Health and multihazard early warning systems in the media

Abstract

Aims:

The media’s influence on public opinion and support for policy change, particularly concerning climate action and its intersection with public health, has gained significant attention. The media serves as a significant platform for delivering public health messages to the general population. This article explores the central role of media in shaping public understanding and support for mitigation and adaptation efforts, with a specific focus on its implications for public health advocacy. It does this by investigating how health and multihazard early warning systems (MHEWS) have been covered in newspaper articles worldwide.

Methods:

Through thematic content analysis, we examined how newspaper articles portray messages and use narrative techniques. The objective is to show differences in reporting strategies and understand the symbolic connotations linked to media discourse on health and MHEWS.

Results:

The analysis identified seven key themes in the media’s coverage of health and MHEWS. The themes cover strategies to reduce vulnerability to disasters, including health-related risks, governmental roles in policy implementation and resource allocation, international collaboration, community engagement, technological advancements, financial challenges, and health impacts and preparedness. They emphasise the importance of holistic approaches, local participation, and global cooperation in disaster risk reduction, adaptation, and resilience-building.

Conclusions:

The research highlights the potential of media advocacy in raising awareness about the complex links between health and climate-related hazards, as well as the media’s role in increasing support for planning and action. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the opportunities and challenges associated with the media to promote resilience and improve public health.

Plain language summary

• What are the aims of this study?

This research aims to investigate how newspaper media shapes understanding and support for early warning systems concerning climate-related hazards, with a focus on health implications.

• What were the significant results?

The study identified seven key themes in newspaper media coverage related to health and early warning systems for climate events, including vulnerability reduction strategies, government roles, international collaboration, community engagement, technological advancements, financial challenges, and health impacts.

• Why is this research important?

This study underscores the significance of local engagement and global cooperation in disaster resilience efforts, highlighting the role of the media in promoting awareness and action.

• How can this study inform public health strategies?

The findings suggest that the media can play a vital role in raising awareness about health implications of hazards and mobilising support for preparedness measures. The study provides insights for using the media to promote resilience and public health awareness.

Keywords

health climate change extreme weather climate-related hazards multihazard early warning systems media

Introduction

Climate change and climate-related hazards pose a significant threat to public health globally, affecting billions of individuals in both the Global North and Global South.^1,2 These threats include increased mortality and morbidity from extreme weather events, mental health issues, and changes in disease patterns.³ In addition, they expose critical vulnerabilities related to health determinants such as access to safe water, clean air, secure housing, and healthcare services.¹

Between 2015 and 2021, climate-related hazards resulted in approximately 300,000 deaths across 135 countries. Reports from 145 countries show that disasters impacted approximately 1.05 billion individuals.⁴ In 2022 alone, the EM-DAT Emergency Event Database documented 387 climate-related hazards worldwide, leading to the loss of 30,704 lives and affecting 185 million people.⁵ Throughout 2023 numerous regions and countries experienced climate-related hazards, which further exacerbated health and humanitarian crises.⁶ Climate-related hazards such as heatwaves, wildfires, floods, tropical storms, and hurricanes are all increasing in frequency, duration, and severity, posing significant global public health risks and impacts.^7,8

Efforts to address climate change and climate-related hazards offer numerous co-benefits for public health, including reduced consumption of environmentally intensive products (e.g. meat), increased use of active transport (e.g. cycling, walking), improvements in housing insulation (e.g. double-glazed windows), and air quality.^1,9 Consequently, advocating for climate change action has become a priority for public health professionals, emphasising the ethical imperative to promote climate action.¹

Strategic efforts to address climate change and climate-related hazards are imperative and offer multiple opportunities for risk reduction, health improvement, and equity promotion.⁷ Both the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) emphasise the importance of early warning systems (EWS) in enabling individuals, communities, and entities to prepare for and mitigate potential harm from hazards.^8,10 EWS incorporate various technical and institutional capabilities aimed at forecasting, predicting, and disseminating timely warning information.¹⁰

Recent studies have highlighted the limitations of conventional EWS, which often assess hazards individually and overlook their interactions.^11–13 The IPCC asserts with high confidence that each increase in global warming will elevate various concurrent hazards.⁸ Multihazard events resulting from combinations of climate drivers and hazards can pose greater threats and impacts to human health and assets compared with single hazards, affecting the resilience of societies and assets.^14–16 The risks associated with multihazard events are multifaceted and depend on factors such as vulnerability, exposure, adaptive capabilities, and contextual elements.¹⁷ The Sendai Framework defines multihazard events as those where multiple major hazards occur simultaneously, sequentially, or cascadingly, emphasising the need to incorporate multihazard risk assessment into policies.¹⁸

Recognising the significance of multihazard events, international organisations stress the need to integrate multihazards into risk management strategies:^6–8

