Abstract
The traditional Malaysian Nyonya Kebaya is increasingly overlooked by younger consumers, reflecting limited adaptation to contemporary fashion. This study employs Kansei Engineering to systematically identify and optimize Kebaya design elements that align with young consumers’ perceptual preferences. An exploratory sequential mixed-methods design was used. Sixty-four Kansei words were first extracted from visual analysis, interviews, and literature, then organized into a Kebaya-specific semantic space. Questionnaire surveys, card sorting, and clustering analyses revealed five perceptual dimensions—cultural perception, esthetic sensitivity, perceived trendiness, charm, and material texture—and yielded a distilled set of 12 high-salience Kansei words. These were mapped onto actionable design levers in structure, pattern, technique, and color, forming explicit guidelines for design optimization. The study’s unique contribution is a quantified, replicable KE pipeline tailored to heritage attire that (i) constructs a five-dimension semantic space for the Kebaya, (ii) operationalizes a compact Kansei lexicon for young-market targeting, and (iii) links perceptual cues to concrete design parameters. The framework advances beyond descriptive accounts by providing measurable criteria for redesign. Findings support the revitalization of the Nyonya Kebaya for contemporary markets and offer a generalizable approach to preserving and innovating other traditional garments.
Introduction
Background
Traditional clothing serves as a fundamental aspect of cultural heritage, encapsulating the identity, craftsmanship, and artistic traditions of a community. Among Malaysia’s most distinguished traditional garments, the Nyonya Kebaya holds a prominent position in the nation’s cultural landscape, particularly in Penang, where it remains deeply embedded within the Peranakan (Baba-Nyonya) heritage. Originating from the Baba-Nyonya Chinese community, this attire embodies a distinctive fusion of Chinese and Malay cultural influences, symbolizing the interconnected histories of these ethnic groups.1,2 Renowned for its exquisite embroidery, vibrant fabrics, and intricate patterns, the Nyonya Kebaya reflects an extraordinary level of craftsmanship and artistic expression.3,4
Penang is a principal center of Peranakan heritage and a focal site for the preservation and evolution of the Nyonya Kebaya. 4 Museum holdings such as the Penang Museum, together with traditional markets, festivals, and fashion exhibitions, provide authentic garments and contemporary consumption contexts, making Penang well suited to study design change and current market reception. 5
Despite its deep cultural significance, the production skills and market acceptance of Nyonya Kebaya have been diminishing due to modernization and disruptions in cultural inheritance. 6 The decline in consumer interest, particularly among younger generations, poses a significant threat to the continuity of this rich artisanal tradition. 1 Furthermore, the absence of strategic marketing and branding has resulted in limited international competitiveness, thereby affecting the economic sustainability of Nyonya apparel. 7 Given these challenges, this study aims to investigate consumer preferences, optimize Nyonya Kebaya design, and explore market expansion strategies to ensure its continued relevance in contemporary fashion while preserving its cultural authenticity.
Although the Nyonya Kebaya remains an important cultural artifact, its survival in the modern fashion industry faces substantial challenges. The declining interest in traditional craftsmanship, particularly among younger consumers, threatens the preservation of this intangible cultural heritage. This issue is exacerbated by a lack of innovative approaches to design adaptation, which has created a gap between cultural preservation and contemporary fashion trends. The primary challenges affecting Nyonya Kebaya in contemporary society include market decline, reduced interest in traditional craftsmanship, a disconnect between design adaptation and consumer expectations, and a lack of systematic consumer-driven research.
The declining appeal of traditional craftsmanship is attributed to the younger generation’s waning engagement with artisanal skills and historical garments, posing risks to cultural continuity.1,6 This trend is further intensified by inadequate marketing and branding strategies, which limit the visibility and desirability of Nyonya Kebaya in modern markets. 7 Moreover, the current design of Nyonya Kebaya does not always align with modern consumer preferences, particularly concerning functionality, esthetics, and comfort. While the garment remains an iconic cultural symbol, its slow evolution limits its ability to compete with contemporary fashion trends. A structured, scientific approach is therefore necessary to identify which design attributes resonate most with consumers while maintaining cultural authenticity.
Addressing these research gaps, this study employs Kansei Engineering (KE) as a structured methodology to systematically evaluate consumer perceptions and optimize the design of Nyonya Kebaya. While KE has been extensively applied in product design and fashion innovation, its use in traditional attire, particularly in the context of Nyonya Kebaya, remains underexplored.
This study applies Kansei Engineering (KE) to systematically evaluate consumer emotional responses to the design attributes of the Nyonya Kebaya. Within this framework, a semantic space is defined as a structured model that organizes Kansei words into affective dimensions, thereby linking consumer emotions with specific product design features.8,9 A Kansei word pair refers to a bipolar set of evaluative adjectives that anchors a semantic differential scale and captures respondents’ affective impressions along a latent dimension of product perception. 9
The research methodology consists of four stages. First, Kansei words are collected through questionnaires and literature reviews to capture consumers’ emotional responses to the Kebaya in terms of structure, color, fabric, embroidery, and patterns. Second, these affective descriptors are mapped onto specific design elements, establishing a correspondence between emotions and design variables that enables the quantification of emotional responses. Third, principal component analysis and factor analysis are employed to identify the key design attributes influencing consumer preferences and to construct a data-driven optimization framework. Finally, based on the empirical results, design optimization strategies and strategic recommendations are proposed to enhance Kebaya’s appeal in contemporary markets while preserving its cultural authenticity, thereby providing designers and brands with a feasible pathway for sustainable development.
The primary objective of this study is to develop a scientific framework for optimizing Nyonya Kebaya design through consumer-centered analysis. This research aims to (1) examine consumer preferences for different design attributes of Nyonya Kebaya, including color, pattern, embroidery, and silhouette; (2) construct a Kansei Engineering model to systematically link consumer emotional responses with specific design elements; and (3) develop data-driven design recommendations that balance cultural heritage preservation with contemporary fashion trends, ensuring the sustainability of Nyonya Kebaya in the modern marketplace.
