Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Electromagnetic (EM) wave pollution is one of the severe environmental issues. Humans and other living beings exposed to these EM waves are susceptible to health issues. Hence, satisfactory protection from these EM waves is necessary. Traditionally, metals have been used for electromagnetic interference shielding (EMIS), but they have limited applications due to their stiff and heavy nature. Many metals and carbon-based EMI shielding materials have already been employed for shielding against such waves. However, their limitations, such as stiffness and brittleness, have limited their applications in these fields. Recently, textile-based materials and conductive fabrics have gained significant importance for EMIS due to their flexibility, lightweight, ease of manufacturing, cost-effectiveness, and versatility. This review is carried out to summaries the methods, materials, and techniques of production and characterization of conductive woven, knitted, and nonwoven fabrics for EMIS.

Keywords

electromagnetic interference shielding textile substrates conductive textiles conducting polymers conductive coating

Introduction

We live in a digital era, where technological advancements have become an integral part of our lives. The use of electrical and electronic equipment is growing rapidly. It has been integrated into almost every domain, from military and industrial manufacturing to households, transportation, healthcare, education, and entertainment sectors. Even in their personal lives, people heavily rely on smart gadgets to manage their day-to-day activities. While these devices have made our lives convenient, their widespread adoption has also raised several concerns, and electromagnetic interference (EMI) is one of them.1 EMI is the disruption of an electrical path, or system, caused by electromagnetic radiation, conduction, and induction.² Electromagnetic radiations cause noise by interfering with electronic control systems, power lines, computers, and networking equipment, which leads to slow and impaired operations, equipment malfunction and failure, data corruption and loss, poor signal quality, and network congestion.³ Any electrical or electronic system which has changing voltage or current can be a source of EMI.^4,5 Primarily, EMI is caused by the radiation from natural phenomena, including thunder, electrostatic discharge, and solar flares and storms.⁶ These electromagnetic radiations also interfere with the human body, and several studies have shown the health risks related to their prolonged exposure, including dizziness, headache, insomnia, nausea, and in some severe cases neurological disorder and tissue damage.^7,8 Different methods have been developed to mitigate the effects of EMI for the safety of electronic and biological systems.⁹ Thus, our advancements in technology that aim to better the quality of life also causing the side effects on human health in form of electromagnetic radiation.

EMI shielding is a technique in which a protective material is used to reflect or absorb electromagnetic radiation, preventing it from entering or escaping a system.^10,11 Traditionally, conductive metals like copper, aluminum, nickel, and steel are used for shielding purposes due to their high reflectivity and electrical conductivity; however, they are unsuitable for various applications because of their heaviness, poor mechanical flexibility, high density, corrosive nature, high cost, and environmental concerns.^12,13 Consequently, to overcome these limitations, extensive research has been conducted to discover and develop materials other than metals for EMI shielding.

Jiang et al.¹⁴ wrote a review on intrinsic and extrinsic (filler-based) conductive polymers and nanocomposites for EMI shielding. The effect of different conductive fillers on shielding properties and modification of process parameters to enhance the EMI absorbance were discussed. Despite significant improvements, challenges such as surface functionalization of conductive fillers, non-uniform conductivity, and the insulating nature of polymers still need to be addressed. The study by Wang et al.¹⁵ focused on the 3D conductive networks and polymers, their manufacturing techniques, and optimized shielding mechanism. Although 3D conductive networks with excellent shielding effect have been developed, they are not appropriate for large-scale production due to their costly and complex production procedure. Guo et al.¹⁶ demonstrated the electrospun fibrous materials for high-performance EMI shielding characteristics. Incorporation of conductive fillers before electrospinning and post-treatment of fibers, both techniques have been explained in this review. Unidirectional nanofibers with high aspect ratio and flexibility are a potential EMI shielding material, but the choice of filler for novel electrospun composite fabrication and the relationship between nanofibers’ compactness and shielding effect are yet to be explored. The use of carbon-based materials for EMI shielding is not a new concept; numerous review articles have been published on this topic. In a review paper by Liu et al.¹⁷ recent advances in different forms (1D, 2D, and 3D) of carbon-based materials and their surface modification for EMI interface shielding have been explored. EMI shielding effectiveness can be improved by the combined effect of matrix and reinforcement, but their industrial-level manufacturing requires further information. Green EMI shielding materials are a hot topic nowadays. The study by Jia et al.¹⁸ focused on the development and evaluation of low-reflectivity novel green materials. These environment-friendly green EMI shields possess variable EMI reflection abilities. Therefore, in the fabrication of EMI shielding composite, industrial scale manufacturing along with green synthesis is the area of interest. Chatterjee and Maity1 examined the application of different materials, such as nanomaterials, polymers, and metallic fillers, to EMI shielding textiles. Maity and Chatterjee¹⁹ wrote a review on the application of conductive polymer-based textile composites for EMI shielding. The study was focused on the application of different conductive polymers, such as metallic and nonmetallic on woven and nonwoven textiles. Kumar et al.20 also studied conductive polymers; however, the focus of the review was nanomaterial-derived fillers. Maity et al. functionalized nonwoven PET fabrics, with different parameters including fabric GSM, punch density, and needle penetration. Maiti et al. also studied nanomaterials derived from fillers by assessing the application of graphene-derived EMI-shielding textiles for commercial applications.²¹ However, a comprehensive review explaining the application of different materials used for EMI shielding with different textile manufacturing processes is needed.

A research introduced an autonomous, self-powered meta-device for microwave shielding. It functions by employing a closed-loop system of reconfigurable meta-atom arrays and sensing-powering modules. The device dynamically transitions from high transmission to absorption/reflection upon detection of high-power microwaves. Thus, it eliminates the need for external power or intervention. A fabricated prototype, operating within the 6.0–6.7 GHz range, demonstrates its efficacy as a smart shielding device and adaptive radome. This innovation marks a significant advancement in electromagnetic shielding, enabling the development of sustainable, maintenance-free microwave systems.²²

Conductive fabrics represent a novel approach that offers an excellent EMI shielding option, characterized by non-corrosiveness, flexibility, a high weight-to-strength ratio, and a low coefficient of thermal expansion. This review will focus on conductive fabrics of various structural designs, including woven, knitted, and nonwoven fabrics, as well as different functionalization techniques to enhance their conductivity for EMI interface shielding applications. These fabrics are made with natural, synthetic, and blended fibers with conductive properties incorporated through different techniques, including metallic fillers addition, coatings, post-treatments, metallic core spun yarn, and blending metallic yarn with conventional (cotton, polyester, and viscose, etc.) yarn.