It is increasingly clear that we need a multi-hazard early-warning system that should represent a new way of thinking and ensures that environmental stability factors based on local wisdom and knowledge are built into disaster plans.¹⁹

On 19 January 2005, at the World Conference on Disaster Reduction in Kobe, Japan, United Nations (UN) experts first introduced the term ‘multi-hazard early warning systems’ (MHEWS). This coincided with the launch of the International Early Warning Programme (IEWP) to mitigate the impact of natural hazards on vulnerable communities and enhance international cooperation.¹⁹ The programme involves several UN agencies aiming to improve resilience against various natural disasters including droughts, heatwaves, wildfires, floods, hurricanes, and landslides. The initiative emphasises community education, regional cooperation, and the free exchange of observational data. According to the UN, effective early warning systems, coupled with humanitarian aid and preparedness, have saved millions of lives over the past decades. As a result, the IEWP is seen as a crucial step to prevent future disasters and reduce casualties.¹⁹

Since 2005, MHEWS have been designed to address complex risks and enhance preparedness, response, and resilience, thus reducing health impacts.¹⁰ Collaboration across disciplines and sectors is critical for accurate hazard identification and monitoring.¹⁰ MHEWS are crucial for reducing risks, fostering climate change adaptation, and mitigating public health impacts from multiple hazards.^4,6 Integrating health considerations into MHEWS can significantly reduce adverse health effects from climate-related events such as heatwaves, floods, hurricanes, and infectious disease outbreaks.^7,8 This integration allows for timely interventions to protect vulnerable populations and enhances response plans by prioritising healthcare resources and emergency services. As a result, MHEWS that incorporate health data improve the management of health crises during natural disasters and support long-term public health resilience and climate adaptation strategies.⁷

Public engagement with and understanding of these topics is thought to be difficult for many people around the world²⁰ and the media plays an important role in knowledge translation.²¹ The media plays a crucial role in influencing the public’s perception and backing of efforts to tackle diseases and public health crises.²² Furthermore, the media’s role in shaping public opinion and support for policy change cannot be overstated, particularly in addressing pressing global challenges such as multihazards. Previous literature has highlighted the significance of the media in influencing public perceptions and attitudes towards climate action and policy.²³ The effectiveness of climate change advocacy efforts is significantly dependent on the media’s ability to communicate climate-related risks and opportunities in a compelling and accessible manner.²⁴

Despite the growing recognition of the interplay between health and climate-related hazards, media coverage of this nexus remains limited.²⁴ However, there are signs of a gradual shift towards increased coverage, highlighting the evolving nature of climate change discourse in the media landscape.²⁵ Understanding the dynamics of climate change communication in the media is essential for promoting public engagement and catalysing meaningful action.²⁰

This study examines media coverage on health and MHEWS across various outlets to understand strategies used and their potential to promote health, climate action, and policy changes. The aims of this study include the examination of newspaper coverage on health and MHEWS, the messages, the use of narrative techniques, and differences in reporting across newspapers.

The rationale for conducting this analysis stems from the need to understand how media framing can influence public perception and policymaking regarding health and climate-related hazards. By identifying prevalent frames and narratives, this study aims to highlight gaps in media coverage and suggest ways to enhance the communication of crucial health and climate information. This understanding is vital for developing more effective public health campaigns and climate policies that are responsive to the needs and concerns of the public.

In this study, the following research questions are addressed:

How have newspapers covered health and MHEWS?

How were messages around health and MHEWS portrayed?

What are the differences in how the various newspapers reported on health and MHEWS?

By answering these questions, this study seeks to contribute to the broader discourse on climate change communication and its implications for public health and policy interventions.

Methods

Search strategy, inclusion criteria and article selection

LexisNexis is a highly comprehensive database that provides access to a wide range of international and regional newspapers. Its newspaper content includes more than 4000 newspapers worldwide. LexisNexis was selected for its extensive coverage of international newspapers and robust search capabilities, providing access to a wide range of news sources, including major international and regional newspapers. This makes it a valuable resource for examining global media coverage.

A keyword search using ‘health’ and ‘multi-hazard early warning system*’ was conducted to retrieve newspaper articles from the LexisNexis database (https://plus.lexis.com). These specific search terms were selected based on their relevance to the study’s focus on the intersection of health and comprehensive disaster risk reduction strategies. ‘Health’ was chosen to ensure that the articles included a health dimension, while ‘multi-hazard early warning system*’ was selected to capture articles discussing integrated approaches to warning systems that address various types of hazards.

The rationale for selecting ‘multi-hazard early warning system*’ is based on its comprehensive nature, which encompasses multiple types of hazards (e.g. meteorological, hydrological, geological) and its usage in international frameworks and policies. The primary term ‘multi-hazard early warning system*’ was selected for its alignment with prominent international disaster risk reduction frameworks, such as the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.