This study contributes to both theoretical advancements and practical applications in heritage fashion and design optimization. Theoretically, it extends the application of Kansei Engineering to traditional clothing design by introducing a structured, consumer-centered approach to quantifying affective responses. It also bridges the gap between cultural preservation and scientific design methodologies, thereby contributing to interdisciplinary research in fashion studies, consumer psychology, and heritage conservation.
Practically, this study provides valuable insights for fashion designers, heritage conservationists, and brands seeking to modernize traditional garments while preserving their cultural authenticity. By offering a consumer-driven design framework, the research equips designers with actionable guidelines for refining Nyonya Kebaya esthetics to align with contemporary market demands. Furthermore, the study underscores the importance of integrating scientific methodologies into heritage fashion studies, advocating for an interdisciplinary approach that merges cultural heritage research with consumer psychology and fashion engineering.
As heritage fashion continues to evolve in response to contemporary market demands, the modernization of traditional garments necessitates a balanced approach that ensures both cultural authenticity and commercial appeal. By employing Kansei Engineering, this study systematically captures consumer preferences and translates them into practical design solutions, offering a comprehensive framework for optimizing Nyonya Kebaya design. The findings from this study contribute to the ongoing discourse on heritage fashion sustainability and serve as a model for the adaptation of other culturally significant garments facing similar market challenges.
Problem statement
Although Nyonya Kebaya, as a part of the Nyonya Baba cultural heritage, is also an intangible cultural heritage of Penang, the production skills and cultural connotations of Nyonya Kebaya are facing the risk of disappearing due to the modernization process and the break in cultural inheritance. 6 The decline in market interest and the weakening of the younger generation’s interest in the inheritance of traditional skills pose challenges to the production crafts and cultural inheritance of Nyonya Kebaya. 1 In addition, owing to the lack of effective marketing and brand building, Nyonya Apparel’s competitiveness in the international market is weak, affecting its sales growth and economic benefits. 7
Literature review
Kansai engineering
Kansei engineering is an important prediction technology that can measure a user’s subjective feelings based on semantic difference technology. 10 Unlike other studies, Kansei Engineering extracted evaluative adjectives through multiple channels, such as interviews and literature reviews, created a semantic space, and evaluated and screened adjectives with consumers as the main body. 9 The most important and unique point in Kansei engineering is the establishment of semantic space and the evaluation and screening of adjectives with consumers as the main body. 11 A semantic difference technique was developed to analyze the semantic structure of Kansei words (KW). The perceptual semantic space was constructed and further divided into multiple evaluation dimensions.
Through semantic difference technology, the semantic structure of Kansei words can be analyzed, and the perceptual semantic space is constructed through Kansei word pairs, which are further divided into multiple evaluation dimensions. In this technique, the dimension of each emotional word is a straight line, and people’s feelings can be measured by the scale between the emotional word and the negative emotional word; for example, beautiful and not beautiful words can be considered a pair of emotional words. 9 A large number of Kansei word pairs (KW pairs) can constitute a perceptual semantic space, and this space can be divided into multiple evaluation dimensions. Among the different dimensions, the KE pair in which consumers are most interested can be selected to achieve more accurate design optimization.
Application of Kansei Engineering in apparel and fashion products
Kansei Engineering (KE) has been widely employed to translate users’ affective impressions into controllable clothing design parameters. In fashion contexts, KE helps capture and operationalize emotional responses to styles and details so that designers can align products with targeted market segments.12,13 Empirical work has linked garment style elements to perceptual psychology through quantitative modeling. Harmankaya and Özsan associated the style design of jackets, coats, and overcoats with women’s perceived preferences, whereas Chen and Cheng developed a regression model linking Kansei (perceptual) vocabularies for women’s professional vests to specific design elements to predict consumers’ purchase intention and preference.14,15 Building on KE theory, subsequent studies have applied the semantic differential (SD) method, factor analysis, analytic hierarchy process (AHP), and regression to a range of apparel categories.Cheongsam, 16 Women’s bra, 17 Suit style, 18 Men’s shirt collar shape, 19 and women’s suit collar styles 20 aimed to understand consumers’ perceptual cognition and demand preferences.
Recent methodological advances in Kansei Engineering enable richer data capture and more collaborative evaluation. Collaborative KE and online platforms allow distributed elicitation and analysis of user preferences. 8 Physiological measures—particularly electroencephalography (EEG)—provide complementary, objective, and time-resolved indicators of affective responses to design stimuli, augmenting self-report data. 21 Although most KE color studies have been conducted in web or interface contexts, 22 the core mapping between hue, saturation, brightness, and contrast and emotional appraisal is theory-driven and therefore readily transferable to textile and fabric selection in fashion.
Despite this breadth, a focused KE application to the Nyonya Kebaya remains limited. Addressing this gap, the present study builds a Kebaya-specific evaluation framework grounded in KE. First, it extracts and clusters Kansei word pairs relevant to Kebaya design. Second, it organizes these pairs within a Kansei semantic space. Third, it maps the semantic space to evaluation dimensions that correspond to actionable levers in structure, pattern, technique, and color. By targeting young consumer segments, the study identifies preferred evaluative adjectives and optimizes Kebaya design parameters that enhance perceived appeal, satisfaction, and purchase intention.
Application of Kansei engineering in clothing and traditional textiles
Across apparel and textile studies, KE provides a coherent framework that connects subjective emotion, sensory judgment, and concrete design decisions.23 –26 Typical protocols integrate SD scales and Likert-type surveys with Quantification Theory I, factor and cluster analysis, and in some cases hierarchical clustering and regression, thereby revealing latent affective factors and their links to specific features. 27 Evaluations commonly involve judgments of physical garments, visual prototypes, or isolated design elements, and recent studies complement these with collaborative online procedures while retaining a consistent analytical toolkit.