Health hazards of EM radiations

Living beings, when exposed to these EM radiations, may experience some health hazards like symptoms of headache, languidness, nervousness, and insomnia.²³ The EM waves falling on the human body are partially transmitted, while most are absorbed by the body tissues, raising the body’s core temperature.^24,25

Electromagnetic waves can also affect the vascular network in the most sensitive organs, such as the eye. The heat buildup in the eyes by EM waves is not easily dissipated.^26,27 Avdeyenko et al.²⁸ reported that people living near mobile base stations are found to have illnesses due to electromagnetic power transmission. It is also advised that people should not reside within 4 m of the mobile transmission tower. It is also approved that the excessive use of cordless and mobile phones may cause brain cancer.^29,30 These studies showed significant concerns of electromagnetic waves effects on human health owing to their proximity.

Hence, it is essential to protect humans and other electrical and electronic circuits, appliances, and apparatus from the detrimental interference of electromagnetic radiation. Protection from electromagnetic radiation is achieved through the use of electromagnetic shielding.

Electromagnetic shielding (EMS): Shielding is the most familiar method of protecting humans and electrical and electronic devices against electromagnetic radiation. It typically involves enclosures that separate devices, cables, and wires from the outside environment. The enclosure, protector, or any material that protects against harmful EM radiation is called a shield. Shields are used either to prevent the spread of EM radiation from an enclosed source to the environment or to isolate an object or space (room) from an outside source of EM radiation ³¹

Mechanism of electromagnetic shielding

When EM waves encounter the surface of an object, they undergo four distinct types of interaction within the object, known as transmission, reflection, multiple reflections, and absorption, as illustrated in Figure 1. As high-energy EM waves strike a conducting surface, they cause the charge within the conductive material to vibrate forcefully. These forced oscillating charges behave like an antenna and cause reflection of incident rays, resulting in a loss of EM waves’ strength.³² Depending upon the oscillating antenna, the field is scattered in different directions, and the strength of EM waves is reduced. The phenomenon of shielding is associated with the ability of a material to absorb or reflect EM waves.

Figure 1.

The EM wave response after interaction with an object.

Transmission

The situation in which EM waves pass through the shielding material without any absorption or attenuation is called transmission. This phenomenon is most commonly observed in non-conducting materials, such as polyester, glass, polypropylene, and polyethylene.

Reflection

Reflection is observed with highly conducting materials. In case of the limited conductivity of the material, the EM wave may partially penetrate the material. As it reaches the opposite surface, it encounters another boundary, which reflects it back into the material. The incident wave frequency, conductivity, and the magnetic permeability of the material govern the reflection efficiency of that material.³³

Multiple reflections

In the case of porous foams and composite materials with conductive fillers, multiple surfaces and phases exist within the material, resulting in numerous reflections throughout the material.³⁴

Absorption

Absorption of EM waves occurs due to the presence of electric and magnetic dipoles in the shield materials. Such materials have a high dielectric constant, like barium titanate (BaTiO3), which produces electric dipoles. Other materials, such as ferrous-ferric oxide (Fe3O4), exhibit high magnetic permeability, producing magnetic dipoles.³⁵ The heat is produced when electric dipoles present in the shield counteract the electric field of EM waves and destroy it, and the signal loss is known as attenuation due to absorption.³⁶

Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness (EMSE)

The Shielding effectiveness (SE) is measured in terms of decibels (dB) described as the ratio of incident energy to the transmitted energy.³⁷ The following equation can be used to express the SE as a sum of three terms.³⁸

SE = R + A + B (dB)

(1)

Where R represents reflection loss, A represents absorption loss, and B shows multiple reflection loss. SE is also expressed as the electric field ratio to the magnetic field before and after attenuation and can be described by the following equations.

SE = 20 \log (Et / Ei)

(2)

SE = 20 \log (Ht / Hi)

(3)

Where H and E represent the magnetic field and electric field, respectively. While the letters t and i denote the transmitted and incident energies, respectively. SE is measured as a function of frequency.³⁹

Measurement of electromagnetic shielding effectiveness (EMSE)

Four types of test methods commonly used to measure the EMSE of shielding materials are listed below.⁴⁰

1. Free Space Transmission Technique (FSTT)

2. Shield Box Method

3. Shield Room Method

4. Coaxial Transmission Line Method

Free space transmission technique

The FSTT consists of two horn antennas and a vector network analyzer (VNA), which is required for measuring EMSE. The sample material under test is placed between antennas. This method is based on the Schelkunoff theory of shielding for an infinite plane of a shield with finite thickness placed in free space in the plane wave region In such conditions, an anechoic chamber with walled coated with materials responsible for the absorption of a considerable quantity of incident energy to create a free area, can be used.^38,41 The transmitting and receiving antenna, along with the sample under test, are placed within the anechoic chamber for EMSE measurement. While the signal generator and receiver are positioned outside the chamber to remove the effect of unwanted interference. The arrangement is depicted in Figure 2. In this procedure, a sample size of greater than 1 m² is preferably used. The sample can be mounted on a metallic wall that separates the chamber into two parts. EMSE is measured by comparing the signal levels measured with and without the samples between antennas.

Figure 2.

Measuring shielding effectiveness in the anechoic chamber by transmission technique.

Another method of determining the EMSE in an anechoic chamber is the use of the reflection method, where both antennas are placed on the same side of the sample under test and connected to a vector network analyzer.⁴² The EMSE is determined by comparing the signal’s two values, one from a reference metal plate and the other from the sample under test.

