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Abstract

Understanding the training experiences of elite athletes is essential for explaining how sports expertise is attained. Insights from athletes can also inform adjustments to talent development models designed to facilitate Olympic success. The current study aims to describe the training practices of Olympic athletes and explore how these practices relate to the number of Olympic Games they have participated in. The sample consisted of 20 Olympic athletes who completed a retrospective questionnaire regarding their training and competition practices from youth through adulthood. The duration of practice varied significantly among Olympic athletes. Analysis revealed that total training time, as well as the percentage of time dedicated to velocity, strength, and conditioning practices, systematically increased during developmental years. The percentage of time devoted to technical training was higher during childhood and adolescence compared to velocity and strength training; however, it tended to decrease over this period. Notably, reaching an international competition level at younger ages was associated with more emphasis on physical conditioning through late adolescence and adulthood. However, early specialization in one's respective Olympic sport did not correlate with achieving peak performance in adulthood. These findings provide significant insight about how Colombian athletes reached the Olympic Games.

Keywords

Deliberate practice long-term athlete development sport specialization strength and conditioning talent

Introduction

Participation in the Olympic Games represents social, financial, and commercial rewards for athletes who win a medal.¹ While success at the Olympics is recognized at an athletic level, it also brings political prestige to the countries represented at the competition. As a result, successful nations in the Olympics have invested economic and academic resources to create suitable conditions for their athletes and coaches.^2,3 The Great Medalist Research Project examined the psychosocial characteristics of serial gold medalists and compared them with peers who also competed in major international championships but did not win any medals. The research used in-depth qualitative interviews to compare medallists with athletes who have never won a medal.⁴ Several key factors were reported by medallists, including the influence of negative incidents occurring close to a successful competition, competition-specific preparation, and perfectionism.⁴ The data from the Great Medallist Research Project indicates that super elite athletes—defined as those who won multiple gold medals at different Olympic Games and/or senior world championships—differ from elite athletes who also participated in the major international championships but did not win medals.⁵ Super elite athletes reached their peak performance later than elite athletes. Additionally, super elite athletes spent more time on organized practice, peer-led play in other sports, and competition participation during adulthood. However, the structure of training sessions, in terms of different practice types (technical and tactical skills, speed/agility, power/strength, and endurance), did not significantly differ between the two groups.⁵ This approach offers valuable insights into the variables influencing athletic development and career success.⁶

The Deliberate Practice Framework is founded on the notion that the quantity of practice, quantified as 10 years, plays a crucial role in the development of expertise. This type of practice is characterized by activities that require higher levels of effort and attention, often with less enjoyment, specifically aimed at improving targeted aspects of performance.⁷ The approach emphasizes that sports expertise is typically achieved through early specialization, based on three key principles:^8–10 (1) the best athletes often engage in a single sport at a younger age than those who are sub-elite; (2) top athletes begin deliberate practice activities at younger ages compared to their lower-level counterparts; and (3) elite athletes accumulate more hours of deliberate practice than sub-elite athletes. The focus on deliberate practice and early specialization is associated with an earlier peak performance age.^10–12 However, this approach also raises higher expectations for athletes, coaches, and parents, and limits the psychosocial development of youth.⁷ Given this context, analysing the training and competition practices of Olympic athletes retrospectively, offers valuable insights into the development of sport expertise.

