Determinants of internet adoption in Turkey and the need for a more coherent vision on information and communication technologies policy

Abstract

Digital transformation offers tremendous opportunities for emerging economies like Turkey. However, the full potential of digital advancements can only be achieved with the widespread adoption of digital technologies, which depends on the capable delivery of information and communication technologies (ICT) and their effective usability. Despite increased Internet penetration rates in Turkey in recent years, disparities in Internet adoption continue to persist. This study investigates whether and to what extent key demographic and socioeconomic factors are associated with the first-level digital divide in Turkey. The phenomenon is discussed in three aspects: device access, Internet access, and Internet use. The findings demonstrate that the vast majority of people in Turkey have Internet-enabled devices, mainly smartphones. Age, income, and education are significant predictors of Internet access. However, even when access is available, large disparities exist among gender, age, income, education, and employment groups in terms of Internet use. Moreover, our findings reveal significant regional differences in both Internet access and use. The results point to the need for a more coherent vision on ICT policies such that the need for demand-side programs are intended to stimulate broadband adoption widely by those groups. This paper provides useful pointers that can facilitate further academic research and structural decisions among policy-makers, by emphasizing the high-priority target groups.

Keywords

Internet adoption internet access internet use digital divide information and communication technology policy Turkey

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Acilar

(2011). Exploring the aspects of digital divide in a developing country. Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, 8, 231–244.

Anıl

Bülent

Köksal

Emin

(2016). Türkiye’de Interneti Kimler, Ne Için Kullanıyor? Marmara University Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences, 38(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.14780/iibd.61602

Antonio

Tuffley

(2014). The gender digital divide in developing countries. Future Internet, 6(4), 673–687. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi6040673

Benkler

Faris

Gasser

(2010). Next generation connectivity: A review of broad- band internet transitions and policy from around the world. In Berkman Centre for Internet & Society (Issue February). http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/sites/cyber.law.harvard.edu/files/Berkman_Center_Broadband_Final_Report_15Feb2010.pdf

Bonfadelli

(2002). The internet and knowledge gaps: A theoretical and empirical investigation. European Journal of Communication, 17(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323102017001607

Brajnik

Yesilada

Harper

(2011). Web accessibility guideline aggregation for older users and its validation. Universal Access in the Information Society, 10(4), 403–423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-011-0220-5

Bucy

E. P.

Newhagen

J. E.

(2004). Media access: Social and psychological dimensions of new technology use. Psychology Press.

Cavender

A. C.

Bigham

J. P.

(2011). Toward web accessibility for older users. Universal Access in the Information Society, 10(4), 357–358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-011-0219-y

Chaudhuri

Flamm

K. S.

Horrigan

(2005). An analysis of the determinants of internet access. Telecommunications Policy, 29(9), 731–755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2005.07.001

10.

Chen

(2013). The implications of social capital for the digital divides in America. The Information Society, 29(1), 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972243.2012.739265

11.

Czaja

S. J.

Charness

Fisk

A. D.

Hertzog

Nair

S. N.

Rogers

W. A.

Sharit

(2006). Factors predicting the use of technology: Findings from the center for research and education on aging and technology enhancement (create). Psychology and Aging, 21(2), 333–352. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.21.2.333

12.

Dalgıç

Fazlıoğlu

(2020). The impact of broadband speed on productivity: Findings from Turkish firms. Applied Economics Letters, 27(21), 1764–1767. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2020.1722789

13.

Dasgupta

Lall

Wheeler

(2005). Policy reform, economic growth and the digital divide. Oxford Development Studies, 33(2), 229–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600810500137889

14.

Davis

F. D.

(1993). User acceptance of information technology: System characteristics, user perceptions and behavioral impacts. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 38(3), 475–487. https://doi.org/10.1006/imms.1993.1022

15.

DiMaggio

Hargittai

Celeste

Shafer

(2004). From unequal access to differentiated use: A literature review and agenda for research on digital inequality. Social Inequality, 1, 355–400.

16.

European Commission . (2020a). Turkey 2020 Report. Commission Staff Working Document. SWD (2020) 355 final, https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/turkey_report_2020.pdf

17.

European Commission . (2020b). Human capital and digital skills. Digital single market – European commission. Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) Report 2020 - Human capital. https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/human-capital

18.

EuroStat (2020). Digital economy and society database 2020. https://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/submitViewTableAction.do

19.

Fuchs

(2009). The role of income inequality in a multivariate cross-national analysis of the digital divide. Social Science Computer Review, 27(1), 41–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439308321628

20.