Shield box method

This method is widely utilized to compare the shielding effectiveness of different shielding materials. In this method, the receiving antenna is placed inside the metal box. The sample is coated or applied on a window within the metal box wall while keeping the transmitting antenna outside the box, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3.

SE Measurement by shield room and shield box methods.

Shielded room method

The shielded room method is an advanced and well-developed technique. It overcomes the restrictions of the shield box method. It works on the same principle as the shield box method, but the major difference is that each component of the measuring system, signal generator, transmitting antenna, receiving antenna, and recorder, is isolated in separate rooms to exclude the chance of any interference.⁴³

Coaxial transmission line method

This technique is commonly used due to its simplicity and accuracy of results. In this technique, the outcomes measured in different laboratories are comparable. Hence, it is frequently used for testing commercial materials. The test is conducted on a small donut-shaped sample in a chamber, as shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5. Microwaves of different frequencies are generated by the signal generator inside the vector network analyzer. The fabric sample under test is placed between the top and bottom holders. The reflection port receives the signal transmitted after it passes through the device under test and processes it for further analysis. The EMSE of the sample can be determined from the relation between the power transmitted and the power incident. This method can be used to measure the electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of planar materials like woven fabrics according to ASTM D4935-99.^44,45

Figure 4.

Coaxial transmission technique for EMSE testing.

Figure 5.

Schematic set up of EMSE testing apparatus.

Materials and methods for shielding

There are various types of materials available for shielding against electromagnetic interference. Traditionally, stiff metallic materials have been in practice. Metal-coated plastic and the injection of metallic fibers during the molding stage produce conductive plastic.⁴⁶ These materials have also been used for EMI shielding, though they are not flexible. Recently, the trend has shifted toward developing lightweight and flexible structures.⁴⁷ In this regard, electromagnetic shielding textiles consisting of woven, knitted, and nonwoven fabrics are of special interest these days.⁴⁸ These materials have promising potential application as a shielding material for electromagnetic radiation due to their flexibility, durability, and ease of fabrication.^49,50

Woven fabrics for electromagnetic interference shielding

There are two basic methods for producing conductive fabrics. One method is to coat the fabric with a conductive material, such as a spray or paint. It is also termed as the surface treatment process. The other approach involves incorporating conductive fillers (fiber, filaments, and particulates) into a composite yarn structure, which constitutes the main fabric. These woven fabrics have potential applications in various fields, including defense, electronics, and the electrical industry, as well as garments for human safety and protection against electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electrostatic discharge.^51,52 The various techniques employed for the development of conductive woven fabric for EMI shielding are given below.

Surface treatment of woven fabrics

Textile fabrics have been coated chemically with nickel, copper, silver, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and their combinations on an industrial scale for the last two decades.^53–55 The commonly used method for metallizing fiber and fabrics includes dying with copper sulfide, laminating with aluminum foil, or electroless plating with specific metallic components.⁵⁶ Physical vapor deposition (PVD) is also a relatively new technology for coating and surface modification of fabrics.⁵⁷ Some of the favorite products from metalized fabrics are Flectron (Monsanto, presently APM, USA), Shieldex (Siemens, Germany), REMP (REMP, Switzerland), and Shintron (Shinto Chemitron Co. Ltd., Japan).⁵¹ Metalized fabrics drive their shielding performance mainly due to energy reflection instead of energy absorption.^36–39

Hang el at. analyzed the cuprammonium fabric/polypyrrole/copper (CF/PPy/Cu) composite for shielding effectiveness. A PPy layer is directly applied to the CF fabric using an in-situ polymerization technique. Then Cu film is added to the PPy-coated CF (CF/PPy) through an electroless copper plating method. When tested with a spectrum analyzer (30–1000 MHz), the CF/PPy/Cu composite demonstrated a higher EMI shielding effectiveness (SE) of 30.3–50.4 dB and a sheet resistance of 85.8 mΩ/sq, surpassing that of CF/Cu (Figure 6).⁵⁸

Figure 6.

The EaMSE value of (a) CF/Cu and (b) CF/PPy/Cu fabric.

In another study, Guo et al.⁵⁹ optimized the process of Ni-plating on polyester fabric. He found that the plating solution temperature and concentration of nickel sulfate are major variables in controlling the fabric’s surface resistivity. Under optimal conditions, the EMI shielding effectiveness of electroless nickel-plated polyester fabric was approximately 60 dB at frequencies ranging from 2 to 18 GHz. Typically, conducting substances with 40–50 dB of SE can reduce EMI from 90% of commercial electronic appliances available on the market. Gan et al.⁶⁰ applied a Cu-Ni-P alloy coating on PET fabrics and observed the electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of more than 85 dB at the frequency ranging from 100 MHz–20 GHz. In this study, the effect of plating parameters like temperature, pH, and concentration of nickel ions was essential to enhance the coated alloy’s deposition rate. Electroless copper plating on textile-based fabric is extensively used for EMSE due to the high conductivity of copper. Process parameters on coating performance have already been reported in various studies.^61,62 Therefore, the process parameters are significantly important in the coating of conductive elements on textile substrate. By optimizing these parameters and varying the composition, researchers achieved 60 dB with pristine and 85 dB with the addition of Cu in Ni-P PET fabrics. However, plating conductive elements like Ni is not suitable for most textile substrates, and the issue of adherence can reduce the plating’s lifespan.

