5% sulfuric acid in methanol, dried at 105 ^oC for 5 min. +Observation: after 30 min under UV light. +Quantification wavelength: 490 nm. Results: The content of compound T51 in leaves and stems were 0.1545 ± 0.005 and 0.1383 ± 0.002 mg/100 mg, respectively.
5	Oufir et al¹⁰¹	UHPLC-MS/MS	Sample: leaves and leaf juice. Reference compounds: B2, B5, B7, and B10. Chromatographic conditions: +Column: Kinetex XB-C18 (2.1 mm × 100 mm; 1.7 μm). +Column temperature: 55 ^oC. +Mobile phase: 10 mM ammonium formate (A) – ACN (B) with 0.05% formic acid. +Gradient program: 0-1 min (5%B), 1-4 min (5%–32%B), 4-11 min (32%B), 7-7.1 min (32%–100%B), 7.1-9 min (100%B), 9-9.9 min (100%–5%B). +Flow rate: 0.4 ml/min. +Injection volume: 5 μl. - Mass spectrometry conditions: +Dry N₂ gas at 320 ^oC, flow rate 10 l/min. +Nebulizer pressure: 30 psi. +Sheath gas at 400 ^oC, flow rate 11 l/min. +Capillary voltage: 3500 V. +Spray voltage: 0 V. +Mode: ESI positive ion and MRM. - Results: +Total bufadienolide content in leaves from Brazil was 16.28–40.5 mg/100 g, from Germany was 3.78–12.49 mg/100 g. +Higher bufadienolide content was found in young leaves.
6	Yadav et al¹⁰²	HPTLC	Sample: n-hexane extract of leaves. Reference compounds: T43, T65, and T73. Chromatographic conditions: +Mobile phase: toluene – ethyl acetate (9.5:0.5). +Relative humidity: 40%. +Temperature: 25 ± 2 ^oC. +Mobile phase migration distance: 8 cm. +Sample band width: 6 mm. +Reagent: anisaldehyde – sulfuric acid, dried at 100 ^oC for 5 min. +Quantification wavelength: 525 nm. Results: The contents of T43, T65, and T73 were 0.123 ± 0.0014%, 0.047 ± 0.002%, and 0.046 ± 0.001%, respectively.
7	Nascimento et al¹⁰³	HPLC – DAD	Sample: aqueous leaf extract. Reference compound: F67. Chromatographic conditions: +Column: Lichro-CART/Lichrospher C18 (4 mm × 250 mm; 5 μm). +Column temperature: 30 ^oC. +Mobile phase: phosphoric acid pH 3.2 (A) – ACN (B). +Gradient program: 0-10 min (0%–20%B), 10-20 min (20%–22%B), 20-35 min (22%–25%B), 35-40 min (25%–30%B), 40-45 min (30%–100%B). +Injection volume: 20 μl. +Flow rate: 0.6 ml/min. Results: The content of compound F67 in optimized aqueous leaf extract (extraction time 18 min, temperature 40 ^oC) was 20.8 ± 2.3 mg/g.
8	Bogucka-Kocka et al¹⁰⁴	HPLC – ESI-MS/MS	Sample: ethanolic leaf extract. Reference compounds: O3, O9, O11, O18, O19, O34, γ-resorcylic acid, β-resorcyclic acid, and protocatechuic acid. Chromatographic conditions: +Column: Zorbax SP-C18 (2.1 mm × 50 mm; 1.8 μm). +Mobile phase: 10 mM ammonium acetate in ACN – water – acetic acid (95:3:2), pH 4.7 (A) – 10 mM ammonium acetate in ACN – water – acetic acid (50:48:2), pH 4.7 (B). +Gradient program: 0-1 min (10%B), 5-12 min (30%B), 13-15 min (95%B), 15.1-18 min (10%B). +Injection volume: 10 μl. +Flow rate: 0.3 ml/min. Mass spectrometry conditions: +Mode: ESI negative ion and MRM. +Capillary temperature: 600 ^oC. +Pressure: 0.17 MPa (sheath gas), 0.41 MPa (spray gas). +Source voltage: -4.5 kV. Results: The contents of O9, O18, O19, O34, γ-resorcylic acid, β-resorcyclic acid, and protocatechuic acid were 25.8 ± 0.21, 34.8 ± 0.43, 1.2 ± 0.01, 2.37 ± 0.06, 0.44 ± 0.01, 0.14 ± 0.02, and 14.36 ± 0.03 μg/g, respectively. Compounds O3 and O11 were below quantification limits.
9	Omojokun et al¹⁰⁵	HPLC – DAD	Sample: aqueous leaf extract. Reference compounds: catechin, O1, O11, F62, F72, F55, and F56. Chromatographic conditions: + Phenomenex column C₁₈ (4.6 mm × 250 mm; 5.0 μm). + Mobile phase: formic acid 0.5% (A) – ACN (B) + Gradient program: 2%B (0-5 min), 8%B (5-25 min), 12%B (25-45 min), 24%B (45-60 min), 24%B (60-80 min), 2%B (80-90 min). + Flow rate: 0.6 ml/min. + Injection volumn: 40 μl. + Detection wavelength: 280, 327, and 366 nm. Results:
				Content (mg/g)
				Fresh	Frozen	Oven-dried	Light-dried	Air-dried
			Catechin	1.32 ± 0.05	2.65 ± 0.01	2.59 ± 0.01	1.13 ± 0.04	1.49 ± 0.03
			O1	0.49 ± 0.01	1.37 ± 003	1.18 ± 0.01	-	-
			O11	2.78 ± 0.02	2.71 ± 0.02	1.13 ± 0.04	1.42 ± 0.01	1.08 ± 0.05
			F62	8.65 ± 0.03	7.85 ± 0.01	4.95 ± 0.02	4.86 ± 0.03	4.87 ± 001
			F72	1.29 ± 0.01	1.03 ± 0.04	2.53 ± 0.01	1.39 ± 0.02	0.61 ± 0.02
			F56	3.26 ± 0.01	5.02 ± 0.02	5.12 ± 0.05	2.17 ± 0.01	4.37 ± 0.04
			F55	-	-	1.39 ± 0.03	-	-
10	Stefanowicz-Hajduk et al⁶	UPLC – HR/Q-TOF/MS	Sample: ethanolic leaf extract. Reference compounds: B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B8, B9, B10, and B11. Chromatographic conditions: +Acquity UPLC HSS column C₁₈ (2.1 mm × 150 mm; 1.8 μm). + Column temperature: 30 ^oC. + Mobile phase: formic acid 0.1% (A) – ACN + formic acid 0.1% (B). + Gradient program: 0-0.31 min (10%B), 0.31-21.01 min (40%B). + Injection volume: 5 μl. + Flow rate: 0.5 ml/min. Mass spectrometry conditions: + Mode: APCI positive ion. + m/z range: 100–2000. + Capillary voltage: 4.0 kV. + Dry gas at 250 ^oC, flow rate 3 l/min. Results: The contents of B1, B2, B5, B6, B7, B8, B9, and B10 were 0.97 ± 0.04, 0.97 ± 0.07, 0.14 ± 0.04, 1.11 ± 0.05, 0.59 ± 0.17, 0.15 ± 0.05, 1.14 ± 0.11, and 0.17 ± 0.04 mg/g, respectively. Compounds B3 and B11 were not detected in sample.
11	Fernandes et al⁴¹	UPLC – DAD	Sample: 50% ethanolic leaf extract. Reference compounds: F51, F67, and F70. Chromatographic conditions: + Kinetex column C₁₈ (4.6 mm × 150 mm; 2.6 μm). + Column temperature: 30 ^oC. + Mobile phase: trifluoroacetic acid 0.3% (A) – ACN (B). + Gradient program: 0-3 min (7%–15%B), 3-12 min (15%–20%B), 12-30 min (20%–22%B). + Flow rate: 0.7 ml/min. + Injection volume: 12 μl. + Detection wavelength: 254 and 340 nm. Results: The contents of F51, F67, and F70 were 2.43, 0.25, and 0.33%.
12	Tisman et al¹⁰⁶	UV – Vis	Sample: 70% ethanolic leaf extract. Procedure: 3 ml concentrated extract and 3 ml buffer (pH 1 or 4.5), wavelength at 510 and 700 nm, cyanidin-3-glucoside as reference compound. Result: Total flavonoid content: 0.321 mg/100 g.