Findings converge around two families of determinants. Form level attributes, such as collar and sleeve shape, silhouette, segmentation lines, and quilting geometry, systematically condition perceived style, elegance, and comfort.25 –29 Surface and chromatic attributes, including pattern scale and spacing, palette and contrast, and decorative density, shape impressions of modernity, refinement, and visual attractiveness.24,26 Studies on culturally derived motifs indicate that integrating heritage references, for example, embroidery and historic pattern vocabularies, with contemporary styling deepens emotional connection and supports cultural continuity in modern fashion.30,31 For younger consumers, moderate pattern size and density, whether through blue calico, polka dots, or geometric repeats, are generally preferred when they enable personalization, fashionability, and a refined appearance.24,28,32 The integration of Kansei clusters with product development strategies has been demonstrated in Southeast Asian studies through the use of Factor Analysis, PCA, and the Kano-QFD model. 33 Taken together, KE reliably translates complex affective and esthetic perceptions into design guidelines that improve development efficiency and market alignment.23 –25 Building on these insights, the present research extends KE to traditional Nyonya Kebaya by constructing a multidimensional semantic space tailored to Kebaya design and by explicitly mapping each dimension to modifiable design levers, namely pattern, embroidery technique, fineness, structural styling, and color strategy. This enables user-centered optimization for young consumers while safeguarding cultural authenticity, thereby situating the Kebaya within a robust KE tradition that spans contemporary fashion and traditional textiles.24,25,27 –29,32
Methodology
This study uses the exploratory sequential mixed method on the theoretical basis of Kansei engineering. In the exploratory sequential mixed design, qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis were divided into different stages. First, researchers collect and analyze qualitative data. Then, based on the insights at this stage, the subsequent quantitative stage is performed, which includes large-scale surveys and complex statistical analysis. This type of exploratory sequential design is named qual → QUAN. 34
As shown in Figure 1, this study is grounded in the theoretical foundation of Kansei Engineering (KE) technology and employs an exploratory sequential mixed-methods approach (qual → QUAN). Initially, qualitative data were collected through Visual Approach Content Analysis (VACA), interviews, and literature review to extract Kansei words. Subsequently, a quantitative survey study was conducted based on questionnaire distribution and data analysis. Through this process, the study identified the most consumer-preferred Kansei word pairs within the Kansei semantic space and evaluation dimensions.
Research design.
Qualitative data collection
Leavy indicated that in an exploratory sequential mixed-methods approach, qualitative data can be collected through interviews, observations, literature, and audiovisual materials. 35 In the qualitative data collection phase of this study, Visual Approach Content Analysis, interviews, and literature review were employed to extract Kansei words.
Visual Approach Content Analysis
Visual Approach Content Analysis is a qualitative research method used for the systematic analysis of visual materials (e.g. images, videos) to examine their symbolic, cultural meanings, and design characteristics. 36 This approach integrates the strengths of visual research and content analysis, enabling the scientific classification, coding, and synthesis of design elements to uncover their significance within a cultural context. In this study, Visual Approach Content Analysis is employed to systematically analyze the design elements of Nyonya Kebaya in Penang, Malaysia, aiming to extract its core characteristics and explore its application in Kansei Engineering (KE).
Step 1: Data collection
The data sources used in this study include the Penang Museum, academic literature, and market research. The Penang Museum has a large collection of Nyonya Kebaya costumes from different historical periods, providing key materials for the study of the evolution of traditional designs. In addition, the researcher conducted field research in Penang’s cultural exhibitions and traditional markets (such as the George Town cultural district) to collect modern market application examples of Kebaya. To ensure the academic value of the research samples, the present study invited experts on the history of Peranakan culture and costumes to screen them and finally selected 30 representative Kebayas for in-depth analysis, as shown in Figure 2.
Experimental samples and numbers (partial).
The research sample of this study included 30 Nyonya Kebaya cases. The data collection and screening criteria were as follows:
1) Image resolution: The images of all Kebaya samples should be obtained at more than 300 dpi to ensure the presentation of high-quality details and to facilitate the fine analysis of key design elements such as embroidery, color, and fabric.
2) Data source: The data sources utilized in this study were carefully selected to ensure historical accuracy, representativeness, and scholarly rigor. First, traditional Nyonya Kebaya specimens from the collection of the Penang Museum were chosen due to their significant historical value, reflecting distinct design styles from various historical periods. Second, additional visual and contextual data were systematically compiled from relevant academic literature, cultural studies publications, and specialized monographs on Nyonya costumes, providing essential supplementary historical background. Finally, experts specializing in Peranakan culture and costume history were engaged to critically screen the selected samples. This expert validation process ensured that only authentic traditional designs were included, effectively excluding contemporary adaptations and nontraditional forms, thereby maintaining the academic integrity and representativeness of the research.
Step 2: Design element extraction
The report by Guo, Siti found that opinions collected through questionnaires and expert interviews identified pattern, craftsmanship, structure, and color as the primary factors influencing consumer purchasing decisions. 37 Therefore, the following sections will systematically elaborate on the core design elements—pattern, craftsmanship, structure, and color—determined through the analysis of 30 traditional Nyonya Kebaya garment samples.
1) Pattern
Traditional Nyonya Kebaya prominently features intricate embroidery patterns categorized into three main motifs. Firstly, floral motifs such as peony, orchid, and plum blossom symbolize prosperity, elegance, and longevity, respectively. Secondly, animal motifs, including phoenix, butterfly, crane, and fish, are commonly depicted, representing auspiciousness and prosperity within Peranakan culture. Finally, geometric patterns comprising diamond shapes, cloud and thunder motifs, and wave patterns are frequently employed as decorative borders, contributing to the overall esthetic appeal and visual harmony of the Kebaya designs.
2) Technique
The embroidery techniques identified in traditional Nyonya Kebaya are diverse, each influencing visual texture and the garment’s dimensional qualities. The primary techniques observed include Tebuk Lubang (cutwork embroidery), wherein floral motifs are initially outlined with stitches, followed by the strategic removal of fabric within these outlines to achieve a lace-like, intricate effect. 2 Additional common stitching techniques encompass satin stitch, straight stitch, zigzag stitch, and buttonhole stitch, each of which imparts unique visual and tactile characteristics, enhancing the intricate craftsmanship associated with traditional Kebaya embroidery.
3) Structure
The structural characteristics of traditional Nyonya Kebaya are distinguished by distinct cutting styles, which influence both esthetic presentation and the wearing occasion. The main structural types identified include Kebaya Panjang, a long and loose-fitting garment typically worn with a complementary sarong; Kebaya Renda, characterized by a shorter length with decorative lace embellishments; Kebaya Biku, the earliest documented style featuring distinctive scalloped embroidery edges; and Kebaya Sulam, renowned for its hand-embroidered details, commonly executed on solid-colored fabrics. Each structural variant reflects unique historical influences and cultural preferences within the Peranakan community.