Conductive polymers coated fabrics for EMI shielding

In the case of metalized fabrics, the comfort, feel, and aesthetic properties of the fabric are significantly compromised due to the nature and thickness of the coating layer.^63,64 Intrinsically conducting polymers are gaining significant importance for producing flexible EMI shielding materials due to their corrosion resistance, higher strength, while being lighter in weight, tailor-made conductivity, and cost-effectiveness.^54,65,66 The ability of electrically conducting polymers to reflect as well absorb the electromagnetic waves has given them an advantage over the use of metallic materials for EMI shielding.⁶⁷ The use of Poly (3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) or PEDOT, Polypyrrole (PPy), and Polyaniline (PANI) as a coating on textile materials for EMI shielding were reported by many researchers.^68–71 It has also been explored that the flexible sheets and textile fabrics coated with conductive PANI retain both the electrical conductivity and flexibility.^72–75 Unnikrishnan et al.⁷⁶ applied a polyaniline-TiO₂ hybrid coating on cotton fabric and reported significant electrical conductivity of fabric with good EMI shielding properties in the S-band region. Jia et al. describes the manifacturing of a highly electrically conductive fabric (ECF) designed for ultrahigh EMI shielding. ECF is made by combining silver nanowires (AgNWs) and conformal polyurethane (PU) layers onto a carbon fiber fabric (CFF). The resulting ECF demonstrates a very high electrical conductivity of 15390 S/m and EMI SE of 106.0 dB, despite having a thickness of only 0.36 mm as shown in Figure 7. Crucially, the ultrahigh EMI SE of this ECF proved to be robust as it maintained 83% of its EMI SE after 100 stretching-release cycles with 97% retention after 5000 bending-release cycles. Furthermore, the ECF showed excellent resistance to various harsh conditions, including 60 minutes of ultrasonic treatment, 100 peeling cycles, and solutions with pH values of 2.0 and 12.0⁷⁷. Therefore, intrinsically conductive polymers were successfully employed on textile substrates for EMI shielding. However, from the commercial point of view, the application of these polymers needs to be investigated for the sustainability of cost and produced shielding.

Figure 7.

EMSE by (a) reflectance loss and (b) adsorption loss of the CFF and the PU-AgNW/CFF fabrics with different dip-coating cycles.

Woven fabrics incorporating steel fiber for EMI shielding

The stainless steel fiber and its blends with different fibers have been processed through friction, rotor, and ring spinning systems.^78–80 Similarly, the stainless steel filament and wire-based composite yarns were also prepared using a hollow spindle, direct twisting, and core spinning techniques to investigate their EMI shielding characteristics.^81–83 These yarns have been used in the manufacturing of woven fabrics, having a potential application for EMI shielding. Compared to the other metals, stainless steel fibers have shown good magnetic permeability and better absorption loss than reflection loss.^84–86 Hong et al.⁴⁵ investigated anisotropic EMI shielding properties of unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites. Using a free-space measurement setup, researchers found that the electrical conductivity and EMI shielding effectiveness of these composites varied significantly depending on the carbon fiber orientation angle.

Das et al.⁸⁷ compared the shielding effectiveness of stainless steel (SS) filament and SS/PET blended spun yarns in woven fabrics. The effects of weave structure, fabric density, and SS ratio on EMI shielding were studied in the frequency range of 0.3–1.5 GHz. The higher the fabric density and twill weave, with a large float length, the better the EMSE over the plain weave. Furthermore, the fabrics produced from SS filament exhibited better EMSE than SS/PET blended spun yarn fabrics. Shahzad et al.⁸⁸ utilized steel fibers as a conductive filler to produce different hybrid spun yarns. Steel fibers were first blended with polyester fibers to produce Ne 30/1 hybrid spun yarn, which was subsequently double-plied. SS monofilament of 50 µm was twisted with two strands of polyester filaments (250 days/75f), and three strands of 30/s PET spun yarn to produce the plied yarn. The SS filament was kept inside the core of polyester fibers to produce core-spun yarn. The fabric produced with SS filament yarn provided better EMSE as compared to that of SS spun yarn. Moreover, similar to the findings of many other studies, denser fabrics have been shown to have higher EMSE values. When referring to the yarn structure, the fabric made of core-spun yarn has better EMSE values compared to fabrics constructed from plied and blended spun yarns. Navinbhai et al.⁸⁹ developed fabrics from comingled rotor-spun polypropylene and stainless steel commingled yarns. The shielding effectiveness of these laminates ranged from 30 to 60 dB across a frequency range of 30–3000 MHz. Ortlek et al.⁹⁰ prepared the composite yarns by covering the stainless steel filament with polyester filament in the S direction on a hollow spindle covering machine. The shielding effectiveness of woven fabrics produced from these yarns ranged from 25 to 65 dB at incident frequencies of 30 MHz to 9.93 GHz. A research study investigated blended textiles made of stainless steel fibers (SSF) and polyester fibers (PET) shielding against electromagnetic waves. The impact of the material’s conductivity, magnetic loss, and complex permittivity across frequencies from 30 to 1500 MHz which is described in Figure 8. The findings revealed that the electromagnetic interference shielding in these SSF/PET textiles primarily occurs through an absorption-dominant mechanism. At lower frequencies, this absorption is attributed to both dielectric and magnetic loss, while at higher frequencies, magnetic loss is the primary contributor. A research study investigated blended textiles made of stainless steel fibers (SSF) and polyester fibers (PET) shielding against electromagnetic waves. The impact of the material’s conductivity, magnetic loss, and complex permittivity across frequencies from 30 to 1500 MHz which is described in Figure 8. The findings revealed that the electromagnetic interference shielding in these SSF/PET textiles primarily occurs through an absorption-dominant mechanism. At lower frequencies, this absorption is attributed to both dielectric and magnetic loss, while at higher frequencies, magnetic loss is the primary contributor ⁹¹. It can be concluded from this research that, in general, blending steel fibers with PET fibers yields better results, and the longer the steel fiber length, the more enhanced the effect. Also, in yarn manufacturing, utilizing the core spinning technique showed better EMSE than simple blending.

Figure 8.