The search strategy included all newspaper articles published until 8 January 2024 (i.e. the date of the search), with no geographical or language restrictions. This search resulted in 74 newspaper articles. Four duplicates, identified by screening titles and publication dates, were eliminated through a systematic manual validation process. The full text of 70 newspaper articles were then screened and reviewed in detail to confirm their relevance and appropriateness for inclusion. Articles were included if their content was relevant to the study’s aims and research questions, if they directly addressed the impact of early warning systems on health outcomes or provided a detailed analysis of MHEWS. All 70 articles were included for coding and analysis.

Subsequently, all newspaper articles were downloaded and saved for analysis. In addition, a keyword search in the LexisNexis database using only ‘multi-hazard early warning system*’ was conducted under the same parameters as above, which yielded 444 newspaper articles after duplicates were manually removed with the earliest having been published on 18 November 2008.

Thematic content analysis

The study uses a constructionist theoretical perspective,^26,27 exploring how media coverage reflects and constructs societal understandings and responses to health and MHEWS. Thematic content analysis was used as it combines the detailed exploration of thematic analysis with the systematic quantification of content analysis, offering a more integrated approach to understanding qualitative data.²⁸ This method involves identifying themes within the content and quantifying their presence across the dataset, allowing for a rich, detailed exploration while incorporating systematic, objective analysis.

Coding process

The author read all the newspaper articles to inductively identify key themes and narratives. To familiarise themselves with the data, the author read through the newspaper articles twice, making summary notes on recurring topics and issues. Codes were then identified from the data, by recognising and exploring recurring topics and exploring similarities and differences in the newspaper articles. A preliminary coding scheme was developed, followed by the organisation of codes into themes through an iterative process.^26,27,29

Qualitative and quantitative analysis

The analysis process involved both qualitative and quantitative content analysis. Qualitative content analysis was used to identify recurring themes, media strategies, and narrative techniques,²⁸ with articles coded based on predefined themes related to health and MHEWS. This allowed for the identification of dominant narratives and discussions of these topics. Quantitative content analysis was used to measure the frequency of specific themes and terms within the articles.²⁸ Descriptive statistics were used to quantify the frequency of themes and identify trends, complementing the qualitative insights.

Findings

The newspaper articles’ dates range from 4 December 2013 to 17 December 2023. The shortest article contained 183 words, while the longest contained 10,873 words. Supplementary Material 1 includes references of all the 70 articles included.

Description of the data

There was variability in the number of articles published each year, with a non-linear increase in coverage of health and MHEWS (see Figure 1). A notable rise occured in 2022 and 2023 compared with previous years, peaking in 2023. This increase coincided with the United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, from 30 November to 12 December 2023 (COP28).

Figure 1.

News articles by year of publication

The number of articles published each month remained relatively consistent, with a peak occurring in October, as shown in Figure 2. This peak consistently coincides with the International Day for Disaster Risk Reduction, observed annually on 13 October.

Figure 2.

News articles by month of publication

We detected a diverse coverage of news articles, showcasing a broad spectrum of perspectives, as depicted in Figure 3 and Supplementary Material 2. The number of articles published by each newspaper showed considerable variability, ranging from multiple articles to just one (see Supplementary Material 2). Geographically, the newspapers span regions across Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Middle East, indicating a comprehensive global outlook on disaster risk reduction efforts. Notably, news outlets from India (n = 17), Latin America, Spain, and Portugal (n = 9), along with Pakistan (n = 8), contributed the highest volume of articles. Certain newspapers stood out with a higher volume of articles, such as CE Noticias Financieras English (n = 9) and Times of India (n = 6), possibly highlighting their focus on disaster risk reduction or the salience of such issues in their regions. Moreover, the presence of both local papers like The Daily Mirror from Sri Lanka (n = 1) and international publications like The Guardian from London (n = 1) underscores the universal interest in disaster risk reduction at both local and global levels. While some newspapers contributed more extensively, the data suggest that many have at least one article, emphasising the widespread acknowledgement of disaster risk reduction’s importance across diverse media outlets worldwide.

Figure 3.

Global distribution of news articles

Themes

The thematic content analysis identified seven key themes in the media’s coverage of health and MHEWS. These themes are discussed below in order of decreasing prevalence (see Figure 4 and Table 1 for illustrative quotes):

Risk reduction, adaptation, and resilience-building;

Government responsibility and public investment;

International cooperation, frameworks, and policy implementation;

Community and stakeholders’ engagement and awareness;

Technological advancements;

Financial and technical challenges;

Health impacts and preparedness.

Figure 4.

Frequency of themes

Table 1.

Themes and illustrative quotes.