Gonzales

(2016). The contemporary US digital divide: From initial access to technology maintenance. Information, Communication & Society, 19(2), 234–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1050438

21.

Gray

T. J.

Gainous

Wagner

K. M.

(2017). Gender and the digital divide in Latin America*. Social Science Quarterly, 98(1), 326–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12270

22.

Grishchenko

(2020). The gap not only closes: Resistance and reverse shifts in the digital divide in Russia. Telecommunications Policy, 44(8), 102004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2020.102004

23.

Haight

Quan-Haase

Corbett

B. A.

(2014). Revisiting the digital divide in Canada: The impact of demographic factors on access to the internet, level of online activity, and social networking site usage. Information, Communication & Society, 17(4), 503–519. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2014.891633

24.

Hargittai

(1999). Weaving the western web: Explaining differences in internet connectivity among OECD countries. Telecommunications Policy, 23(10), 701–718. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-5961(99)00050-6

25.

Hauge

J. A.

Prieger

J. E.

(2010). Demand-side programs to stimulate adoption of broadband: What works? Review of Network Economics, 9(3). https://doi.org/10.2202/1446-9022.1234

26.

Hilbert

(2011). Digital gender divide or technologically empowered women in developing countries? A typical case of lies, damned lies, and statistics. Women’s Studies International Forum, 34(6), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2011.07.001

27.

ICTA . (2021). Statistics bulletin on the electronic communications industry by provincial basis 2021. https://www.btk.gov.tr/uploads/pages/yillik-il-istatistikleri/elektronik-haberlesme-sektorune-iliskin-il-bazinda-yillik-istatistik-bulteni.pdf

28.

ITU . (2018). Measuring the Information Society Report 2018. Geneva

29.

ITU . (2020). Measuring Digital Development ICT Price Trends 2020. Geneva

30.

Khan

M. L.

Welser

H. T.

Cisneros

Manatong

Idris

I. K.

(2020). Digital inequality in the Appalachian Ohio: Understanding how demographics, internet access, and skills can shape vital information use (VIU). Telematics and Informatics, 50, 101380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2020.101380

31.

Köksal

(2021). Regulation of fiber and the internet. In Eroğlu

Finger

(Eds.), The regulation of Turkish network industries (pp. 383–401). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81720-6_19

32.

Köksal

Anıl

(2015). The Determinants of Broadband Access and Usage in Turkey: Do Regions Matter? Topics in Middle Eastern and African Economies, 17(1), 113–132. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2362376

33.

Köksal

Ardiyok

Ç.

(2015). Reviewing regulatory policy for broadband in Turkey: The failure of service-based competition and the prospect of facility-based competition. Competition and Regulation in Network Industries, 16(4), 354–377. https://doi.org/10.1177/178359171501600403

34.

Korupp

S. E.

Szydlik

(2005). Causes and trends of the digital divide. European Sociological Review, 21(4), 409–422. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jci030

35.

Lucendo-Monedero

A. L.

Ruiz-Rodríguez

González-Relaño

(2019). Measuring the digital divide at regional level. A spatial analysis of the inequalities in digital development of households and individuals in Europe. Telematics and Informatics, 41(2019), 197–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2019.05.002

36.

McFadden

(1979). Quantitative methods for analysing travel behaviour of individuals: Some recent developments. In Behavioural travel modelling. Routledge.

37.

Mehra

Merkel

Bishop

A. P.

(2004). The internet for empowerment of minority and marginalized users. New Media & Society, 6(6), 781–802. https://doi.org/10.1177/146144804047513

38.

Mossberger

Tolbert

C. J.

Gilbert

(2006). Race, Place, and Information Technology. Urban Affairs Review, 41(5), 583–620. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087405283511

39.

Mossberger

Tolbert

C. J.

Hamilton

(2012). Broadband Adoption| measuring digital citizenship: Mobile access and broadband. International Journal of Communication, 6(0), 37.

40.

Mumporeze

Prieler

(2017). Gender digital divide in Rwanda: A qualitative analysis of socioeconomic factors. Telematics and Informatics, 34(7), 1285–1293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2017.05.014

41.

Ngwenyama

Morawczynski

(2009). Factors affecting ICT expansion in emerging economies: An analysis of ICT infrastructure expansion in five Latin American countries. Information Technology for Development, 15(4), 237–258. https://doi.org/10.1002/itdj.20128

42.

Peacock

S. E.

Künemund

(2007). Senior citizens and Internet technology: Reasons and correlates of access versus non-access in a European comparative perspective. European Journal of Ageing, 4(4), 191–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-007-0067-z

43.