Studies conducted with Olympic and World Championship athletes have shown that performance at younger ages does not predict performance in adulthood.^10,11 Additionally, peak performance typically occurs at around the age of 28.^13,14 Two recent systematic reviews explored the relationship between success in youth sports and elite achievement.^15,16 The first review, which included both retrospective (22,961 adult athletes) and prospective (38,383 adult athletes) studies, found that junior athletes do not typically reach the same level of competition as senior athletes.¹⁵ The second review, which included a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies analysing the association between junior and senior performance, confirmed that junior performance accounted for only 0–4.6% of adult performance.¹⁶ Moreover, the training of Olympic athletes at younger ages is often characterized by autonomy and diversification, with specialization occurring at later stages.^17–19 These findings challenge the key premises of deliberate practice. However, the specific characteristics of practice (e.g., technical training, velocity training, strength, and conditioning) in which Olympic athletes engage from a young age and their relationship with adult performance are lacking. Notably, two studies on elite male and female soccer players have described the types of practices across different age groups.^20,21 Among female senior world-class players, play was the predominant activity through all developmental ages. Notably, world-class players, compared to lower-performing Bundesliga players, showed greater proportions of play and smaller proportions of physical conditioning.²⁰ The data from male Bundesliga and world-class players showed that the distribution of training time to different activities varied between the season and the preparation period across developmental age periods. Across age, play was again the predominant activity during the season. However, within the preparation period, proportions changed across ages: the relative proportion of play decreased, and the relative proportion of physical condition increased from childhood through adulthood.²¹ Gullich et al.²² also conducted a study comparing Olympic and World Championship medallists with non-medallists in terms of their career development. Specifically, it examines (i) the impact of coach-led practices and training in their primary sport, (ii) participation in other sports, and (iii) involvement in peer-led sporting activities. According to the taxonomy of expertise distinguishing athletes who compete at the international level is a key consideration in the field of sports expertise.

The aims of the present study were: (1) to describe the practice characteristics of Olympic athletes throughout their development, (2) to understand how these training and competition practices relate to number of Olympic Games participations, and (3) to compare successful Olympic athletes with non-successful participants in terms of their training and competition experiences, both in their primary sport and in other sports.

Methodology

Ethics procedures

This study was conducted in accordance with the standards outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. The objectives and procedures were explained to each athlete individually, and informed consent was obtained from all participants. The project received approval from the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Health Sciences, Sports Science Program at the University of Applied and Environmental Sciences (Acta – CD-1-2024).

Participants

The first author (DS) individually contacted twenty athletes for participation. Participants were recruited using a convenience sampling method. The sample included twenty Colombian Olympic athletes from eight different sports: boxing (n = 4), taekwondo (n = 2), judo (n = 1), shooting (n = 1), Olympic diving (n = 1), artistic swimming (n = 2), swimming (n = 2), athletics (n = 5), weightlifting (n = 1), and cycling BMX (n = 1). On average, participants had two Olympic appearances, with a minimum of one and a maximum of four. The sports were categorized into three groups based on the type of task in competition: metric sports (5 athletics, 2 swimming, 1 weightlifting), combat sports (4 boxing, 2 taekwondo, 1 judo), artistic-Composition Sports (2 artistic swimming, 1 Olympic diving, 1 cycling BMX park). Since the shooter did not fit into any of these categories, this athlete was not included in the analysis when comparing sports by the type of task in competition. The characteristics of each athlete, including sport, sex, age of peak performance, number of participations in Olympic Games and, Olympic achievement, are presented in Supplementary File 1.

Interview protocol

Retrospective questionnaires have been established as a reliable and valid method for characterizing athletic participation from childhood to adulthood.^20,23–26 This retrospective questionnaire (note that it is not a psychological questionnaire demanding psychometric validation) specifically identified the types of activities, and the amount of time spent on each activity. The retrospective questionnaire was orally applied by means of interviews, which were conducted via video conferencing using Microsoft Teams®, with athletes encouraged to find a comfortable and confidential environment. The software LimeSurvey® allowed investigators to continuously monitor the protocol. Each interview lasted approximately 60 to 90 min. The following variables were extracted for analysis: age at which they specialized in the Olympic sport (in years), age at which they began competing (in years), age at which they began international competition (in years), training duration per year (in hours per year), and the proportion of time spent on technical skills, speed, strength, and conditioning per year (as a percentage). The average values for training duration and the proportion of time spent on technical skills, speed, strength, and conditioning were calculated for participants aged ≤10 years to ≥23 years. An exact definition of each variable is provided in Supplementary Table 2 and was explained during each interview.

Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviation, were calculated for training time (hours per year) and the percentage of time spent on technical, velocity, or strength and conditioning training. Means and standard deviations were calculated for each age group, for the total sample, and by sport type (combat sports, metric sports, artistic-composition sports). Spearman correlation coefficients (R_S) were computed to assess relationships between age at peak performance, age at which participants began international competition, and the number of Olympic participations, in relation to time spent on technical, velocity, or strength and conditioning practice. Additionally, the influence of age at which Olympic athletes began their sport was correlated with age at which they began competing, age at which they began international competition, and age at peak performance. The magnitude of the correlation coefficients was qualitatively interpreted according to the criteria set by Hopkins et al.²⁷: trivial (r < 0.1), small (0.1 ≤ r < 0.3), moderate (0.3 ≤ r < 0.5), large (0.5 ≤ r < 0.7), very large (0.7 ≤ r < 0.9), and nearly perfect (r ≥ 0.9). To compare medallists and athletes who received diplomas with those who did not (i.e., athletes who only participated in the Olympics), independent t-test was conducted. The significance level was set at 0.05. The statistical testing was two-tailed. The statistical analyses and figures were developed using SPSS version 28.0 (SPSS Inc., IBM Company, N.Y., USA) and GraphPad Prism (version 5.00 for Windows, GraphPad Software, San Diego, California, USA, www.graphpad.com).

Results

Results are presented next, starting with the sport practices of the Olympic athletes. Table 1 summarizes the minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation of sport participation items reported by the Olympians. Figure 1 (panel A) displays the overall mean and standard deviation for training time (measured in hours per year), along with the corresponding values categorized by age groups. The overall mean training time for Olympic athletes was 1163 ± 953 h.year⁻¹, with a range of 85 to 3020 h^.year⁻¹. A significant increase in training duration was observed as athletes aged from ≤10 years to ≥23 years: ≤10 years: 289 ± 450 h.year⁻¹; 11–12 years: 681 ± 861 h.year⁻¹; 13–14 years: 927 ± 986 h.year⁻¹; 15–16 years: 1200 ± 1117 h.year⁻¹; 17–18 years: 1283 ± 1096 h.year⁻¹; 19–20 years: 1397 ± 1194 h.year⁻¹; 21–22 years: 1669 ± 1488 h.year⁻¹; ≥23 years: 1855 ± 1766 h.year⁻¹. Considerable interindividual has also been observed within and across age groups as well as within and across types of sports. Panels B, C, and D detail the characteristics of practice by illustrating the percentage of time devoted to technical practice, velocity training, and strength and conditioning, respectively. As shown in Panel B, the percentage technical skills practice was primary throughout their career although it decreased over the developmental years (≤10 years: 72.5 ± 16.0%; 11–12 years: 62.0 ± 1.5%; 13–14 years: 51.6 ± 16.1%; 15–16 years: 46.2 ± 19.3%; 17–18 years: 44.0 ± 18.7%; 19–20 years: 38.1 ± 20.6%; 21–22 years: 38.8 ± 22.5%; ≥23 years: 38.6 ± 21.7%). The significance of training for physical abilities – including velocity and other physical conditioning – increased across age more than technical skills training, resulting in a decrease in the proportion of technical skills training throughout youth. However, this trend appeared to plateau in adulthood.

Figure 1.

The means and standard deviations for training time are displayed in panel A, with panel B focusing on the time spent in technical training. Panel C presents velocity, while panel D addresses strength and conditioning training. These variables are reported for both the overall sample and by age group. Note: the black dots represent the time and percentage of time reported by each athlete, while the triangles indicate the overall training time, and the percentages allocated to technical skills, velocity, strength, and conditioning for each athlete.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics of training hours, and milestone ages for Olympic.

	Descriptive statistics
Variable	Range	Mean	Standard deviation
Hours of training, per year	(85; 3020)	1163	978
Hours of training, sum 12–18 years	(278; 14,652)	4382	4163
Age of specialization in Olympic sport, years	(4; 17)	11	4
Age at beginning of competition, years	(7; 19)	14	3
Age at beginning of international competition, years	(9; 23)	17	4
Age at peak performance, years	(22; 33)	26	3

Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics (mean ± standard deviation) for sport participation items, categorized by sport type: combat sports, metric sports, and artistic-composition sports. Athletes in artistic-composition sports specialized in the Olympic sport, began competing and reached the international level earlier than combat and metric sports. However, the number of participations in the Olympics was comparable among artistic-composition and metric sports. Figure 2 illustrates the percentage of time dedicated to technical practice, strength and conditioning, and velocity training across the different sports categories throughout athletic development. In all three groups, the percentage of time dedicated technical practice tended to decrease during adolescence, while time spent on velocity training increased. Notably, athletes in metric sports reported a significant increase in the percentage of time dedicated to strength and conditioning practices. Given

Figure 2.