Risk reduction, adaptation, and resilience-building (26%)	‘Cascading climate change impacts make it imperative for countries to put practices and processes in place to minimize damage and make communities resilient’. (SM1: 1) ‘Risk reduction processes have multiple connections with climate change mitigation, adaptation, and vulnerability reduction. And yet few disaster risk reduction plans take these connections into account’. (SM1: 39)
Government responsibility and public investment (16%)	‘By 2025, all the countries have to put in place up-to-date assessments of climate hazards, climate change impacts and exposure to risks and vulnerabilities and have used these assessments to inform their formulation of national adaptation plans and nationally determined contributions, and by 2027, all have to establish multi-hazard early warning systems and climate information services for risk reduction’. (SM1: 5) ‘Governments have a responsibility for creating an environment in which people prosper and the planet thrives. This is non-negotiable. Investing in risk reduction is investing in the public good, but political cycles, competitive agendas, and strained budgets make planning and taking responsibility for delivering change difficult’. (SM1: 39)
International cooperation, frameworks and policy implementation (15%)	‘“It is critical that the global goal on adaptation is concretised into a framework consisting of ambitious, specific, measurable, verifiable, and time-bound outcomes, and associated indicators to track this.” Adaptation is “treated primarily as a national problem” when it is a global responsibility, she says. For example, universal access to multi-hazard early warning systems by 2027 could save thousands of lives. Yet adaptation goes beyond preparation for more intense and frequent natural disasters and making infrastructure more resilient to events such as flooding.’ (SM1: 8) ‘Formalizing the cooperation will enable both institutions to advance in achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for improving the socio-economic condition of the country through the exchange of knowledge, forecast and data services’. (SM1: 27)
Community and stakeholders’ engagement and awareness (12%)	‘The people most impacted by the climate crisis and any transition need to be at the centre of decision-making, at a policy level and at a ground level’. (SM1: 8) ‘It is high time to realize that all stakeholders should work together for concrete measures to prepare organizations and communities in general for achieving target of reducing the number of affected people by disasters by 2030’. (SM1: 58)
Technological advancements (11%)	‘we as a global community are now efficient at saving lives better than ever before. Supercomputers and satellite technology have facilitated huge leaps in our forecasting ability and the emergence of user-tailored services, underpinned by decades of research. Artificial intelligence is now complementing human ingenuity. There is stronger international, regional, and national coordination, matched by active community mobilization. Mobile phone alerts and weather apps reach even remote areas, as has been demonstrated by NiMet in its downscaling of its products and services’. (SM1: 36) “Climate services are completely a new ball game. Traditional weather services, like forecast, will tell you whether you have to carry an umbrella or not, while climate services will tell you if you need to buy an umbrella or not for this season. The operational climate service will impact various stakeholders like energy, food, health and water.” (SM1: 49)
Financial and technical challenges (11%)	‘Keys to effective adaptation measures range from finance and technology to building capacities’. (SM1: 1) ‘. . . investments in national meteorological services have brought palpable gains’. (SM1: 36)
Health impacts and preparedness (9%)	‘Being prepared and able to act at the right time, in the right place, can save many lives and protect the livelihoods of communities everywhere, both now and in the future’. (SM1: 36) ‘Health risks related to heat can be reduced through multi-hazard early warning systems that provide timely alerts to decision-makers, health services and the general public, he said, also underscoring the need to improve access to scientific knowledge and share best practices for coping with drought’. (SM1: 63)

Risk reduction, adaptation, and resilience-building

This theme focuses on strategies and actions aimed at reducing community vulnerability and enhancing resilience to disasters. It encompasses measures such as risk identification and assessment, mitigation efforts, promotion of sustainable development practices, and empowerment through education and infrastructure improvements.

Moreover, it involves analysing risks associated with multihazard events and their impact on communities. Newspapers explore how risks are assessed, potential consequences are addressed, and the overall impact on public health is understood.

Articles discuss the identification of high-risk areas, vulnerability assessments, and the consequences of multihazard events. They also examine the social, economic, and psychological impacts on communities affected by health-related emergencies.

Furthermore, this theme explores how newspapers portray the resilience of individuals, communities, and health systems in emergencies. Media coverage highlights stories of communities overcoming health crises, the effectiveness of preparedness measures, and the resilience of healthcare infrastructure. Discussions also focus on lessons learned and strategies for future resilience-building.

Government responsibility and public investment

This theme highlights the pivotal role of governments in proactively reducing disaster risks and safeguarding their populations. It includes initiatives such as developing and implementing disaster management policies, allocating resources for prevention and mitigation, and fostering partnerships with the private sector and civil society to strengthen overall resilience.