Conclusion

Phytochemical studies have identified and reported 620 chemical compounds from the leaves, flowers, stems, roots, aerial parts, and whole plant of K. pinnata. These compounds belong to various classes, including bufadienolides, flavonoids, triterpenoids, volatile compounds, and others. In addition, several studies have been conducted to develop analytical methods for the quantification of these compounds in K. pinnata. Our review provides a comprehensive overview of the chemical constituents of K. pinnata based on reputable databases, thereby contributing scientific evidence to support the medicinal value of this plant. However, this review has certain limitations, particularly the exclusion of information from gray literature sources due to concerns regarding their reliability. Moreover, many chemical compounds identified in K. pinnata have not yet been studied for their biological activities. Further in-depth research on this medicinal plant is therefore warranted in the future.

Footnotes

Abbreviation

Acknowledgements

The authors declare that no specific funding was received for this research. All contributions to the study were made by the listed authors.

ORCID iDs

Huyen Tran Ngoc Nguyen

Minh-Nhut Truong

Lac-Thuy Nguyen Huu

Chuyen Hong Thi Nguyen

Vo Linh Tu

Phuong Thuy Thi Tran

Thai Minh Hoang

Trung The Van

Author Contributions

Huyen Tran Ngoc Nguyen: methodology; formal analysis; investigation; data curation; writing – original draft preparation,

Minh-Nhut Truong: conceptualization; formal analysis; investigation; writing – original draft preparation,

Lac-Thuy Nguyen Huu: methodology; validation; data curation; writing – review and editing,

Nhu Huynh Mai: validation; data curation,

Chuyen Hong Thi Nguyen: investigation; formal analysis,

Diem My Vu: investigation; formal analysis,

Quan Minh Le: validation; writing – review and editing,

Vo Linh Tu: methodology; investigation,

Phuong Thuy Thi Tran: investigation; formal analysis,

Thai Minh Hoang: conceptualization; formal analysis,

Trung The Van: data curation; writing – review and editing; project administration; supervision.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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