4) Color
The color schemes of traditional Nyonya Kebaya garments were analyzed using the visual coding method and classified into three main categories. The first category, monochrome Kebaya, involves garments rendered entirely in a single color, typically selected for formal or ceremonial occasions. The second category, gradient coloring, features a smooth and visually pleasing transition from darker shades to lighter tones, enhancing depth and dimensionality in the garment’s appearance. Lastly, the category of contrasting colors encompasses vibrant combinations such as blue paired with orange and red with green. These contrasting schemes create visually distinctive designs that effectively capture attention and express the lively esthetic sensibilities inherent in Nyonya culture.
Step 3: Kansei vocabulary extraction
1) On the basis of visual content analysis, interviews, and literature reviews, the perceptual vocabulary of consumers in the design of Nyonya Kebaya was collected, and the Kansei Semantic Space was created.
2) The semantic differential method was used to perform correspondence analysis on the visual elements and Kansei words to reveal consumers’ preferences in terms of esthetic, emotional, and cultural identities.
Step 4: Design optimization and market implementation
1) Optimizing the Nyonya Kebaya Design: On the basis of the results of the Kansei semantic space, color matching, the embroidery style, and tailoring design are optimized to make Kebaya more in line with the esthetic needs of young consumers.
2) Marketing strategy: On the basis of modern fashion trends, this paper explores the application strategies of Nyonya Kebaya in brand promotion, social media marketing and e-commerce sales to increase market appeal.
3) Cultural dissemination: Through the combination of modern design and cultural heritage, we promote the global dissemination of Peranakan culture and expand the influence of Nyonya Kebaya in the international market.
This study extracted the design elements of Nyonya Kebaya through visual content analysis combined with Kansei engineering to analyze the perceptual needs of consumers regarding their design preferences. The research results provide a scientific basis for the modern design optimization of traditional Nyonya Kebaya and support its marketing, cultural inheritance and product innovation.
Interviews
Semi-structured interviews have a predetermined order but still ensure participant flexibility in discussing issues. The funnel method systematically leads from less structured and open questions to more structured and targeted questions. 38 This study used the funnel approach to conduct semi-structured interviews that included both open-ended and highly targeted questions. Through the interviews, we collected and analyzed consumers’ perceptual vocabulary for Nyonya Kebaya and constructed their perceptual semantic space to optimize product design and marketing promotion strategies.
The interview protocol is provided in Section 4.1. Each interview began by inviting the participant to describe overall impressions of the Nyonya Kebaya and personal wearing contexts, then progressed to specific design attributes and their affective responses. These materials were used to construct the Kansei Semantic Space. With consent, each session lasted about 30–45 min and was audio recorded. Sessions were held in a quiet meeting room at the partner institution; when an in-person meeting was not possible, an encrypted video conference was conducted.
Mason 39 analyzed 560 qualitative studies, identifying 20 as the most commonly observed sample size. In recent years, shifts in lifestyle and modernization have contributed to a decline in younger generations’ interest in traditional Nyonya Kebaya, prompting its evolution toward more contemporary and fashion-oriented designs.1,40
Within the Malaysian research context, Millennials, or Generation Y, are defined as individuals below the age of 36. 41 This demographic not only represents a significant segment of Malaysian society and the nation’s future but is also projected to play a dominant role in shaping the consumer market. 42
In view of these considerations, and to align with the exploratory sequential design while ensuring rich information for concept elicitation, we adopted purposive sampling. 39 Participants were required to meet all of the following inclusion criteria:
1) Age: 18–36 years, defined as Millennial or Generation Y in the Malaysian context. 41
2) Recent purchase: at least one traditional Nyonya Kebaya purchased within the past 12 months.
3) Cultural familiarity: clear familiarity with Peranakan dress and customs, e.g. regular use, family traditions, or work-related contact.
The study intentionally sought heterogeneity of roles to enable triangulation between consumer and expert perspectives. The final sample was n = 20 and included young consumers as well as museum staff, designers, and shop owners or retailers, which accords with our aim to connect consumer Kansei with practice-oriented design decisions.1,40 Demographic segmentation by age group, gender, cultural background or Peranakan identity, and role is reported in Table 1 (Participant Demographics).
Kansei words from interviews.
Participants were recruited through museum and community partners, design studios and retail outlets, university mailing lists, and targeted social media. All participants provided informed consent. No incentives were offered other than a small voucher. All procedures followed institutional ethics protocols. The target of about 20 interviews accords with common practice in qualitative research for eliciting concepts and terms. 39 Thematic saturation was observed at the 18th interview, after which two additional interviews were conducted to confirm the stability of emergent codes and Kansei vocabulary.
For data processing and analysis, audio recordings were professionally transcribed and anonymized. Two trained coders conducted directed content and thematic analysis anchored to four classes of design attributes and affective or semantic descriptors. Discrepancies were resolved through discussion and adjudication. The resulting candidate Kansei terms were consolidated, deduplicated, and filtered by frequency to produce an initial lexicon for subsequent quantitative validation.
Documents
A literature review revealed that it is helpful to pay attention to the list of emotional words established for similar products in the literature review. 10 The emotional words were selected based on their frequency of occurrence (at least three occurrences) in the literature. 43 Therefore, a literature review is a valuable method for discovering emotional words. This study collected a list of emotional words for the traditional Nyonya Kebaya in the literature review.
Magazines and websites are other ways to collect typical products and their industry terms. 10 This study chose Malaysian e-magazines and websites with great influence and high click-through rates to obtain emotional words.
Quantitative survey research
Quantitative data collection
Simple random sampling is a probability sampling method; that is, each group member has an equal chance of being selected. 35 The study employed a cross-sectional online questionnaire with simple random sampling drawn from a defined sampling frame. The frame comprised Malaysian consumers aged 18–36 who had purchased at least one traditional Nyonya Kebaya within the past 12 months. Screening items at the beginning of the questionnaire verified age, timing of the most recent purchase, and whether the purchased garment was a traditional Nyonya Kebaya rather than a contemporary modified version. Measurement used a five point Likert scale to rate Kansei adjectives linked to core design attributes, and also collected use or purchase contexts and basic demographics such as age group and gender. The survey was administered online, participants provided informed consent electronically, no personally identifiable information was collected, and data storage followed institutional ethics requirements.
