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Abstract

Recreational soccer is a practical and engaging strategy to improve health-related fitness, cognitive function, and overall lifestyle in adolescents. This study evaluated the effects of soccer training on selective attention and physical performance in untrained female adolescents. Thirty-two participants were assigned to either a soccer intervention group (n = 16; Age 12.69 ± 0.27 years; Weight 48.65 ± 10.11 kg; Height 1.60 ± 0.04 m; Years from Peak Height Velocity [Y-PHV] 0.52 ± 0.41) or a control group continuing regular physical education (n = 16; Age 12.93 ± 0.11 years; Weight 51.06 ± 11.48 kg; Height 1.60 ± 0.05 m; Y-PHV 0.75 ± 0.37). Pre- and post-intervention assessments included physical fitness tests (medicine ball throw, countermovement jump, sprint, balance) and selective attention using the d2 attention test. The soccer group improved all physical measures: medicine ball throw (+22.8%, Cohen’s d = 0.80), countermovement jump (+18.7%, Cohen’s d = 1.33), sprint performance (−10.3%, Cohen’s d = 1.72), and balance (+43.0%, Cohen’s d = 1.37). Both groups improved concentration, with a larger effect in the soccer group (F = 16.96, Cohen’s d = 1.24), and total errors decreased significantly (F = 21.06, Cohen’s d = 0.52). Recreational soccer in school programs appears to be an effective intervention to enhance physical fitness and cognitive function in adolescent females who are not engaged in regular physical activity.

Keywords

soccer cognition health fitness training

“Our results showed that the soccer group exhibited a large increase in cognitive performance compared with the PE control group.”

Introduction

Adolescence is a critical period characterized by significant physiological and psychological changes.^1,2,3 During this phase, adolescents undergo physical, cognitive, and emotional transformations that shape their overall development and set the stage for future health outcomes.^1,4 Unhealthy lifestyle behaviors, such as sedentary behavior, poor dietary choices, and insufficient physical activity, contribute to the development of metabolic syndrome and related chronic diseases across all populations, including adolescents.⁵ Adolescence is a time of self-discovery, identity formation, and emotional turmoil.⁶ Recognizing the importance of regular physical activity for children and adolescents, the World Health Organization recommends a minimum of 60 min per day of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity to promote optimal health.⁷ Encouraging adolescents to adopt and maintain an active lifestyle necessitates engaging them in physical activities that are enjoyable, socially engaging, and motivating.⁸

Recreational soccer has gained recognition for its potential positive effects on physical and cognitive performance among adolescents.^9,10 This team-based sport not only offers a fun and engaging experience but also incorporates various physical fitness components, such as aerobic endurance, speed, balance, and flexibility.^11,12 Engaging in team-based sports promotes social interaction, teamwork, and cooperation, which contribute to the development of interpersonal skills and positive social relationships.¹³ Furthermore, the cognitive demands of the game, such as decision-making, tactical awareness, and spatial perception, may enhance participants’ cognitive function and executive control.^13,14 This form of physical activity is highly relevant for lifestyle, as recreational soccer represents an accessible, enjoyable, and socially engaging activity that can be integrated into the daily routines of adolescents. By simultaneously enhancing cognitive and physical performance, soccer training promotes both mental and physical health, supporting healthier lifestyle habits that may extend into adulthood.

Only one published study has reported on the acute effects of the acute effects of high-intensity recreational soccer on inhibitory control (i.e., the ability to suppress automatic or irrelevant responses to stay focused on a task).¹⁵ The authors of this study reported that high‐intensity small‐sided soccer games can transiently improve measures of inhibitory control and neurophysiological correlates of attention.¹⁵ However, the training effects of recreational soccer on measures of attention and concentration have not yet been investigated.