Moreover, it examines how government policies, regulations, and the actions of responsible entities contribute to the effectiveness of early warning systems. Newspaper coverage includes discussions on government agencies’ response mechanisms, the establishment of regulatory frameworks, and debates regarding the accountability of officials during health emergencies. Transparency, decision-making processes, and coordination among different levels of governance are also emphasised.

Furthermore, coverage often explores government policies, legislative frameworks, and political decisions influencing public health outcomes. Symbolically, health is portrayed as connected with governance and policymaking, highlighting the significance of political commitment in disaster risk reduction.

International cooperation, frameworks, and policy implementation

This theme underscores the importance of collaboration and coordination among countries and international organisations to tackle global disaster challenges. It includes the development and implementation of international frameworks and policies, the sharing of best practices and resources, and the promotion of cooperation in areas such as early warning systems, capacity building, and disaster response.

Community and stakeholders’ engagement and awareness

This theme covers the involvement and active participation of local communities, organisations, and individuals in disaster preparedness, response, and mitigation efforts. It emphasises raising awareness among community members about potential risks, promoting education and training programmes, and fostering collaboration and communication among different stakeholders to enhance overall disaster resilience.

News articles often highlight community-driven initiatives, grassroots preparedness efforts, and the role of social cohesion in mitigating health risks. This aims to empower communities, representing health as a collective responsibility. Community-centred narratives dominate the reporting in this group, emphasising the importance of local resilience in the face of health and MHEWS challenges.

Technological advancements

This theme relates to the use of innovative technologies, scientific advancements, and solutions to enhance disaster risk management and response capabilities. Coverage includes developments such as early warning systems, geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing, and communication technologies, which enable more accurate prediction, monitoring, and dissemination of multihazard events–related information.

Moreover, it explores how newspapers discuss the role of technology in improving warning systems for multihazard events affecting health. Examples include the introduction of predictive modelling, mobile phone applications, and cutting-edge monitoring devices in the field of health-related hazard warnings.

Financial and technical challenges

This theme focuses on the challenges and obstacles associated with securing adequate financial resources and technical expertise for effective disaster risk reduction and management. It comprises issues such as limited funding for mitigation projects, insufficient investment in infrastructure development, and the need for advanced technology and expertise to address complex disaster challenges.

Moreover, coverage explores how financial factors influence the development, implementation, and effectiveness of warning systems in the context of health emergencies. Newspaper articles discuss the financial investments required for establishing and maintaining early warning infrastructure. They also analyse the economic impact of multihazard events and the cost-effectiveness of different preventive measures.

Health impacts and preparedness

This theme focuses on the health consequences of disasters and the importance of preparedness measures to mitigate these impacts, considering the impact on individuals, communities, and societal structures. It involves initiatives such as strengthening healthcare systems, improving disease surveillance and response capabilities, and educating the public about the health risks associated with disasters.

Newspaper articles discussed the human stories behind health emergencies, the psychological toll on individuals, and societal responses to crises. Topics included community engagement, cultural considerations, and the role of social networks in managing health-related hazards. Incorporating personal stories and real-life experiences denoted a shift towards making the discourse on health more relatable. By featuring individual experiences, newspapers aimed to humanise the impact of disasters on health, starting from abstract concepts and fostering empathy among readers.

Articles emphasised the socio-economic determinants of health within the context of MHEWS and often explored the impact of poverty, inequality, and social disparities on health vulnerabilities during disasters. Symbolically, health was portrayed as a reflection of broader societal challenges, emphasising the need for holistic approaches addressing social determinants.

Newspapers adopted a humanitarian and global perspective in their reporting. Articles often highlighted international collaborations, global health initiatives, and the interconnectedness of health outcomes across borders. Symbolically, health was portrayed as a global concern, transcending geographical boundaries, and emphasising the collective responsibility of the international community in addressing health risks associated with MHEWS.

Discussion

The International Day for Disaster Risk Reduction, celebrated annually on 13 October, stands as a global acknowledgement of actions aimed at reducing vulnerability to natural disasters. An anomaly in media coverage of health and MHEWS in 2023 was marked by a significant increase in articles, which needs further investigation into underlying factors driving reporting patterns and understanding potential implications for future trends. This outlier underscores the dynamic nature of media discourse surrounding health and MHEWS.

The distribution of news articles concerning health and MHEWS across various newspapers illustrates the global importance and diverse coverage of disaster risk reduction efforts. This diversity highlights the attention and significance given to health and MHEWS across different countries, regions, and media platforms, highlighting the complex nature of challenges in disaster risk reduction. Such global coverage aligns with previous research who noted the critical role of media in shaping public understanding and policy on climate-related issues.^30,31

The study emphasises the multifaceted risks and consequences associated with climate change, particularly in the form of multihazards such as heatwaves, droughts, and wildfires; and extreme rainfall, floods, and landslides. These multihazards have far-reaching impacts on health, agriculture, infrastructure, and ecosystems. Despite regional disparities in reporting on health and MHEWS, there is a consistent message regarding the urgency of addressing climate-related risks and enhancing disaster preparedness across publications. This consistency is echoed in the literature, which highlights the pressing need for integrated disaster risk management strategies to mitigate health impacts.^32,33

To tackle these challenges, there is a recurring emphasis on adaptation measures and resilience-building efforts, including the establishment of MHEWS and the implementation of risk assessments. However, the effectiveness of such activities is often hindered by financial and technical constraints, particularly evident in developing countries, emphasising the requirement for increased international support and assistance.

The Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) agreed in the Paris Agreement in 2015 provides a critical framework for supporting adaptive capacity and reducing vulnerability to climate change.³⁴ Nevertheless, challenges related to climate finance and equity in international negotiations persist today. The involvement of international organisations underscores the requirement of global cooperation in supporting climate resilience efforts, especially where vulnerability is highest. This need for enhanced support is endorsed by other researchers who stress the importance of equitable and effective climate adaptation measures.^32–35 The scarce coverage of health impacts and preparedness in the media discourse relating to MHEWS has significant implications for public health, disaster risk reduction, and policymaking. Limited awareness, underestimation of health risks, and inadequate preparedness leave individuals and communities highly vulnerable to the health consequences of disasters, emphasising the importance of raising awareness and prioritising health considerations in disaster planning. This observation aligns with other literature that advocates for a more prominent focus on health in climate change and disaster risk communication.³⁶

The active involvement and engagement of stakeholders such as public health professionals, disaster risk reduction practitioners, policymakers, non-governmental organisations, and communities are indispensable. Addressing the gap in coverage needs concerted efforts to raise awareness, prioritise health considerations, and enhance preparedness measures to safeguard public health during emergencies.

Thematic content analysis shows the interconnectedness of climate change, health, adaptation, and disaster risk reduction, emphasising the need for coordinated action at the global level to tackle complex challenges. Influencing media engagement can play a pivotal role in promoting evidence-based policies, fostering public awareness, and mobilising collective action towards building a safer, healthier, and more resilient future for all.

The media’s role in shaping public opinion and supporting policy change is vital. The media influences public perceptions and actions.²³ Anthropogenic climate change, identified as the greatest threat to public health,^1,2,7 requires effective communication strategies to engage both the public and policymakers.^37,38

The profound nexus between climate change and public health incorporates numerous direct and indirect impacts on morbidity, mortality, and social determinants of health.^1,2 However, the media portrayal of these connections remains limited,²⁴ despite some improvements in coverage,²⁵ highlighting the need for greater communication efforts.

Media engagement is indispensable, contributing to awareness-building, resilience-building, and vulnerability reduction.^33,39 Despite this, media coverage of climate change often focuses on catastrophic events or political milestones,^40,41 shaping public perceptions and policy agendas. Effective communication strategies are crucial in raising awareness and prompting behavioural change.^20,42,43 However, climate change reporting has often been criticised for inadequately conveying the urgency and complexity of the issue.^44,45

Key takeaways and implications

The 2023 spike in media coverage of health and MHEWS requires investigation to understand its drivers and future implications. Highlighting the global importance and challenges of disaster risk reduction is crucial, as evidenced by diverse media coverage. Consistent messaging across regions on the need for disaster preparedness highlights the urgency of addressing global climate risks. Developing countries face significant barriers, need increased international support for effective adaptation and resilience. Effective media engagement is essential for raising awareness, influencing policy, and promoting public health resilience against climate change impacts.

Limitations of the study

This study provides valuable insights into the media coverage of health and MHEWS, but several limitations should be noted. First, the reliance on the LexisNexis database for retrieving newspaper articles may introduce selection bias, as it may not include all relevant articles available in other databases. This limitation could potentially exclude important perspectives and reports from newspapers not indexed in LexisNexis. Second, the study focused exclusively on articles available in English, thereby excluding significant coverage from non-English-speaking countries. This language restriction limits the comprehensiveness and representativeness of the findings. Future research should consider including articles in multiple languages to capture a broader range of perspectives.

In addition, while the chosen keyword search terms were relevant, alternative terms or variations might have identified additional relevant articles. The decision to use specific terms was guided by the study’s objectives, but a more diverse search strategy could enhance the dataset’s comprehensiveness. Moreover, despite including articles from diverse countries, there may still be overrepresentation or underrepresentation of certain regions within the LexisNexis database, impacting the generalisability of findings across different geographical contexts.

Conclusion

This article investigates the diverse approaches taken by newspapers in covering health and MHEWS, revealing a spectrum of techniques and narratives used across various articles. These findings hold significant importance for policymakers, public health practitioners, and media professionals, offering guidance in refining communication strategies and fostering a society that is better informed and resilient against multihazard events.