To ensure data quality, a verification code and single submission control were implemented, duplicate entries were removed by checking Internet Protocol address or device, one attention check item was embedded in the scale, and responses exhibiting straightlining or unusually short completion times were flagged and excluded according to prespecified thresholds. Sample size planning followed Cochran’s formula for proportion estimation with a 95% confidence level, 5% margin of error, and p equal to 0.5, yielding a minimum required effective sample of approximately 385. Allowing for ineligible and low-quality cases, the recruitment target was set above this number. After data collection, responses were anonymized and exported. Descriptive statistics summarized item performance, Cronbach’s alpha assessed the reliability of the Kansei scales, and exploratory factor analysis was conducted as needed to examine dimensional structure. A demographic distribution table was compiled to support representativeness assessment. The achieved sample size and characteristics are reported in Section 4: Findings.
Quantitative data analysis
Card sorting
Card sorting is a method of information induction and classification according to specific criteria. 44 In the open card sorting method, the research subjects decide how many groups the cards are divided into and the number of cards in each group. This study used the open card sorting method. For 15–30 participants, the number of participants with enough data to reveal overlapping patterns without diminishing marginal returns was asked to put together cards (KW pairs) that they considered similar in meaning.45,46
Cluster analysis
Cluster analysis (CA) is a multivariate statistical analysis method that is used to classify data or variables. It is often used in combination with card sorting. 47 This study obtained the grouping information of Kansei word pairs through card sorting and compiled a similarity matrix. This matrix reflects the number of times any two sentimental word pairs appear in the same group. The similarity matrix was introduced into SPSS statistical software, and the data analysis was performed via hierarchical clustering (HC) and quick clustering (QC).
HC and QC are common types of cluster analysis. 48 This study used HC and QC comprehensively. First, HC analysis assigned the most suitable classification number for Kansei word pairs. Second, fast clustering is used. On the basis of the number of suitable classifications, researchers have calculated the center of gravity of each cluster and the distance from each Kansei word pair to the center of gravity of each cluster. Finally, by analyzing the clustering results, the KW pairs in the perceptual semantic space and the evaluation dimension are obtained.
Findings
Kansei words collected from interviews
In the semi-structured, open-ended interviews, the following prompts were used to elicit Kansei vocabularies from participants:
1) When considering (or purchasing) traditional Nyonya Kebaya, what categories or types do you recognize?
2) Among those categories, which do you find most salient or appealing, and why?
3) For the categories you mentioned, what words would you use to describe how they make you feel (e.g. elegant, delicate, bold, traditional, modern)?
4) Which specific design features (e.g. silhouette/style, motif/embroidery, density/finishing, color palette) lead to those impressions? Please explain how these features shape your color and style perceptions.
As shown in Table 1, this study conducted interviews with 20 respondents aged 18–36 years. Among them, 15 consumers had no professional design knowledge, and 5 consumers had professional knowledge in designing traditional Nyonya Kebaya, including 2 teachers of traditional Malaysian clothing, 2 students of fashion design, and a professional designer of traditional Nyonya Kebaya.
The emotional words provided by the 20 surveyed consumers were encoded, and the word frequency was determined via Excel. The coding data used in this study were based on emotional words (evaluative adjectives), and all emotional words were collected during the interviews. In the end, a total of 44 words were identified, as shown in Table 1.
Kansei words collected from documents
In this study, Kansei words were collected through a literature review of 8 academic articles containing adjective lists describing traditional Malaysian Nyonya Kebaya, supplemented by data gathered from 14 influential electronic magazines and websites focusing on Malaysian traditional Nyonya Kebaya. These online sources, such as Malay Mail and Penang Monthly, were selected due to their significant influence and high readership. First, inappropriate adjectives should be identified. The deletion rules are as follows:
1) Adjectives that are not relevant to this study are preliminarily deleted;
2) Adjectives that directly describe the color and style design do not describe feelings and emotions, such as red, green, fit, and loose.
3) Evaluative adjectives with a clear preference, such as pleasant.
As shown in Table 2, through 8 journal papers and 14 electronic journals and websites, we collected 59 and 57 sentimental words that appeared at least twice, respectively.
Kansei words from partial electronic magazines and websites.
Analysis and discussion of Kansei words
Based on word frequency analysis, Kansei words exhibit a repetition rate of over 60% across interviews, literature reviews, and magazines/websites, indicating their validity. In addition, it appears that triangulation was used to validate and supplement the data and should be considered an opportunity to reveal the deep meaning of the data. 49 Therefore, this study uses all 90 emotional words collected in interviews, literature reviews, journals, and websites for quantitative research.
Kansei words
Among the 96 Kansei words, the researchers matched each KW with its corresponding negative or opposite meaning, such as “stable–lively.” For KWs that did not have direct antonyms or negative counterparts, researchers assigned an opposing adjective based on its meaning, such as “elegant–inelegant.” Ultimately, a total of 77 pairs of Kansei words were established as the study’s scope.
As described in Section 3.2.1, this study employs an online questionnaire using a five-point Likert scale. In accordance with the structure of this questionnaire, respondents were asked to indicate their preferences for each of the 77 Kansei word pairs by selecting an appropriate position on the scale. Prior to participation, two screening questions were provided: (1) Are you between the ages of 18 and 36? (2) Have you purchased a traditional Nyonya Kebaya online or in a physical store within the past year? If the respondent answered “yes” to both questions, they were allowed to proceed with the full questionnaire.
For large samples, Taherdoost developed an equation to determine the representative sample proportion using the confidence interval method. 50 Israel suggested that when the population is large and the variability in proportion is uncertain, it is appropriate to assume a maximum variability of p = 0.5. 51 Additionally, this study adopts a 95% confidence level with a ±5% margin of error, which is the most commonly used standard. The resulting sample size is as follows:
To recruit participants, this study disseminated recruitment posters across various public locations in Penang, inviting the general public to participate in the survey. The posters included a Google Forms link or a QR code, allowing potential respondents to voluntarily access and complete the questionnaire. After screening the responses, a total of 418 valid samples were collected, exceeding the required 385 samples. The sample exhibited a balanced distribution in terms of gender and age: 67.46% of participants were female, while 32.54% were male. Regarding age distribution, 58% of the participants were between 18 and 29 years old, whereas 42% were between 30 and 36 years old, as presented in Table 3.