Percentage of practice time dedicated to technical skills, strength and conditioning, and velocity by sport category and age group.

Table 2.

Age structure and the number of participations in the Olympics categorized by sport.

	Sport category
Variable	Combat sports (n = 7)	Artistic-composition sports (n = 4)	Metric sports (n = 8)
Age of specialization in Olympic sport, years	12.7 ± 2.9	10.2 ± 3.3	11.1 ± 4.2
Age at beginning of competition, years	15.4 ± 2.1	12.2 ± 4.3	14.5 ± 2.7
Age at beginning of international competition, years	20.0 ± 2.1	14.7 ± 4.8	16.0 ± 3.4
Age at peak performance, years	26.5 ± 3.0	25.7 ± 2.6	26.5 ± 2.8
Participation in the Olympics, number	1.4 ± 0.8	2.8 ± 0.5	2.8 ± 1.3

Combat sports (4 boxing, 2 taekwondo, 1 judo), artistic-composition sports (2 artistic swimming, 1 Olympic diving, 1 BMX), metric sports (5 athletics, 2 swimming, 1 weightlifting).

The training time and percentage of time allocated to velocity training showed no association with age milestones, such as the age at first competition, age at first international competition, age at peak performance, or even with the number of Olympic participations. In contrast, a younger participation in international competitions was associated with greater proportions of physical conditioning in late adolescence and adulthood (see Table 3). The magnitudes of the significant correlation coefficients ranged from −0.447 (15–16 years) to −0.525 (≥23 years). The overall association between time spent on strength and conditioning and age at first international competition was large (r = −0.533, p = 0.009). This negative correlation suggests that earlier participation in international competitions is associated with a greater percentage of practice time dedicated to physical conditioning. On average, athletes began competing in international championships at age 16.5 years. Therefore, the results imply that a younger international debut is linked to greater proportions of physical conditioning through late adolescence and adulthood. Additionally, a positive association was found between the relative time dedicated to technical skills training until age 10 years and later number of participations in Olympic Games (r = 0.612, p = 0.030). Conversely, there was a negative association between the total amount of practice and the frequency of Olympic participation (r = −0.205).

Table 3.

Associations between practice contents and international participation in sports.^a

Correlation analysis
Y₁ (variable)	X₁ (variable)	R_S value	p value (one-tailed)	(qualitative)
Age at beginning international competition (yrs)	Strength and conditioning time (%)
	≤10 yrs	−0.057	0.447	(trivial)
	11–12 yrs	−0.352	0.131	(moderate)
	13–14 yrs	−0.344	0.081	(moderate)
	15–16 yrs	−0.447	0.036	(moderate)
	17–18 yrs	−0.492	0.023	(moderate)
	19–20 yrs	0.007	0.489	(trivial)
	21–22 yrs	−0.274	0.128	(small)
	≥23 yrs	−0.525	0.011	(large)
	Overall	−0.533	0.009	(large)

Number of participations in Olympics (n)	Technical time (%)
	≤10 yrs	0.612	0.030	(large)
	11–12 yrs	0.052	0.433	(trivial)
	13–14 yrs	−0.208	0.203	(small)
	15–16 yrs	−0.232	0.177	(small)
	17–18 yrs	−0.446	0.032	(trivial)
	19–20 yrs	−0.298	0.108	(small)
	21–22 yrs	−0.425	0.035	(moderate)
	≥23 yrs	−0.447	0.028	(moderate)
	Overall	−0.205	0.193	(small)

Only the significant correlations were presented.

R_S (Spearman's correlation coefficient).