The analysis of media coverage on health and MHEWS has generated valuable insights into the prevailing narratives, priorities, and challenges shaping public discourse on disaster risk reduction and health resilience. The identification of key themes and regional disparities highlights the complex nature of addressing interconnected health, environmental, social, and economic factors in disaster planning and management.

Major themes such as risk reduction, government responsibility, and community engagement suggest an increasing recognition of the need for proactive approaches and collaborative action in mitigating health-related hazards. By amplifying diverse voices and drawing attention to local initiatives, media narratives play a crucial role in raising awareness, promoting resilience-building efforts, and mobilising collective action at all levels.

Moreover, the regional disparities in reporting highlight the unique challenges and perspectives that influence local discussions. By contextualising global issues within specific local contexts and emphasising region-specific initiatives, newspapers contribute to a deeper understanding of the complex dynamics underlying resilience-building and sustainable development.

The media plays a key role in communicating climate change, public health risks, and disaster preparedness. By effectively addressing these issues, the media can facilitate public understanding, policy action, and collective responses to mitigate the impacts of climate change and enhance public health resilience. However, addressing existing gaps and challenges in media coverage requires concerted efforts from researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to ensure accurate, comprehensive, and impactful communication strategies.

Looking ahead, concerted efforts are essential to harness the transformative potential of media engagement in advancing evidence-based policies, fostering public awareness, and galvanising collective action towards building a safer, healthier, and more resilient future. Through tools such as storytelling, advocacy, and community mobilisation, the media can serve as a catalyst for positive change.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-rsh-10.1177_17579139251342156 – Supplemental material for Health and multihazard early warning systems in the media

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-rsh-10.1177_17579139251342156 for Health and multihazard early warning systems in the media by Ana Raquel Nunes in Perspectives in Public Health

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-2-rsh-10.1177_17579139251342156 – Supplemental material for Health and multihazard early warning systems in the media

Supplemental material, sj-docx-2-rsh-10.1177_17579139251342156 for Health and multihazard early warning systems in the media by Ana Raquel Nunes in Perspectives in Public Health

Footnotes

Author Contributions

ARN is the sole contributor of this paper, who is responsible for the problem conceptualisation, research design, data collection, and data analysis.

Conflict of Interest

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Approval

Research ethics approval was not required as this was desk research and the data for the study are in the public domain.

ORCID iD

Ana Raquel Nunes

Supplemental Material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

References

Watts

Amann

Arnell

, et al. The 2020 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: responding to converging crises. Lancet 2021;397:129–70.

Costello

Abbas

Allen

, et al. Managing the health effects of climate change: Lancet and University College London Institute for Global Health Commission. Lancet 2009;373(9676):1693–733.

Watts

Adger

Ayeb-Karlsson

, et al. The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: from 25 years of inaction to a global transformation for public health. Lancet 2017;389(10074):1331–44.

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Global Status of Multi-Hazard Early Warning Systems: Target G. Geneva: UNDRR, 11 October 2022. Available online at: https://www.undrr.org/publication/global-status-multi-hazard-early-warning-systems-target-g (last accessed 4 March 2024).

Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) 2022 Disasters in Numbers. Brussels: CRED, 2023. Available online at: https://cred.be/sites/default/files/2022_EMDAT_report.pdf (last accessed 4 March 2024).

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR); World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Global Status of Multi-Hazard Early Warning Systems. Geneva: UNDRR; 2023. Available online at: https://www.undrr.org/publication/global-status-multi-hazard-early-warning-systems-2023 (last accessed 4 March 2024).

World Health Organization (WHO). Climate Change – Key Facts; 2023. Available online at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/climate-change-and-health (last accessed 4 March 2024).

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report; 2023. Available online at: https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_SYR_FullVolume.pdf (last accessed 4 March 2024).

Friel

Dangour

Garnett

, et al. Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: food and agriculture. Lancet 2009;374(9706):2016–25.

10.

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). Disaster Risk Reduction Terminology; 2024. Available online at: https://www.undrr.org/drr-glossary/terminology#E (last accessed 4 March 2024).

11.

Ward

Daniell

Duncan

, et al. Invited perspectives: a research agenda towards disaster risk management pathways in multi-(hazard-) risk assessment. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 2022;22:1487–97.

12.

Sutanto

Vitolo

Di Napoli

, et al. Heatwaves, droughts, and fires: exploring compound and cascading dry hazards at the pan-European scale. Environ Int 2020;134:105276.

13.

Tilloy

Malamud

Winter

, et al. A review of quantification methodologies for multi-hazard interrelationships. Earth Sci Rev 2019;196:102881.

14.

Lee

White

Adnan

, et al. Reclassifying historical disasters: From single to multi-hazards. Sci Total Environ 2024;912:169120.