Despite the growing interest in recreational soccer programs, limited research has specifically examined their effects on the physical and cognitive performance of female adolescents. School-based interventions have been widely implemented to promote physical activity, cognitive development, and overall health among adolescents. These interventions vary in type and approach, including structured PE programs, active classroom breaks, after-school sports, and movement-based learning activities. Evidence shows that such interventions can improve both physical fitness and cognitive outcomes, particularly attention and executive function, while fostering healthier lifestyle habits in adolescents.^8,16

The current study builds on this body of research by examining recreational soccer as a practical, enjoyable, and socially engaging school-based activity aimed at enhancing physical and cognitive performance and promoting positive lifestyle behaviors. Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to investigate the effects of a 10-week recreational soccer program on the physical and cognitive performance of female adolescents. By shedding light on the potential benefits of engaging in enjoyable and socially engaging physical activities, this research aimed to contribute to the expanding body of knowledge focused on promoting healthier lifestyles among adolescents.

Methods

Study Design and Participants

This randomized interventional trial occurred at a single school in [Zaghouen region, Tunisia] between January and April 2023.

To be included, all participants had to be healthy, not suffering from any kind of acute or chronic disease and not receiving medical treatment. Furthermore, it is required that they abstain from engaging in regular physical activity, except for their physical education program, for a minimum of 2 years. Participation in regular sports club outside of the school was applied as a non-inclusion criterion. Non-attendance of the post-testing sessions or having more than 20% rate of absence during training sessions were applied as exclusion criteria. All participants were fully informed of the risks and discomforts associated with the experimental procedures. They agreed verbally to participate in the study, and their parents or guardians signed and informed consent. The protocol of the study conformed to the Declaration of Helsinki for human research, and the ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Ethical Committee of (the Faculty of Medicine of Sousse, Tunisia (Ref: CEFMS 178/2023).

After baseline testing (i.e., physical fitness tests and d2 test of attention (d2)), participants were randomly allocated (simple randomization) to either a soccer group (small-sided soccer training + PE sessions) or a control group (PE sessions only).

Sample Size

The required sample size was 32 total participants (16 per group), and we initially recruited 44 to account for exclusion criteria and dropouts.

Training Intervention

The soccer group participated in 2 sessions of outdoor regular small-sided soccer per week in addition to their PE program over 10 weeks. Training usually took place on Wednesday and Friday afternoons. Each session began with a brief dynamic warm-up followed by 30-45 min of ordinary small-sided soccer drills (4 vs 4 to 7 vs 7). The small-sided games were played with varying rules and with goal keepers on an outdoor field, and pitch sizes were adjusted according to the number of players (from 20 × 15 m to 30 × 20 m for 4 vs 4, and from 45 × 20 to 60 × 30 m for 7 v 7).¹⁷ The control group participated in the regular physical education (PE) program, which consisted of 2 45-minute sessions per week and included activities such as gymnastics, athletics, and various ball games.

Measurements and Testing

Measurements during Training

At the end of each session, participants were administered the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale to assess their perceived effort. The RPE scale ranged from 0 (i.e., no perceived effort (rest)) to 10 (i.e., maximal perceived effort (the most stressful exercise ever performed)).¹⁸

Anthropometric and Maturity Assessment

Participants’ age, height, and weight were recorded at baseline. Height was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm using a stadiometer, and body weight was assessed to the nearest 0.1 kg using a calibrated digital scale. Body mass index (BMI) was then calculated as weight (kg) divided by height squared (m²). Age at peak height velocity (PHV) was used as an indicator of maturity, representing the period of rapid growth during adolescence. Including Y-PHV helps normalize maturational differences and ensures that outcomes reflect the intervention effects rather than natural growth variability. PHV is defined as the period of maximum growth rate during adolescence when an individual experiences a rapid increase in height (19). Years to and from PHV (Y-PHV, years) was calculated using sex-specific equations based on anthropometric measures such as body mass, height, leg length, and sitting height.¹⁹