Figure 3 illustrates the relationships between the age at which an athlete specialized in an Olympic sport and the ages at which they first competed (panel A), first participated in international competitions (panel B), and reached their peak performance (panel C). The age of specialization in an Olympic sport was strongly associated with the age at first competition (r = 0.636, p = 0.003). It also showed a moderate correlation with the age at first international competition (r = 0.403, p = 0.039) and was also moderately associated with the age at peak performance (r = 0.398, p = 0.041). Given that differences across types of sports are consistently in the same direction for the variables considered, these correlations could be confounded by the type of sport. However, no significant association was found between the age of specialization in athletes’ respective Olympic sport and the number of times athletes participated in the Olympics (r = −0.187, p = 0.215).

Figure 3.

The relationship between the age at which they specialized in Olympic sport and the age at which they start competing is illustrated in panel A. Panel B depicts the age at which they begin an international competition. Panel C shows the age at which they reach peak performance.

Successful and less successful athletes in the Olympics did not differ in the following participation variables: the amount of practice, the percentage of time allocated to technique, velocity, strength training, or age-related variables connected to sport participation and age at peak performance, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4.

Descriptive statistics and mean comparisons of sport practice time, age of sport participation, peak performance and number of participations in Olympics between among athletes who received a medal or diploma and those who only participate in Olympics without receiving a diploma.

	Comparison between groups (mean ± standard deviation)		Independent t-test
Variable	Medallist or received diploma (n = 12)	Not received diploma (n = 8)	t-value	p
Hours of training, per year	1185 ± 936	1128 ± 1104	0.124	0.903
Hours of training, sum 12–18 years	4526 ± 3765	4166 ± 4968	0.185	0.856
Technical time, %	40.2 ± 8.2	42.7 ± 20.6	0.380	0.709
Velocity time, %	30.1 ± 7.7	27.9 ± 3.3	0.695	0.497
Strength and conditioning time, %	31.7 ± 14.9	29.4 ± 9.5	0.377	0.711
Age of specialization in Olympic sport, years	11.7 ± 3.2	10.9 ± 4.2	0.479	0.637
Age at beginning of competition, years	14.0 ± 3.2	14.4 ± 3.1	0.261	0.797
Age at beginning of international competition, years	16.5 ± 3.8	17.8 ± 4.1	0.699	0.494
Age at peak performance, years	26.2 ± 2.6	26.8 ± 2.8	0.477	0.639

Discussion

The current study investigates the training and competition practices of Colombian Olympic athletes throughout their career development. It also examines how practice variables are associated with the attainment of medals or diplomas at the Olympic Games. The main findings indicate a systematic increase in training volume, measured in hours, over the years. Throughout all ages, technical skills practice remained the primary focus, constituting the largest type of practice, particularly during childhood and early adolescence. During these formative years, physical conditioning—encompassing speed, power/strength, and endurance training—plays a secondary role. As athletes progress in age, the increase in physical conditioning and velocity training outpaces the growth in technical skills training. Consequently, the relative proportion of time dedicated to technical skills training decreases as athletes mature through childhood and adolescence. In addition, it is important to highlight the differences in sport practice variables and the distribution of practice time across various sports. These factors can significantly affect overall athletic development and performance. Interestingly, none of the training and competition variables effectively differentiate between successful and non-successful athletes at the Olympics.

The present sample of Olympic Colombian athletes trained for longer durations throughout their careers compared to world-class athletes from other countries,^{20,21,28–32} as shown in Table 5. Additionally, these Olympians specialized exclusively in their respective Olympic sports three years earlier than their counterparts from other countries.^{20,21,25,28–32} Although somewhat speculative, these findings suggest that the Colombian sports system may place greater emphasis on earlier specialization. However, given that our sample is from a developing country with pronounced economic inequality, many youth athletes may view sport as their only opportunity to escape the hardships of their future life, which could explain their willingness to undertake such extreme training loads.

Table 5.

Comparison of training time of current sample with other studies.