8 EMI SE of the fabrics as a function of frequency.

Shyr and Shie studied the shielding mechanism in fabrics prepared from stainless steel filaments (SSF), stainless steel staple fiber, and PET staple fiber blended spun yarns (SS/PET) with steel fiber content of 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% by weight. The reflection, absorption, and transmission behavior of electromagnetic waves from these fabrics were analyzed. The absorption was found to be dominant in SS/PET fabrics due to dielectric and magnetic losses at low frequencies, while only magnetic losses were observed at high frequencies.⁹² Xie et al.,⁹³ produced SS/PET blended yarns by mixing the stainless steel and PET fiber slivers on the draw frame machine with steel fiber content of 20% and 30% by weight. The ring spinning technique was used to produce blended spun yarns, which were subsequently woven into the fabric to check EMI shielding. The fabrics were produced with different weave designs, and EMSE was found to be tailored in many ways, including the amount of conductive component, fabric density, fabric structure, and number of fabric layers. Lou et al.⁹⁴ prepared complex woven fabrics using bamboo charcoal and stainless steel metal wire. The shielding effectiveness of these fabrics was found to be between 50 and 60 dB with six laminations and an incident frequency ranging from 1.83 to 3 GHz. Bedeloglu⁹⁵ investigated the EMSE, comfort, and durable properties of plain and twill woven fabrics prepared from acrylic/stainless steel hybrid yarns and cotton/acrylic/stainless steel plied yarns. The EMSE of plain weave fabrics was found to be over 20 dB at higher frequencies. KK Gupta et al. developed a composite yarn of stainless steel and polyester fibers using the worsted spinning system. From these composite conductive yarns, they developed ultra-lightweight complex woven fabrics. They achieved the EMSE value of ~31 dB in a single layer of fabric at an incident frequency of 8–18 GHz. The study also reveals that the use of SS fibers in fabrics significantly improves the thermal resistance, pilling resistance, and air permeability.⁹⁶ Another important factor affecting the EMSE of stainless steel fiber blended fabric is the tightness of the fabrics, which increases with the increase in warp and weft densities. It is found that the EMSE increases with the increase in fabric tightness. The fabrics of the same tightness with the same metal fiber content and weave types but different yarn linear densities show consistent EMSE.⁹⁷ The arrangement of conductive and nonconductive yarns in creating a specific woven fabric structure play an important role in deriving EMI shielding of fabrics. EMSE of 3/1 S twill fabrics composed of polyester filament, cotton, viscose, and stainless steel fiber blended yarns was studied. It was observed that the fabric structure, the number of layers in a laminate, and the laminated angle are all crucial in creating an MESE of 16–32 dB.⁹⁸ Similarly, Liu and Wang have studied the effect of elementary weaves (plain, twill, and satin) and their derivatives on EMSE of fabrics composed of cotton and stainless steel fibers. It was found that the EMSE is higher in fabrics with a higher interlacement of yarn and a tighter structure, compared to those with a large float of yarn and a loose structure. Hence, the EMSE of twill weave fabric was lower than that of plain weave and higher than that of satin weave fabrics.⁹⁹ This research showed the successful use of various commercially available fibers, such as cotton, PET, and acrylic, combined with steel fibers for manufacturing fabrics with EMSE. At the fabrics stage, the presence of a tight structure yields better results. Moreover, the presence of a shorter float in fabric structures, such as plain weave, was suitable instead of twill, highlighting the significance of woven fabrics’ interlacement. In this regard, the use of other commercially available metallic fibers, such as those made of stainless steel, can be incorporated into the yarn structure to achieve EMSE.

Woven fabrics incorporating copper fiber for EMI shielding

Copper metal, due to its low cost, high electrical conductivity, low reflection, and high absorption of electromagnetic energy, has been used for EMI shielding.⁸³ Copper is also selected as a conductive filament due to its economic advantage compared to other metals.^100,101 It has been reported in the literature that materials with high absorption and low reflection loss possess better potential for EMI Shielding.^102–104

Copper wire core spun yarns with cotton as sheath material were produced on a friction spinning machine (DREF-3) and converted into woven fabrics to study their EMSE. The EMSE of these fabrics was found to be increased in the frequency range of 20–18,000 MHz with an increase in yarn count (tex), weft density, warp density, the number of layers of conductive fabrics, and a cover factor of the fabrics.¹⁰⁵ In another research multilayered woven fabrics incorporated with copper fibers were developed. The fabric was constructed using a core yarn of copper and polyamide filaments wrapped with polypropylene filaments. This same yarn was used for both warp and weft and woven on an electronic loom to ensure isotropic shielding In the second phase, many layers of this fabric were laminated at different angles. The single layer of the fabric offers only minimal shielding effectiveness is shown in Figure 9. However, multi-layer fabrics significantly improve shielding, providing adequate plane-wave EMSE ranging from 20 to 55 dB. This improved performance is achieved when the incident wave is normal to the fabric surface and the laminate thickness exceeds 1.6 mm. ¹⁰⁶ Similar to steel fibers, copper fiber-derived yarns and fabrics also developed better EMSE in tight fabrics. Additionally, using a coarser yarn count and a greater number of layers yields better results.

Figure 9.

EMSE of multilayered woven fabrics having copper fibers as conductive element.

It was suggested that the fabrics composed of copper core yarn could be used for EMI shielding of computers, televisions, and cellular devices. Rajendrakumar and Thilagavathi¹⁰⁷ used plied yarn of copper monofilament and PET filament to produce woven fabrics with plain, twill, and irregular satin weave. The higher EMSE value of plain weave, followed by twill and satin, was attributed to a decrease in contact resistance resulting from the increased interlacing of composite yarns. The use of copper wire along with polyamide and polypropylene filaments is also investigated in the literature for EMI shielding.102 Copper fibers were employed, along with different commercially available fibers, including PET, cotton, PP, and polyamide, to develop various structures for EMSE fabrics. In comparison to staple steel fiber, copper fibers were less studied, owing to cost and textile manufacturing requirements.