Demographic profile description.
Similarity matrix
Researchers need to choose from among 418 people; 60% of the people “strongly agreed” and “agree” with the KE word pair.52,53 In the end, 24 KE word pairs that are important to consumers were obtained. The participants were then invited to perform card sorting to group 28 KE-word pairs according to their subjective feelings. Word pairs that are semantically similar are placed in the same group. A total of 20 consumers between the ages of 18 and 36 who had purchased traditional Nyonya Kebaya within 1 year were invited, including a professional teacher, two students of fashion design, and a professional designer of traditional Nyonya Kebaya. After screening, the researchers removed two invalid samples with too many missing words and obtained a total of 18 effective samples.
The researchers collated the data obtained from the card sorting session and compiled a 20 × 20 similarity matrix after counting the group frequencies. This matrix reflects the number of times that any two KE word pairs appear in the same group.
Semantic space
Based on the similarity matrix and hierarchical cluster analysis, a dendrogram was constructed with Kansei word pairs as variables, as shown in Figure 3. 54 The clustering principle was applied to ensure a balanced distribution of Kansei word pairs, preventing excessive concentration within a single cluster while maintaining meaningful categorization. 55 From Figure 3, the Kansei word pairs were initially divided into 4–7 suitable clusters. After analyzing the clustering process schedule and reviewing class membership results, a final decision was made to divide the Kansei word pairs into five clusters, preparing for quick cluster analysis.
Hierarchical cluster: dendrogram with Kansei word pair.
The quick cluster analysis computed the distance of each Kansei word pair to the center of its respective cluster through iterative calculations. This method assigned Kansei word pairs to the closest cluster based on their semantic similarity. Figure 4 illustrates the final classification of 28 Kansei word pairs into five distinct clusters. Table 4 further provides the distance of each Kansei word pair within its assigned cluster, confirming the consistency and reliability of the clustering process.
Quick cluster: cluster membership.
The distance of each Kansei word pairs.
The quick cluster analysis was performed by iteratively calculating the distances between Kansei word pairs and cluster centroids, subsequently assigning each Kansei word pair to the cluster with the nearest centroid. A quick clustering solution with five initial clusters, as depicted in Figure 4, confirmed the validity of 28 semantic word pairs. Furthermore, detailed cluster membership information was obtained, including categorical classification and distances of Kansei word pairs to their respective cluster centroids. Specifically, the resulting cluster solution comprised five clusters, containing 5, 5, 6, 8, and 4 Kansei word pairs, respectively.
Through quantitative questionnaire surveys and subsequent analysis, a Kansei semantic space representing consumers'’ perceptions and preferences toward the style and color design of traditional Nyonya Kebaya was established, as illustrated in Table 4. This semantic space can be divided into five perceptual evaluation dimensions:
1) Cultural Perception Dimension: Evaluating affective perceptions related to cultural attributes, historical style, and regional identity of apparel designs.
2) Esthetic Sensory Dimension: Assessing consumers’ overall sensory impressions concerning clothing color, visual stimuli, and detailed design elements.
3) Perceived Trendiness Dimension: Evaluating apparel design elements based on their perceived trendiness, sensitivity to fashion trends, and appeal to mainstream preferences.
4) Charm and Charisma Dimension: Assessing the clothing’s capability in expressing personal charisma, feminine qualities, and emotional style, while exploring the affective role of apparel in shaping female identity and individual charm.
5) Material Texture Dimension: Evaluating consumers’ perceptual experiences regarding fabric texture, craftsmanship complexity, and refinement.
The final Kansei semantic space established in this study encapsulates consumer cognition and preference regarding Nyonya Kebaya’s styling and color attributes. This classification system provides a structured approach to analyzing esthetic properties and their impact on consumer behavior, offering valuable insights for fashion designers, marketers, and product developers in optimizing traditional Nyonya Kebaya for contemporary consumer preferences.
The final Kansei words
Each of the five clusters derived from the hierarchical and quick cluster analysis reflects a different aspect of consumer perception regarding Nyonya Kebaya. The meaning of each cluster was summarized, and the most influential Kansei words were identified:
The first cluster represents cultural perception, reflecting the balance between tradition and modernity. It includes “Local–International,” “Classic–Trendy,” “Traditional–Modern,” “Formal–Informal,” and “Elegant–Inelegant,” indicating consumers’ awareness of heritage and contemporary influences in Nyonya Kebaya design.
The second cluster pertains to esthetic sensory evaluation, focusing on visual appeal and color perception. It includes “Elaborate–Minimal,” “Vivid–Dull,” “Colorful–Colorless,” “Chic–Outdated,” and “Sexy–Unsexy,” highlighting the importance of embroidery complexity and color vibrancy in consumer preferences.
The third cluster represents perceived trendiness, assessing how well the design aligns with trends and desirability. It consists of “Authentic–Inauthentic,” “Popular–Unpopular,” “Timeless-Creative,” “Bright–Dark,” “Simple–Complex,” and “Attractive–Unattractive,” underscoring the influence of authenticity and contemporary fashion appeal.
The fourth cluster focuses on charm and charisma, emphasizing how the garment enhances femininity and elegance. Key Kansei word pairs include “Feminine–Unfeminine,” “Charming–Uncharming,” “Modest–Flashy,” “Unique–Common,” “Beautiful–Ugly,” “Graceful–Awkward,” “Tasteful–Tasteless,” and “Fashionable–Unfashionable,” highlighting the role of Nyonya Kebaya in personal expression.
The fifth cluster represents material texture perception, capturing craftsmanship and fabric quality. It includes “Intricate–Plain,” “Fine–Ordinary,” “Luxurious - Modest,” and “Exquisite–Coarse,” signifying the importance of high-quality materials and detailed embroidery in consumer preference.