15.

Argyroudis

Mitoulis

Hofer

, et al. Resilience assessment framework for critical infrastructure in a multi-hazard environment: case study on transport assets. Sci Total Environ 2020;714:136854.

16.

Zscheischler

Martius

Westra

, et al. A typology of compound weather and climate events. Nat Rev Earth Environ 2020;1:333–47.

17.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO). WMO-No. 1316. State of the Global Climate 2022; 2023. Available online at: https://library.wmo.int/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=22265#.ZEurbi_ML0r (last accessed 4 March 2024).

18.

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). Sendai Framework Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction. Geneva: UNDRR; 2017.

19.

United Nations (UN). Global Early Warning System Launched at Conference on Disaster Reduction; 2005. Available online at: https://press.un.org/en/2005/iha998.doc.htm (last accessed 4 March 2024).

20.

Moser

. Communicating climate change: history, challenges, process and future directions. Wires Clim Change 2010;1:31–53.

21.

Schäfer

Painter

. Climate journalism in a changing media ecosystem: assessing the production of climate change-related news around the world. Wires Clim Change 2020;12(1):e675.

22.

Collinson

Khan

Heffernan

. The effects of media reports on disease spread and important public health measurements. PLoS ONE 2015;10(11):e0141423.

23.

Harrison

Maibach

Adame

, et al. Climate Change and Public Health: A Primer for Policy Action. Fairfax, VA: Center for Climate Change Communication, George Mason University; 2020.

24.

Nisbet

. Communicating climate change: why frames matter for public engagement. Environ Sci Policy Sustain Dev 2009;51(2):12–23.

25.

Weathers

Kendall

. A method for mapping climate change denial in the media. Environ Commun 2016;10(3):284–303.

26.

Braun

Clarke

. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol 2006;3(2):77–101.

27.

Green

Thorogood

. Qualitative Methods for Health Research. 3rd edn. London: Sage; 2014.

28.

Vaismoradi

Turunen

Bondas

. Content analysis and thematic analysis: implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study. Nurs Health Sci 2013;15(3):398–405.

29.

O’Brien

Harris

Beckman

, et al. Standards for reporting qualitative research: a synthesis of recommendations. Acad Med 2014;89(9):1245–51.

30.

Boykoff

. Who Speaks for the Climate? Making Sense of Media Reporting on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2011.

31.

MacIntyre

Khanna

Darychuk

, et al. Evidence synthesis – Evaluating risk communication during extreme weather and climate change: a scoping review. Health Promot Chronic Dis Prev Can 2019;39(4):142–56.

32.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2022.

33.

United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR). Risk and Poverty in a Changing Climate: Invest Today for a Safer Tomorrow. Geneva: UNISDR; 2009. Available online at: https://unisdr.org/preventionweb/files/9414_GARsummary.pdf (last accessed 4 March 2024).

34.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Global Goal on Adaptation; 2024. Available online at: https://www.unep.org/gan/what-we-do/global-goal-adaptation (last accessed 4 March 2024).

35.

Moser

Boykoff

. Successful Adaptation to Climate Change: Linking Science and Policy in a Rapidly Changing World. London: Routledge; 2013.

36.

World Health Organization (WHO) Communicating on Climate Change and Health: Toolkit for Health Professionals; 2023. Available online at: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240090224 (last accessed 4 March 2024).

37.

Watts

Adger

Agnolucci

, et al. Health and climate change: policy responses to protect public health. Lancet 2015;386(10006):1861–914.

38.

Costello

Abbas

Allen

, et al. Managing the health effects of climate change. Lancet 2009;373(9676):1693–733.

39.

Carvalho

. Media(ted) discourses and climate change: a focus on political subjectivity and (dis)engagement. Wires Clim Change 2010;1(2):172–9.

40.

Hase

Mahl

Schäfer

, et al. Climate change in news media across the globe: an automated analysis of issue attention and themes in climate change coverage in 10 countries (2006–2018). Glob Environ Change 2021;70:102353.

41.

Boykoff

. Climate change and journalistic norms: a case-study of US mass-media coverage. Geoforum 2007;38(6):1190–204.

42.

Happer

Philo

. New approaches to understanding the role of the news media in the formation of public attitudes and behaviours on climate change. Eur J Commun 2016;31(2):136–51.

43.

Nunes

. Misdiagnosing vulnerability to heatwaves in the media. Lancet Planet Health 2019;3(7):e293.

44.

Hackett

Forde

Gunster

, et al. Journalism and Climate Crisis: Public Engagement, Media Alternatives. London: Routledge; 2017.

45.

Painter

. Climate Change in the Media: Reporting Risk and Uncertainty. London: I.B. Tauris; 2013.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.03 MB

0.02 MB