			Mean annual main-sport training hours
Reference	Sport	Sample	11–14 yrs	15–18 yrs	19–22 yrs	+23 yrs
Present study	Olympic sports	Olympians	804	1242	1533	1855
Hardy et al. (2013)	Olympic sports	Serial gold medalists	156	396	662	934
Hornig et al. (2016)	Soccer	World-class	180	300	415	510
Johnson et al., (2006)	Swimming	World-class	436	793	861	851
Güllich (2014)	Field hockey	Olympic champions	160	295	410	500
Moesch et al. (2011)	Csg sports	World class	423	750	743
Güllich (2018)	Track and field	Olympic games/ World class medalists	240	570	746	888
Güllich (2019)	Soccer	World-class	149	338	567	643
Barth et al. (2020)	Olympic sports	Olympic games/ World class medalists	211	575	928	1033
Sample-weighted mean from previous studies	207	608	747	866

The deliberate practice framework does not effectively explain the attainment of expertise in the Olympics. The training volume among Colombian Olympians’ was extraordinarily large, especially in childhood and early adolescence, compared to world-class athletes from other countries, however, the accumulated training hours in the present study varied widely, averaging 4382 h for athletes aged 12 to 18. Previous studies have also documented substantial variability in the number of practice hours required to attain expertise. For instance, Belgian soccer players reported requiring 7000 h to reach a professional level,⁸ while Australian team sport athletes noted needing only 3939 h.⁹ In contrast, Olympic gymnasts were reported to engage in 18,835 h of practice.³³ A meta-analysis of 2765 sports participants found that the quantity of sport practice ranged from 600 to 6029 h by age 19.³⁴ The deliberate practice model posits that optimal performance should be achieved at younger ages.¹⁰ The data from the present study indicate that peak performance occurs at the age of 25; however, variability among different types of sports should be taken into account. This suggests that early specialization should not be the primary focus for Olympic athletes. Additionally, later specialization in Olympic sports is associated with an older age at peak performance. Furthermore, deliberate practice explains only 1% of performance in elite athletes.³⁴ The meta-analytical evidence showed that among the highest levels of senior performance, world class vs. national class, peak performance was even negatively associated with amount of sport-specific practice. Moreover, world-class athletes accumulated significantly less main-sport practice than lower-performing national-class athletes.¹⁶ Overall, the quantity of practice alone is insufficient to account for the attainment of expertise in sports, as it fails to consider the development of physical training patterns and psychosocial influences. The deliberate practice framework has been questioned, particularly regarding the quantity of practice. Deliberate practice is typically defined as an effortful activity aimed at improving specific aspects of performance, often characterized by low enjoyment. However, certain activities in sports, such as coach-led practice, do not fully align with all the premises of deliberate practice framework.³⁵ By contrast, analytical and empirical evidence from sports suggests that (a) athletes enjoy coach-led practice and (b) improving one's performance may be an intrinsic or extrinsic motivational stimulus, where athletes are motivated by the intrinsic rather than the extrinsic component.³⁶ Unfortunately, while the present study quantified the type of practice, it did not characterize it in detail.

The Developmental Model of Sport Participation³⁷ consists of three distinct phases: sampling years (ages 6–12), specializing years (ages 13–15), and investment years (age 16 and older). During the sampling years, athletes should primarily engage in deliberate play activities, such as street football or street basketball. The specialized years are characterized by a combination of deliberate play and deliberate practice, serving as a transition phase before committing to a single sport during the investment years. On the other hand, meta-analytic evidence does not support the assumption that deliberate play is prominent during childhood and early adolescence. The emphasis on velocity, strength, and conditioning practices during the sampling years (under 12 years), along with earlier specialization in Olympic sports compared to similar groups, suggests an excessive focus on athletic performance at an early stage.^15,16 Interestingly, while those who devoted more time to strength and conditioning reached international competitions at younger ages, this did not correlate with the attainment of Olympic medals or diplomas. The decline in the percentage of technical practice during athletic development is reflected by a decreased in the number of Olympics participations. However, technical skills training remained the most prevalent type of practice throughout adulthood and adolescence, surpassing speed and physical conditioning. The importance of strength and conditioning practices for youth athletes is well-documented.^38,39 Given these data, it is essential to consider the timing of training for each capacity during the developmental years to create an optimal environment for athletic growth. With this in mind, based on the evidence extracted from the Colombian Olympians, which contrasts with the performance of world-class athletes from Western Europe and the U.S., the revision of the Colombian system needs to be re-evaluated.