Knitted fabrics electromagnetic interference shielding

The silver-coated copper wire, combined with cotton yarn, was used to produce plated knitted fabric. A silver-coated copper wire core spun yarn with cotton fiber as the sheath component was used to produce simple knitted fabrics.¹⁰⁸ The EMSE of knitted fabric was found to be over 40 dB at low frequencies. However, the plated fabric showed better EMSE value than that of metallic wire core spun yarn knitted fabrics.¹⁰⁹ Weft-knitted fabrics produced from copper wire and cotton yarns exhibit EMSE values in the range of 10–40 dB at 500 MHz.¹¹⁰ Saty et al.¹¹¹ studied the EMSE of knitted fabrics made from stainless steel and polyester blended yarn produced on friction spinning and ring spinning techniques. The study reveals that the knitted fabric produced with friction core spun yarns of SS/SW/PET 12.3%126.3%161.4% is useful for shielding with EMSE of about 20 dB in the frequency range of 300 KHz–180 MHz. The shielding effectiveness of knitted fabrics can be tailored by adjusting the stitch density, fabric structure, and the content of the conductive component. Cheng,¹¹² produced uncommingled yarns with stainless steel wire, SS/PET (30/70) blended yarn, and glass as core and binding with polypropylene yarn using the hollow spindle technique. The knitted fabrics produced from these yarns were incorporated into thermoplastic composites with the compression molding technique. The EMSE was found to increase with the increasing content of SS and density of composite laminates. Cheng et al. ¹¹³ have already reported the fabrication of knitted fabrics and their reinforcement into polypropylene composites for EMI shielding applications. The plain and rib-knitted fabrics produced from acrylic and stainless steel wire carrying plied yarns were developed by Bedeloglu.¹¹⁴ The EMSE value for rib knitted fabric and fabric produced with thinner wire is found to be higher. The EMSE of plain, rib, and interlock knitted fabric produced with copper core conductive yarn using the Taguchi approach and ANOVA analysis was discussed by Perumalraj and Dasaradan.¹¹⁵ The interlock fabric exhibits better EMSE values than plain and rib-knitted fabrics. The study has also shown that the increase in the course and wale density and the tightness factor increases the EMSE. Huang et al.,¹¹⁶ studied the combined effect of copper and Stainless steel wire for attenuation of electromagnetic waves. Cu/PET, SS/PET, and Cu/SS/PET composite yarns were prepared on a rotor twister machine and then interloped into knitted fabrics. The fabric consisting of Cu/SS/PET exhibited the highest SE value of 21.8 dB, followed by Cu/PET with 12.36 dB and SS/PET with 10.62 dB. Thus, apart from the woven fabrics, steel and copper fibers were also used for the yarn manufacturing, which were knitted into fabrics of different knit designs. Here, the tightness of the fabric structure also produced better results of EMSE, for instance, interlock fabrics showed higher shielding than plain and rib knitted structures. The influence of fabric tightness can be improved by increasing the courses and warp per inch in the fabric structure. Another important finding is the higher shielding effect of plated yarns in comparison to steel fibers. After successfully integrating EMSE in woven and knitted fabrics, its integration in nonwoven fabrics is also explored.

Nonwoven for electromagnetic interference shielding

Nonwoven can be defined as a web or sheet-like material produced from fiber or filaments directly into fabric by mechanical, chemical, thermal, adhesive, or solvent bonding mechanisms.¹¹⁸ They are usually thick and depict felt-like appearance.^119,120 The comparative shielding effectiveness of PAN continuous film and electrospun nanofiber textiles coated with Ni-Fe was studied by Makoto Sonehara et al.¹²¹ The nanofibers coated web exhibited better EMSE than the coated continuous film of PAN. Singh et al. manufactured activated carbon needle punched nonwoven fabrics from acrylic and Kevlar fibre blends. Acrylic-rich fabrics showed higher carbon yield, better mechanical, electrical properties and EMI shielding properties. These blocks over 30 dB of interference, and with faster heating/cooling and better efficiency because of micropores, graphitic structure, crystallinity, and a higher surface area. Incontrast, Kevlar-rich fabrics were more flexible and had better shrinkage properties. ¹¹⁷ T .Figure 10 shows the carbonized blended nonwoven sample.

Figure 10.

(a) Mechanism of EMI shielding in carbonized blended nonwoven and (b) actual carbonized blended nonwoven sample.

Ozen et al.¹²² investigated the shielding effectiveness of needle-punched nonwoven fabrics produced from stainless steel and PET fiber blends. The EMSE was found to increase with an increase in the proportion of conductive filler in stainless steel fiber. The maximum EMSE was found to be 18 dB at a frequency range of 1200–3000 MHz. Ozen et al.¹²³ also developed needle punched nonwoven of silver coated polyamide fiber (Silver R. STAT 1.7 dtex) and observed the EMSE value varying from 11.00 dB to 36.53 dB in the frequency range of 15–3000 MHz. In another research work, Ozen et al.¹²³ produced conductive nonwoven needle-punched fabric of polypropylene (PP) and three different weight fractions (10, 20, and 30 wt.%) of carbon fiber. The EMSE value was found to be 15.6, 32.2, and 42.1 dB with increasing wt.% of carbon fiber at 3000 MHz frequency range. It was reported by Ozen et al.¹²⁴ that the value of EMSE increased as the thickness of needle-punched stainless steel fiber nonwoven fabric increased. The EMSE value of pre-needled, twice-needled, and thrice-needled punched stainless steel nonwoven fabric was found to be 22, 25, and 27 dB, respectively, in the frequency range of 2100–2400 MHz. Avloni et al.,¹²⁵ obtained 38 dB EMSE of polypyrrole-coated polyester nonwoven fabric at a frequency range of 100–800 MHz. Song et al.¹²⁶ reported the development of microwave-absorbing cloth by the application of carbon material into a nonwoven matrix with an absorption bandwidth of 8.2–14.5 GHz at 4 mm thickness of material. Thus, staple fibers of steel and copper were successfully utilized in the preparation of needle punch nonwoven fabrics with PET fibers. Increasing the weight fraction of the conductive component yields better EMSE. In addition to these, carbon fiber also showed ESME in nonwoven fabrics.

Nanomaterial coated conductive textile substrate for EMI shielding

Various studies are found on the development of conductive fiber, yarn, and fabrics by the application of Nanomaterials.^53,127–130 Carbon nanotubes are one of the novel materials which possess extremely high conductivity and potential application for EMI shielding.^131–133 Multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) have been applied on polyester fabric, and a surface resistance of 15 Ω sq⁻¹ have been achieved which can be used for EMI shielding.134,135 The common commodity, such as cotton thread, has also been converted into electronic thread by applying carbon nanotubes with a resistivity of 20 Ω/cm.¹³⁶ The use of carbon nanotubes has also been found very beneficial in producing novel fabrics with EMI shielding of 15–40 dB at a frequency range of 200–1000 MHz.¹³⁷ The single wall carbon nanotubes have been used to develop conductive composite fabric with a conductivity range of 5.33–13.8 S/cm.¹³⁸ In addition, nanocomposites of MXene with cellulose nanofibers have been developed for use in piezoresistive sensors in artificial e-skin. A flexible pressure sensor featuring surface patchy protrusions and porous composites, demonstrating enhanced mechanical sensitivity for physiological monitoring. The sensor exhibited high sensitivity, broad detection range, rapid response/recovery times, and exceptional cyclic stability at 21.457 kPa⁻¹, 0.11–11.022 kPa, 41.84 ms/20.82 ms, and 6000 cycles, respectively. Furthermore, its miniaturized wireless feedback system achieved 98.2% accuracy in recognizing gestures using a convolutional neural network.