Physical Performance Testing

All physical tests were performed in the same condition and time of day using a random fashion after a brief dynamic warm-up. Aerobic fitness was estimated using the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (IRT, m) level 1.²⁰ Repeated 20-m runs were made back and forth between 2 markers at progressively increasing speeds prompted by an audio signal; a 10 s recovery interval was allowed between 40-m bouts, and the test was considered as completed when the participant twice failed to maintain the required running pace or reached voluntary exhaustion. Sprint performance (s) was evaluated with 20-m sprints.²¹ The participants performed 2 maximal 20-m sprints using electronic timing gates (Brower Timing Systems, Salt Lake City, UT, USA; accuracy of 0.01 s). Explosive power was estimated using the backward medicine ball throwing test (m).²² The latter test is a valid and reliable test for assessing explosive power for an analogous total-body movement pattern and general athletic ability,²³ and the test-retest reliability was 0.993 (P < 0.01). The medicine ball throwing test started with the feet shoulder width apart, heels on the zero-measurement line, and the medicine ball held with arms straight out front at shoulder height. At the end of the throw, the participant’ feet were allowed to leave the ground, as would happen with a jumping motion, to minimize any deceleration component of the vertical ground reaction forces. Two repetitions were allowed, and the best distance value was recorded. Jumping performance was evaluated using 2 different jumps. Countermovement jump (CMJ, cm)²³ was used to assess vertical jump height using an Optojump (Microgate, Bolzano, Italy). Participants were instructed to jump as high as possible while keeping their hands on their hips. Horizontal jumping was assessed with the bilateral standing long jump (SLJ, m) using a metal tape measure.²³ Participants were instructed to jump as far as possible horizontally with 2 legs. Two repetitions were allowed for each jump and the best value used for analysis. Postural balance (s) was assessed using the stork balance test.²⁴ Participants stood with their hands on their hips and the opposite foot against the inside of the supporting knee. Participants were instructed to raise the heel from the floor on command and to maintain their balance for as long as possible, as timed by a stopwatch. Two trials were performed twice, and the longest time was recorded. Flexibility was evaluated via the sit and reach test,²⁵ which is a common measure of participants’ lower back and hamstring flexibility. In this test, participants sit on the ground with their legs extended in front and feet against a box or flexibility measuring device. Then, participants are instructed to lean forward and reach as far as possible along the measuring device, aiming to touch or surpass a predetermined point. The distance (cm) reached is recorded as an indicator of flexibility.²⁵

Selective Attention and Concentration Assessment

The revised d2-test of selective attention²⁶ was used to measure attention. In this task, participants were required to search each row of letters for the letter “d” with 2 dashes either above it or below it and cross them out. Participants were instructed to refrain from responding to seductively similar stimuli (e.g., a “d” with 3 dashes or a “p” with 2 dashes).²⁷ The d2-test assessed concentration performance, calculated as the number of correctly crossed-out d2 symbols minus the number of incorrectly crossed-out symbols. The total number of errors was determined by summing the errors made in identifying d2 symbols and incorrectly crossing out non-d2 symbols. The reliability of the d2 test ranges from 0.95 to 0.98, with a validity coefficient of 0.47.²⁷

Statistical Analysis

The normality of quantitative data’ distribution was verified by carrying out the Shapiro–Wilk test, which was preferred over other statistical tests, given the “apparently” small sample size utilized in this study. Descriptive statistical analyses were conducted by calculating the means and SDs for each quantitative data. Paired Student’s t-tests and analysis of variance (ANOVA), or their non-parametric equivalents depending on data normality, were used to examine (a) changes within each group from pre- to post-test, and (b) differences in outcomes between the different intervention groups. Effect sizes were interpreted according to Cohen’s²⁸ guidelines, with values of 0.20-0.49 considered small, 0.50-0.79 medium, and ≥0.80 large. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS v24.0 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA).

Results

A total of 44 students were initially recruited for the study. Seven participants did not meet the inclusion criteria and were therefore excluded prior to baseline testing. Of the remaining 37 participants, five were excluded due to missing more than 2 successive training sessions. Consequently, data from 32 participants were included in the final analyses. The descriptive statistics and anthropometrics data of the participants are presented in table 1. No statistically significant differences were found between the soccer and control groups for any baseline characteristic. The mean post-session RPE evaluated for the soccer training sessions was 4.8 ± 1.4.