In the present study, the developmental participation patterns of international elite athletes did not distinguish between those who were successful in the Olympics and those who merely participated. Talent development and increased athletic functionality arise from the interaction between various constraints related to the individual, the task, and the environment.⁴⁰ Engaging with multiple affordances—opportunities for action—can enhance athletic functionality.⁴¹ A practical application for athletes competing in the 1500 m event suggests that training sessions should concentrate on preparing for uncontrollable surges from opponents and improving decision-making in dynamic race scenarios.⁴² Numerous examples from World Championships and the Olympics indicate that challenging environments can be pivotal in enhancing performance. However, the present study did not evaluate the representativeness of practice, defined as the correspondence of the performer-environment system between training and competition. This could be a critical factor in distinguishing between Olympic athletes who secured medals and those who did not.^43,44

The strengths of this study are noteworthy. A previous meta-analysis examining the association between junior and senior performance included 21 studies with samples from Western countries.¹⁶ In contrast, the present study, which focuses on a South American sample, fills a significant gap in the literature by providing a unique perspective. Additionally, the organization (i.e., microstructure) of training sessions during developmental years has been rarely examined in Olympic or equivalent athletes.^20,21,45 Investigating the “microstructure” of various activity types within training practices complements the analysis of “macrostructure”.⁴⁶ However, it is important to note that the description of developmental activities is based on a convenience sample of Colombian Olympic athletes across various sports, which may limit the generalizability of these findings to other populations or specific sports. Additionally, the study is primarily observational, which restricts the ability to infer causality. The retrospective survey methodology introduces potential limitations, such as recall bias, selection error, and limited control over errors, all of which could impact the accuracy of comparisons between groups. Other relevant variables—such as age at which coach-led practice began, proportion of play, types of games, warm-up and cool-down activities, and participation in other sports—were not collected, and this should be acknowledged as a limitation. To address these limitations, future research should include more robust samples of elite athletes followed from childhood through late adolescence, especially in developing countries. Furthermore, combining quantitative data with interviews across different domains would offer a richer understanding of developmental activities.

Conclusion

This retrospective study provides valuable insights into Olympic development, particularly in Colombia. The absolute volume of practice is considerably higher than that of world-class athletes from many Western industrialized countries. However, practice amounts vary significantly within this highly successful homogeneous sample. In terms of the microstructure of practice, technical skills training constituted the largest portion at all ages, while all types of practice—including technical skills training, velocity training, and physical conditioning—increased in absolute amounts with age. Notably, velocity training and physical conditioning increased more than technical skills training, resulting in a decrease in the relative proportion of technical skills training as children progress through childhood and adolescence. Furthermore, later specialization in the Olympics was associated with the age at which peak performance tends to occur, typically during adulthood.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-spo-10.1177_17479541251363874 - Supplemental material for Training and competition pathways to the Olympic games: Insights from developmental experiences of Colombian Olympians

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-spo-10.1177_17479541251363874 for Training and competition pathways to the Olympic games: Insights from developmental experiences of Colombian Olympians by Diego Sanchéz, Diogo V. Martinho, Duarte Araújo, Élvio R. Gouveia, António Figueiredo, Nestor Saavedra, Adam Field and Hugo Sarmento in International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-2-spo-10.1177_17479541251363874 - Supplemental material for Training and competition pathways to the Olympic games: Insights from developmental experiences of Colombian Olympians

Supplemental material, sj-docx-2-spo-10.1177_17479541251363874 for Training and competition pathways to the Olympic games: Insights from developmental experiences of Colombian Olympians by Diego Sanchéz, Diogo V. Martinho, Duarte Araújo, Élvio R. Gouveia, António Figueiredo, Nestor Saavedra, Adam Field and Hugo Sarmento in International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

This research was funded by the Portuguese Recovery and Resilience Program (PRR), IAPMEI/ANI/ FCT under the Agenda [C645022399–00000057] (eGamesLab).

Ethical considerations

The project received approval from the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Health Sciences, Sports Science Program at the University of Applied and Environmental Sciences (Acta – CD-1-2024).

Consent to participate

Verbal consent was obtained from all Olympic athletes to participate in the present study.

Consent for publication

Not applicable. The information of participants was anonymized.

Data availability

The data will be available under a reasonable request from the corresponding author.

ORCID iDs

Diogo V Martinho

Élvio R Gouveia

António Figueiredo

Supplemental material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

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