Liu et al.¹³⁹ have reported the development of high strength, lightweight, flexible, and highly conductive composite yarns with a conductivity of 9 × 10⁴ S/cm. The coating of graphene has also been reported to produce flexible conductive fabrics which can be utilized for EMI shielding.^{129,140–144} Liu et al.¹⁴⁵ developed a highly conductive polyamide flexible yarn having a conductivity of 1.02 × 10³ S/cm by depositing graphene on its surface. The high conductivity of yarn demonstrated a great potential for EMI shielding. Saini et al. investigated that the total shielding effectiveness offered by PANI coated fabrics could be enhanced by incorporating the nanoparticles of BaTiO₃ and Fe₃O₄ into the coating matrix. The addition of BaTiO3 tends to improve the dielectric properties, while Fe3O4 causes an obvious improvement in the magnetic properties. Both of these materials help to improve the EMSE of PANI coated fabric from −15.3 dB to −16.8 and 19.8 dB.72 Thus, carbon-based materials, including graphene and nanotubes, were successful in producing a shielding effect in fabrics by increasing the conductivity of pristine textile fabrics. Here, the best results were achieved with multiwall CNTs, and then with single-walled CNTs and graphene owing to the better properties of the nanomaterials. However, the major drawback is the higher cost associated with MWCNTs. Moreover, different textile substrates yield varying results in EMSE of fabrics. A study developed coaxial nano-yarns for integrated pH and temperature sensing in electronic textiles through conjugated spinning and in situ polymerization. Coaxial nano-yarns exhibited high sensitivity for pH and temperature at −47.8 mV/pH and −1.53%/°C respectively, with rapid response and linearity. Woven into electronic fabric, it maintained sensitivity for pH and temperature at −35.3 mV/pH and −1.21%/°C, with linearity of R² > 0.98 and cyclic stability of 30–50°C. Thus, it can enable versatile wearable sensing for human activity and environmental monitoring.¹⁴⁶

An interpenetrating-phase cellulose-acetate composite (IPC2) architecture, inspired by beverage-straw was developed for flexible impact sensors. The design strategically combines enhanced mechanical stability with efficient energy absorption. The IPC2 architecture exhibits a unique combination of high specific energy absorption, low density, and gage factor of 2.66 kJkg⁻¹, 720 kgm⁻³, and 39.6, respectively. Furthermore, the composite demonstrated reliable shape and electrical signal recovery. It established a novel framework for flexible sensors with integrated protective functionalities and significant commercial potential.¹⁴⁷

Apart from cellulose, quartz fiber cloth was used in a gradient absorption-transmission-absorption (A-T-A) laminated structure. It was employed for broadband microwave absorption (6–18 GHz) and electrical damage tolerance. Quartz fiber cloth transmission layer was embedded within Fe3Co7/epoxy resin magnetic absorption films. The structure maintained effective absorption across the 6–18 GHz band despite 20% penetration damage.¹⁴⁸ Similarly, Fe3Co₇ was employed with carbon fiber in TPMS based core-shell sandwich structure. It enhances the tunability of electromagnetic response characteristics in the 2–18 GHz frequency band through gradient electromagnetic parameters. A frequency-insensitive reflection loss curve with two separate resonant absorption peaks was obtained for the extraordinary conduction-dissipation effect. Effective electromagnetic absorption was maintained when damaged by 40 % in case of panel, core and penetration damages.¹⁴⁹

Summary of EMSE achieved through various kinds of techniques, material and methods

In light of the above review, Table 1 is created to summarize the various kinds of techniques, materials, and methods used in the production and testing of fabrics for EMSE. The textile substrates used in numerous studies can be divided into three distinct groups: woven, knitted, and non-woven fabrics, as well as their laminates. Generally, textile materials are good insulators. Hence, in case of a non-conductive textile substrate, the surface treatment of fabrics by some electrically conductive substance is carried out to impart the desired electrical conductivity in the fabric. The use of such conducting substance on textile fabrics for EMSE is also summarized. On the other hand, the use of metallic fibers as a conductive filler has been extensively reported in the production of all types of fabrics for EMSE. Among these fillers, stainless steel, copper, and silver are most commonly incorporated into conventional fiber mesh at the manufacturing stages of yarn and fabrics. The fabrics composed of metallic filler constitute a major part of this summary. The development process of EMI shielded fabrics is illustrated in Figure 11.

Table 1.

The summary of techniques, materials, and methods used to produce fabrics for EMSE.