Table 1.

Anthropometric Characteristics of the Participants of the 2 Groups.

		Control group (n = 16)		Soccer group (n = 16)		P-value
Data	Unit	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	P-value
Age	(years)	12.93	0.11	12.69	0.27	0.68
Weight	(kg)	51.06	11.48	48.65	10.11	0.71
Height	(m)	1.60	0.05	1.60	0.04	1.00
Body mass index	(kg/m²)	18.46	4.17	16.55	1.38	0.09
Y-PHV	(years)	0.75	0.37	0.52	0.41	0.10

Y-PHV: Years to and from peak height velocity.

*P-value (independent T-test): comparison between the 2 groups.

Effects on Physical Fitness

The effects of recreational soccer training on physical performance are presented in Table 2. The soccer group showed a significant and moderate increase in medicine ball throwing performance (22.8%, Cohen’s d = 0.83), a significant and large increase in CMJ performance (18.7%, Cohen’s d = 1.33), a significant and large increase in sprint performance (−10.3%, Cohen’s d = 1.72), a significant and large increase in balance (43.5%, Cohen’s d = 1.37) after training. There was also a trend to an improvement in aerobic fitness assessed using the Yo-Yo IR1 test (large effect) (20.4%, P = 0.15, Cohen’s d = 1.01). No statistical significant effects were observed for the control group over the 10 weeks of intervention.

Table 2.

Physical Performance Pre- and Post-Intervention for the 2 Groups.

Data	Unit	Groups	Pre	Post	Change %	Cohen’s d	ANOVA
Data	Unit	Groups	Pre	Post	Change %	Cohen’s d	Time	Time x Groups
CMJ	(cm)	Control (n = 16)	21.42 ± 2.78	22.40 ± 1.70	4.6	0.3	16.62^b	6.39^b
CMJ	(cm)	Soccer (n = 16)	22.39 ± 3.15	26.58 ± 3.50^a	18.7	1.33	16.62^b	6.39^b
SLJ	(m)	Control (n = 16)	1.19 ± 0.17	1.20 ± 0.17	0.8	0.05	0.05	0.01
SLJ	(m)	Soccer (n = 16)	1.49 ± 0.09	1.49 ± 0.20	0.0	0.00	0.05	0.01
MBT	(m)	Control (n = 16)	3.57±0.97	3.58 ± 0.84	0.3	0.01	3.91^b	3.72
MBT	(m)	Soccer (n = 16)	3.16 ± 0.86	3.88 ± 0.62^a	22.8	0.83	3.91^b	3.72
Balance	(s)	Control (n = 16)	4.30 ± 1.8X	4.19 ± 1.4X	−2.6	0.06	3.86	5.04^b
Balance	(s)	Soccer (n = 16)	3.98 ± 1.26	5.71 ± 0.91	43.5	1.37	3.86	5.04^b
Yo-Yo IRT	(m)	Control (n = 16)	310±41	293 ± 89	−5.6	0.40	0.98	3.39
Yo-Yo IRT	(m)	Soccer (n = 16)	285±57	343 ± 103	20.4	1.01	0.98	3.39
Sprint 20m	(s)	Control (n = 16)	4.42 ± 0.38	4.28 ± 0.53^a	−3.2	0.36	4.64^b	1.20
Sprint 20m	(s)	Soccer (n = 16)	4.17 ± 0.25	3.74±0.31	−10.3	1.72	4.64^b	1.20
Flexibility	(cm)	Control (n = 16)	5.67 ± 5.89	8.07 ± 5.90	42.0	0.40	2.90	0.10
Flexibility	(cm)	Soccer (n = 16)	6.63 ± 3.00	8.27 ± 4.70	24.7	0.54	2.90	0.10

CMJ: Countermovement jump. Cohen’s d: Effect size. MBT throw. Medicine ball throw test. SLJ: standing long jump test. Yo-Yo IRT: yo-yo intermittent recovery test.