Pearce

K. E.

Rice

R. E.

(2013). Digital divides from access to activities: Comparing mobile and personal computer internet users. Journal of Communication, 63(4), 721–744. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12045

44.

Polat

R. K.

(2012). Digital exclusion in Turkey: A policy perspective. Government Information Quarterly, 29(4), 589–596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2012.03.002

45.

Ragnedda

Ruiu

M. L.

Addeo

(2022). The self-reinforcing effect of digital and social exclusion: The inequality loop. Telematics and Informatics, 72(2022), 101852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2022.101852

46.

Riddlesden

Singleton

A. D.

(2014). Broadband speed equity: A new digital divide? Applied Geography, 52(2014), 25–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2014.04.008

47.

Riggins

Dewan

(2005). The digital divide: Current and future research directions. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 6(12), 298–337. https://doi.org/10.17705/1jais.00074

48.

Robinson

Cotten

S. R.

Ono

Quan-Haase

Mesch

Chen

Schulz

Hale

T. M.

Stern

M. J.

(2015). Digital inequalities and why they matter. Information, Communication & Society, 18(5), 569–582. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1012532

49.

Ruiz-Rodríguez

Lucendo-Monedero

A. L.

González-Relaño

(2018). Measurement and characterisation of the Digital Divide of Spanish regions at enterprise level. A comparative analysis with the European context. Telecommunications Policy, 42(3), 187–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2017.11.007

50.

Salemink

Strijker

Bosworth

(2017). Rural development in the digital age: A systematic literature review on unequal ICT availability, adoption, and use in rural areas. Journal of Rural Studies, 54(2017), 360–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2015.09.001

51.

Scheerder

van Deursen

van Dijk

(2017). Determinants of Internet skills, uses and outcomes. A systematic review of the second- and third-level digital divide. Telematics and Informatics, 34(8), 1607–1624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2017.07.007

52.

Selwyn

(2004). Reconsidering political and popular understandings of the digital divide. New Media & Society, 6(3), 341–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444804042519

53.

Selwyn

Gorard

Furlong

Madden

(2003). Older adults’ use of information and communications technology in everyday life. Ageing & Society, 23(5), 561–582. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X03001302

54.

Sicherl

(2019). Different statistical measures create different perceptions of the digital divide. The Information Society, 35(3), 143–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972243.2019.1582568

55.

Talukdar

Gauri

D. K.

(2011). Home internet access and usage in the USA: Trends in the socio-economic digital divide. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 28(7). https://doi.org/10.17705/1CAIS.02807

56.

Tsetsi

Rains

S. A.

(2017). Smartphone Internet access and use: Extending the digital divide and usage gap. Mobile Media & Communication, 5(3), 239–255. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050157917708329

57.

TurkStat (2018). Gross domestic product by Turkish provinces 2018, https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Il-Bazinda-Gayrisafi-Yurt-Ici-Hasila-2018-30889

58.

TurkStat (2020). Research on information technologies usage of households https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Hanehalki-Bilisim-Teknolojileri-(BT)-Kullanim-Arastirmasi-2020-33679

59.

van Deursen

van Dijk

(2011). Internet skills and the digital divide. New Media & Society, 13(6), 893–911. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444810386774

60.

van Deursen

A. J.

van Dijk

J. A.

(2019). The first-level digital divide shifts from inequalities in physical access to inequalities in material access. New Media & Society, 21(2), 354–375. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818797082

61.

van Dijk

Hacker

(2003). The digital divide as a complex and dynamic phenomenon. The Information Society, 19(4), 315–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972240309487

62.

van Dijk

J. A. G. M.

(2005). The deepening divide: Inequality in the information society. SAGE Publications.

63.

Wei

(2012). Number matters: The multimodality of internet use as an indicator of the digital inequalities. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 17(3), 303–318. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2012.01578.x

64.

White

(1980). A heteroskedasticity-consistent covariance matrix estimator and a direct test for heteroskedasticity. Econometrica, 48(4), 817–838. https://doi.org/10.2307/1912934

65.

Wilson

K. R.

Wallin

J. S.

Reiser

(2003). Social stratification and the digital divide. Social Science Computer Review, 21(2), 133–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439303021002001

66.

World Development Report 2016: Digital Dividends . (n.d.). https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/wdr2016

67.

Yildiz

(2010). Digital divide in Turkey: A general assessment (pp. 75–89). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60566-699-0.ch005

68.

Zillien

Hargittai

(2009). Digital distinction: Status-specific types of internet usage*. Social Science Quarterly, 90(2), 274–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00617.x

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.23 MB