After filtering redundant adjectives, the most influential Kansei words are Local, International, Elaborate, Minimal, Authentic, Feminine, Intricate, Plain, providing essential insights for optimizing Nyonya Kebaya design and marketing strategies.
Optimizing the design and titles of traditional Nyonya Kebaya
The insights derived from Kansei Engineering can be applied to optimize product descriptions and titles for traditional Nyonya Kebaya in online marketplaces. Previous studies have shown that well-structured product titles incorporating relevant adjectives can enhance consumer engagement and improve searchability.13,56
Instead of using generic and oversimplified product descriptions, sellers should adopt multi-dimensional title optimization based on the identified Kansei words. By incorporating adjectives from different evaluation dimensions, sellers can better target specific consumer segments. The following strategies are proposed:
Based on the final selection of Kansei words, Loca, International, Elaborate, Minimal, Authentic, Feminine, Intricate, and Plain. This study proposes an optimization strategy for the design and marketing of traditional Nyonya Kebaya. The objective is to enhance consumer engagement by aligning the product’s esthetic and cultural attributes with contemporary market expectations. The design optimization focuses on five key dimensions: cultural perception, esthetic sensory appeal, perceived trendiness, charm and charisma, and material texture quality. To integrate the cultural perception dimension, design modifications should emphasize the balance between traditional craftsmanship and modern silhouettes, ensuring that while the historical integrity of the Nyonya Kebaya is preserved, it also meets the functional and esthetic expectations of modern consumers. This can be achieved through contemporary tailoring techniques that enhance comfort while retaining essential elements such as scalloped embroidery (Biku) and Tebuk Lubang (cutwork embroidery). In the esthetic sensory dimension, the balance between elaborate and minimal designs should be considered. Embroidery should highlight key visual elements without overwhelming the garment’s structure, ensuring that color vibrancy and contrast contribute to an elegant yet sophisticated appeal. For example, monochromatic embroidery on pastel fabrics may enhance the delicate nature of the design, appealing to a broader consumer base.
The perceived trendiness dimension suggests that optimizing Nyonya Kebaya for trend responsiveness and cultural authenticity is essential. By incorporating contemporary color palettes and innovative design collaborations, the traditional garment can be reimagined for high fashion and everyday wear. This can be achieved by refining the fit of the garment to accentuate graceful drapery and silhouette-enhancing structures, ensuring that details such as lace embellishments contribute to its visual appeal without compromising comfort. Meanwhile, the material texture dimension highlights the importance of selecting high-quality textiles and intricate embroidery techniques to maintain the garment’s premium positioning. Using sustainable and ethically sourced fabrics such as silk blends and breathable cotton-linen hybrids enhances both esthetic appeal and wearability, aligning with contemporary consumer expectations for luxury craftsmanship and environmental consciousness.
In addition to design optimization, marketing title optimization plays a crucial role in enhancing the product’s visibility and consumer engagement in online retail platforms. Effective title strategies should integrate the most influential Kansei words, ensuring that product descriptions highlight key emotional and esthetic attributes that resonate with consumer preferences. Titles should reflect cultural heritage and modern appeal, such as “Traditional Elegance Reimagined: Handcrafted Nyonya Kebaya with Modern Silhouette” or “Timeless Peranakan Heritage: Exquisite Embroidered Nyonya Kebaya.” Emphasizing femininity and elegance, titles can include descriptors such as “Graceful and Feminine: The Refined Art of Nyonya Kebaya” or “Intricately Designed for Elegance: The Feminine Appeal of Peranakan Attire.” By integrating design enhancements and title optimization informed by Kansei Engineering principles, this research provides a structured framework for modernizing traditional Nyonya Kebaya while maintaining its cultural authenticity. The strategic application of these findings offers practical insights for fashion designers, marketers, and cultural heritage advocates, facilitating a more sustainable and commercially viable future for this traditional attire. Through a consumer-centered approach, the Nyonya Kebaya can be positioned as a timeless yet contemporary garment, ensuring its relevance in both cultural preservation and modern fashion markets.
Discussion
The main research findings and their significance
This study applies Kansei Engineering to optimize the design elements of traditional Nyonya Kebaya by analyzing the emotional and esthetic preferences of young consumers. Through Visual Approach Content Analysis, interviews, and a literature review, a total of 64 Kansei words were collected. Subsequently, quantitative cluster analysis was employed to construct a Kansei Semantic Space, which was categorized into five perceptual evaluation dimensions: Cultural Perception Dimension, Esthetic Sensory Dimension, Perceived Trendiness Dimension, Charm and Charisma Dimension, and Material Texture Dimension. The findings indicate that while young consumers pursue contemporary fashion, they also place significant value on the cultural heritage of traditional attire, aligning with previous studies on the application of Kansei Engineering in fashion design .12,13
Compared to prior research utilizing Kansei Engineering for e-commerce title optimization of men’s shirts, this study expands the application of Kansei Engineering into the domain of heritage fashion design, providing a methodological framework for balancing cultural identity with modern consumer preferences. 13 Additionally, the findings correspond with Kansei studies on women’s fashion design, further validating the importance of emotional perception in product design.15,32,57
From perceptual dimensions to design decisions
Building on the five cluster semantic space (Figure 3; Table 4), Table 5 translates each Kansei dimension into design levers across pattern, technique, structure, and color, and illustrates a representative before and after shift. For Cultural Perception, modest edits to the silhouette such as slight hem shortening and adding princess seams, together with deliberate retention of Biku and Tebuk Lubang, rebalance authenticity and modernity. For Esthetic Sensory, reducing embroidery density and using pastel or monochrome palettes clarify edge lines and yield a minimal, chic focal point. For Perceived Trendiness, a single creative accent coordinated with seasonal palettes, for example a contrast lining reveal, increases contemporaneity while preserving authenticity. For Charm and Charisma, improved fit and limiting lace coverage to roughly one quarter of the edge area move evaluations toward graceful, feminine, and tasteful. For Material Texture, finer thread, higher stitch density at corners, and a silk and cotton blend reliably shift perceptions to fine, intricate, and luxurious.
Mapping perceptual dimensions to design levers with exemplar iterations and perceptual shifts.