Significantly different from pre-intervention (P ≤ 0.05).

Significant effects of time or interaction time x groups.

Time: indicates the effect of time alone, that is, whether there was a significant change in the outcome from pre- to post-test regardless of the group.

Time × Group interaction: indicates whether the change over time differed between groups, that is, whether one intervention produced a greater or smaller effect than the others.

Effects on Cognition

The effects of recreational soccer training on selective attention and concentration are presented in Table 3. The ANOVA revealed that both groups significantly improved concentration performance with a large improvement occurring for the soccer group (time effect: F = 16.69, Cohen’s d = 1.24), and medium improvement for the control group (Cohen’s d = 0.77). The total number of errors decreased significantly after the intervention in both groups (time effect: F = 21.06, Cohen’s d > 0.50).

Table 3.

Attention Performance Pre- and Post-intervention for the 2 Groups.

Data	Unit	Groups	Pre	Post	Change %	Cohen’s d	ANOVA
Data	Unit	Groups	Pre	Post	Change %	Cohen’s d	Time	Time x Groups
Concentration performance	AV	Control (n = 16)	101.67 ± 47.40	138.50 ± 41.50^a	36.22	0.77	16.69^b	0.002
Concentration performance	AV	Soccer (n = 16)	97.92 ± 30.26	135.60 ± 33.18^a	38.4	1.24	16.69^b	0.002
Total number of errors interaction	AV	Control (n = 16)	196.33 ± 47.13	156.50 ± 41.50^a	−20.28	0.84	21.06^b	2.09
Total number of errors interaction	AV	Soccer (n = 16)	188.27 ± 39.27	167.55 ± 37.23^a	−11.00	0.52	21.06^b	2.09

AV: Absolute value. Cohen’s d: Effect size.

Significantly different from pre-intervention (P ≤ 0.05).

Significant effects of time or interaction time x groups.

Time: indicates the effect of time alone, that is, whether there was a significant change in the outcome from pre- to post-test regardless of the group.

Time × Group interaction: indicates whether the change over time differed between groups, that is, whether one intervention produced a greater or smaller effect than the others.

Discussion

In this randomized, single-site interventional trail among adolescent females who had not engaged in regular physical activity, 10 weeks of recreational soccer resulted in significant improvements in physical fitness and cognition. Subjects in the soccer intervention improved in measures of explosive power, balance, jumping, and sprinting, as well as attention and concentration. These findings may have important implications in today’s society, especially as adolescence is a critical period of female development.

Our findings align with recent studies that have demonstrated how regular soccer training can lead to substantial improvements in aerobic fitness, balance, and jumping ability in previously untrained individuals.¹² Additionally, previous studies have reported significant gains in jump performance among overweight boys and healthy untrained men following periods of recreational soccer.^29,30 Nevertheless, Hammami et al¹² discovered that there were only minor effects on jump performance in untrained adolescents after an 8-week soccer training program. One potential reason for this inconsistency might lie in the varying durations of the training periods observed in different studies, as well as the differences in characteristics among the participants. Additionally, the utilization of different protocols to evaluate vertical jump ability could have played a significant role in the aforementioned inconsistency. The authors argued these positive effects are due to the nature of small-sided ball game activities, which include more than 100 fast runs and sprints per hour and more than 150 specific intense actions such as dribbles, tackles, jumps, and changes of direction.²⁹

For sprinting performance, the within-group analyses showed improvements similar to or slightly lower than data reported in randomized clinical trials for younger adults and untrained adults, which included more participants and longer training periods.¹² Hence, the lack of between-group differences in the other physical tests may be linked to both the sample size and the short period of training. It has been reported that the positive effects of recreational soccer can be explained by the higher exercise intensity achieved during training.⁶ Additionally, recreational soccer represents an odd-impact physical activity that involves intense actions and movements in different directions. The relatively low training sessions’ ratings of perceived exertion compared to the positive outcomes further support the high level of interest and motivation experienced by participants throughout the intervention. Consequently, recreational soccer has the potential to address the issue of low motivation, which is a significant component of physical inactivity, especially among adolescents.