Across dimensions, targeted micro interventions in structure, density, palette, accent, and stitch fineness generate consistent perceptual gains while safeguarding cultural cues. The mapping renders the implications of Kansei analysis traceable and replicable, enabling designers to select a target perceptual pole and apply the corresponding levers to achieve high impact change with minimal alteration. Future work should examine generalizability through prototype user evaluations and longitudinal tracking of preference.
Impact of the Penang market environment on the evolution of Nyonya Kebaya
Penang’s market conditions, marked by a young consumer base and a strong heritage tourism economy, have accelerated the modernization of the Nyonya Kebaya while preserving its core identity. Preference signals from young consumers favor simplified tailoring, contemporary fabrics, and updated color palettes, provided that signature embroidery and motif vocabularies are retained. This combination raises acceptance in the local market and improves adaptability in international contexts. Cultural festivals and curated exhibitions in Penang expand the use of the Kebaya from daily dress to participatory cultural experience and souvenir consumption. Customized try on and purchasing activities for visitors deepen identification with Peranakan culture and broaden exposure.
Penang’s business environment also supports the transition to digital marketing. Brands increasingly rely on electronic commerce platforms and social media, such as Instagram, Shopee, and Lazada. When product descriptions and market segmentation are informed by Kansei Engineering, visibility increases and adoption barriers for young consumers are reduced. Overall, Penang functions as a living laboratory in which design and positioning strategies balance cultural heritage and market demand. The resulting pathway strengthens the competitiveness of the Nyonya Kebaya and offers practical guidance for sustainable development within contemporary fashion markets.
Practical implications for design and marketing
The results of the study show that the incorporation of selected emotional words into the design of Nyonya Kebaya can enhance its appeal to young consumers. Specific applications include the following:
1) Product development: The perceptual vocabulary screened out in this study can be used to guide the selection of fabrics, the embroidery process and the adjustment of the fit to better meet the esthetic expectations of consumers.
2) Branding & Marketing Strategies: Designers and retailers can apply the descriptive language of Kansei engineering in promotional materials, social media and e-commerce platforms to enhance consumers’ emotional resonance.
3) Customization & Personalization: Brands can develop an interactive platform to allow consumers to choose their favorite design elements on the basis of emotional vocabulary to increase consumer participation and purchase willingness.
These findings are consistent with the e-commerce optimization strategy and further validate the impact of emotion-driven product descriptions on consumer decisions. 13
Limitations and future research directions
Although this study provides important research insights, it still has the following limitations:
1) Sample size & demographics. The samples in this study were mainly young consumers aged 18–36 years. Future research should expand the sample size to cover a wider age group and explore different cultural backgrounds. Next, consumers’ perceptual cognition of Nyonya Kebaya.
2) Market Scope. This study was conducted in Malaysia only and may not be applicable in other regions. Future research can perform cross-regional comparisons to explore the differences in the perceptions of Nyonya Kebaya by consumers in different regions of Southeast Asia.
3) Integration of Emerging Technologies. This study used a traditional questionnaire. Future research can combine AI technology for consumer sentiment analysis or use virtual Kansei modeling to make personalized recommendations to improve health. Market adaptability.58,59
4) Although 12 Kansei words were selected for optimization, user validation of design prototypes based on these terms was not conducted. Owing to the current study scope and ethics approval constraints, prototype testing was not included at this stage and is hereby acknowledged as a limitation. Going forward, we will build on the existing five-dimension semantic space to produce a small set of low- to mid-fidelity prototypes embodying one or two anchor Kansei words, recruit participants under the same inclusion criteria, and conduct brief semantic differential ratings and a simple A/B comparison between baseline and optimized versions to verify the expected perceptual shifts and estimate effect sizes. Upon obtaining ethics approval, implementing this confirmatory step will enhance the external validity and practical impact of the findings.
By overcoming these limitations, future research can further optimize the application of Kansei engineering in the design of cultural heritage costumes and ensure the sustainable development of traditional costumes in the modern market.
Although the above studies provide valuable insights, they are limited in sample size and geographic restrictions. Future studies can consider expanding the sample size and in-depth investigations of consumers’ perceptual cognition of clothing design under different cultural backgrounds. Further research can also combine modern technologies and traditional craftsmanship to optimize product design and production processes and improve product quality and market competitiveness. In addition, the role of color in clothing design is also an important direction of future research. We analyzed and evaluated color sensation and found significant correlations among the various color sensations.60,61 Similar studies also included color matching in clothing, 62 Embroidered clothing in the color matching, 63 Future research can further explore the coupling issue between color and user perception needs.
Conclusion
This study expands the research scope of Kansei engineering by applying a mixed-method approach to the field of traditional cultural costumes and proves that consumers’ emotions and perceptions can be measured through quantitative analysis to optimize the design of cultural products. The combination of qualitative and quantitative data enhances the reliability of research results, which is consistent with the methods of the literature and further expands the application field of Kansei Engineering, which is not limited to modern clothing and can also be applied to the optimization of traditional clothing.9,11
This study combines Kansei engineering and hybrid research methods to construct the perceptual semantic space of Nyonya Kebaya and reveals consumers’ emotional preferences over its design elements. The research results not only help optimize the design of Nyonya Kebaya but also provide a scientific basis for the modernization, brand promotion and marketing of traditional costumes. Future research can combine technology, cross-cultural markets and sustainable fashion to promote the innovation and development of Nyonya Kebaya in the global market.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
We thank Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) for providing resources and support for the completion of this study. Thanks to the participants who participated in the survey.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was supported by the following grants: the Science and Technology Research Project of the Jiangxi Provincial Department of Education (2021, Grant No. GJJ212415; 2024, Grant No. GJJ2402707); the Jiangxi Provincial Higher Education Teaching Reform Research Project (2023, Grant No. JXJG-23-26-7); the Jiangxi Provincial Social Science Fund (2025, Grant No. 25YS23); and the “14th Five-Year Plan” Tendered Project of the Jiangxi Institute of Fashion Technology (Grant No. JFZB-145-03).
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Paper contribution to the related field of study
This study contributes to the design field by demonstrating the application of Kansei engineering in the optimization of traditional apparel design. This study provides a methodology reference for future studies on the balance between cultural heritage and modern consumer preferences.