As of July 2023, there have been relatively few studies that have investigated the effects of exercise on cognitive performance, particularly attention. For instance, a study by Hillman et al³¹ showed that children who participated in an after-school physical activity program demonstrated significant improvements in attention and cognitive control compared to a control group. Moreover, a meta-analysis conducted by Verburgh et al³² revealed that exercise interventions had a significant positive effect on attention, with improvements observed in tasks assessing selective attention and inhibitory control in children and adolescents. Our results showed that the soccer group exhibited a large increase in cognitive performance compared with the PE control group. The significantly larger positive effects on concentration performance seen in recreational soccer games compared to regular PE sessions can be attributed to the nature of soccer training. Soccer involves exercises that focus on coordination, decision-making tactics, and various skills, all of which have the potential to enhance concentration and attention.¹³ The dynamic and strategic aspects of soccer demand players to stay focused and make quick decisions, contributing to improved cognitive abilities.¹³

It is worth noting that the findings of this study are in line with previous research that has highlighted the cognitive benefits of sports and physical activities.³³ For example, Chaddock-Heyman et al³³ reported that a 9-month physical activity intervention in preadolescent children led to improved attentional performance and changes in brain activation patterns compared to a control group. The positive impacts of sports on concentration and attention have been well-documented, showing the potential for these activities to not only improve physical fitness but also enhance various cognitive abilities, ultimately promoting overall well-being and academic performance in adolescents.^31,33 As such, integrating recreational soccer and similar sports-based activities into educational settings could be a valuable approach to support students’ cognitive development and academic success.

While advocating soccer as an alternative to traditional aerobic training for large populations, there are a few considerations. As a single-site study, the findings may have limited generalizability to other schools or regions with different socio-cultural or environmental contexts. Second, the relatively small sample size may limit the statistical power and the ability to detect subtle differences between groups. Third, the intervention duration was relatively short, which may not fully capture long-term adaptations or behavioral changes. To gain deeper insights, future research should compare the impacts of recreational soccer with other traditional training programs. In the present study, attention was evaluated using only one test. While the d2 test is considered a valid and reliable assessment tool, it is crucial to supplement it with additional cognitive tests.

Conclusion

Gaining insights into the cognitive and physical benefits associated with regular physical activity, such as enhanced fitness and attention, as demonstrated in this study, can inform the development of targeted lifestyle interventions to support academic performance and overall adolescent health. Our findings indicate that incorporating recreational soccer into regular physical education classes provides an effective and enjoyable stimulus for improving both physical fitness and attention compared with standard PE classes. This suggests that soccer-based programs can serve as a practical strategy to promote health-related fitness, cognitive function, and active lifestyles among untrained adolescents. These results provide valuable evidence to support the implementation of school-based physical activity programs that encourage regular exercise and foster the associated cognitive, academic, and physical benefits.

Consent to Participate

Author has any 20 financial interest or received any financial benefit from this research Participants agreed verbally to 21 participate in the study, and their parents or guardians signed and informed consent.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all the students for their time and effort throughout the study.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Considerations

The protocol of the study conformed to the Declaration of Helsinki for human research, and the ethical 24 approval for the study was obtained from the Ethical Committee of the Faculty of Medicine of Sousse, 25 Tunisia (Ref: CEFMS 178/2023).

ORCID iD

Amri Hammami

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Recreational Soccer Enhances Physical Fitness and Cognition Measures in Untrained Female Adolescents: Results of a Single-Site Randomized Trial

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Methods

Study Design and Participants

Sample Size

Training Intervention

Measurements and Testing

Measurements during Training

Anthropometric and Maturity Assessment

Physical Performance Testing

Selective Attention and Concentration Assessment

Statistical Analysis

Results

Effects on Physical Fitness

Effects on Cognition

Discussion

Conclusion

Consent to Participate

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

Declaration of conflicting interests

Funding

Ethical Considerations

ORCID iD

References