Surface treatment of woven fabrics for EMI Shielding
Structural design	Material	Test method	Frequency range	EMSE	Reference
Plain weave	Electroless Ni-P electroless plated 100% polyester fabrics	Agilent-E8363Avector network analyser ASTM D 4935-99	10 MHz–20 GHz	35–60 dB	Dvurechenskaya et al.¹⁵⁰
Plain weave	Electroless Nickle plated polyester fabrics		2–18 GHz	60 dB	Malaric¹⁵¹
Plain weave	Electroless, Cu-Ni-P plated polyester fabrics		100 MHz–20 GHz	85 dB	Chen et al.¹⁵²
Unidirection multilayerd	Carbon fabric composite	Free space method	4GHz–16 GHz	Higher than 70 dB	Hong et al.⁴⁵
Plain weave, sateen weave, and twill weave	Stainless steel wire, cotton	ASTM D4935-10	15 MHz–3000 MHz	30–45 dB at 1000–2400 Mhz	Wang et al.³²
Woven fabrics of plain and twill weave	Stainless steel filament, stainless steel/polyester fiber blended hybrid yarn	ASTM D4935	0.3–1.5 GHz	35–45 dB	Guo et al.⁵⁹
Woven fabrics of plain and twill weave	Stainless steel staple fiber, stainless steel monofilament, polyester	ASTM D4935	9 KHz–3 GHz	18.15–41.5 dB	Gan et al.⁶⁰
Plain weave fabrics of PP warp and comingled yarns weft	Comingled yarns of Stainless steel filament, Kevlar filament, and thermal bonding of polypropylene	ASTM D-4935-99	30 MHz–3.0 GHz	30–60 dB	Han et al.¹⁵³
Woven fabrics of plain, Panama 2/2, rib 2/2 and twill 3/1 weave	Stainless steel wire, polyester filament	IEEE Standard 299-1997,IEEE Standard 1302-1998	30 MHz–9.93 GHz	25–65 dB	Akbarov et al.¹⁵⁴
Fabric structure of 2/2 twill weave	Meta aramid, stainless steel fiber, polypropylene fiber	ASTM D 4935-99	30 MHz–1.5 GHz	Higher than 10–36 dB	Luo et al.¹⁵⁵
Woven fabrics of plain, twill, satin, and 2,3, and 6 layer structures	20/80 and 30/70 SS/PET blended yarns	ASTM D 4935-99	300 kHz–3 GHz	5–60 dB	Rahaman and Kar⁶²
Plain weave fabric with warp of cotton yarn and weft of BC/M yarn	Cotton, bamboo charcoal/metal complex yarn (BC/M)	Test Fixture EM-2107A ASTM D 4935-99	1.83–3 GHz	50 and 60 dB	Newton et al.¹⁵⁶
Plain and twill woven fabrics	Cotton, acrylic, and stainless steel		0–3000 MHz	20 dB	Gan et al.¹⁵⁷
Plain, twill, and leno weave	Stainless steel/PET composite yarn	Free space method	8–18 GHz	31 dB	Wang and Jing¹⁵⁸
3/1 S Twill	PET 75D/72F DTY, Cotton, Viscose, stainless steel (CVC 60:40, CVC/SSF 60:35:5)	ASTM-D4935	0–3000 MHz	16–32 dB	Håkansson et al.¹⁵⁹
Plain and twill woven fabrics	Copper core and cotton sheath friction spun yarn	ASTM D4935-99	20–18,000 MHz	20–66 dB at 200–4000 MHz	Geetha et al.¹⁶⁰
Woven fabric	Copper core and cotton sheath friction spun yarn	ASTM D4935-99	760–860 MHz	32 dB	Saini et al.⁷²
Plain, twill, and irregular satin weave fabrics	Composite yarns consisting of copper monofilaments and PET filaments	ASTM-D4935	2.25–2.65 GHz	30–54 dB	Unnikrishnan et al.⁷⁶
Plain woven	cuprammonium fabric/polypyrrole/copper	ASTM D4935	30–1000 MHz	30–50 dB	Li-Chaun et al.⁷⁷
plain knitting and 1 × 1 rib structures	Silver coated copper and cotton	ASTM D4935	27 MHz–3 GHz	10–40 dB under 500 MHz	Jagatheesan et al.⁸¹
Knitted fabrics	Stainless steel/polyester	ASTM D4935	300 KHz to 3000 MHz	1–26 dB	Šafářová and Militký³⁰
Knitted fabrics laminates based composites	Glass/stainless steel/polyester	ASTM D4935	300 KHz to 3000 MHz	up to 85 dB	Peng et al.⁸⁴
Knitted fabrics	Acrylic/stainless steel wire	ASTM D4935	0–3000 MHz	up to 20 dB	Lin and Lou¹⁶¹
Knitted fabrics	Cotton/copper wire	Anechoic chamber	20–18,000 MHz	30–63 dB	Ortlek et al.⁹⁰
Nonwoven, needle punched	Stainless steel, polyester	ASTM D4935	1200–3000 MHz	18 dB	Gupta et al.⁹⁶
Nonwoven, needle punched	Silver coated polyamide	ASTM D4935	15–3000 MHz	11-36.5 dB	Liu and Wang⁹⁷
Nonwoven, needle punched	Stainless steel fiber	ASTM D4935	15–3000 MHz	22–27 dB	Liu and Wang⁹⁹

Figure 11.

Development of protective Textiles against electromagnetic radiations: From Harmful EM waves to conductive fibers and EMS yarn production.

Conclusion

It was found that the coaxial transmission method is mostly used to measure the shielding effectiveness of flexible conductive fabrics and films. The metallization of fabrics through electroless plating and chemical vapor deposition is a highly effective technique for producing conductive fabrics. Intrinsically conducting polymers, such as polyaniline and polypyrrole, have been utilized to develop electromagnetic shielding applications for computers, televisions, wireless networks, and cellular devices. Copper was used as a conductive filler due to its high conductivity and low cost. However, steel was most widely used as a fiber, both in staple and filament form, to develop composite woven and knitted fabrics for EMI Shielding. The nonwoven conductive fabrics were also produced by incorporating copper and steel or by applying a conductive coating layer to the fabric. From various studies conducted on EMI shielding, it is inferred that the shielding effectiveness increases with the increasing amount of conductive fillers in the fabric. Additionally, the EMSE can be tailored to some extent by the construction parameters of the fabric.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Muhammad Bilal Qadir

Zubair Khaliq

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The author(s) are grateful to the Higher Education Commission, Pakistan, for funding this work under grant code 20-16082/NRPU/R&D/HEC/2021-2020. This study was accomplished with King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia’s financial support under the Ongoing Research Funding program, (ORF-2025-557), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

References

Chatterjee

Maity

Chapter 18 - advanced electromagnetic interference shielding textiles and clothing. In: ul-Islam

Butola

(eds) Advances in functional and protective textiles. Woodhead Publishing, 2020, pp.457–491.

Kaur

Kakar

Mandal

Electromagnetic interference. In: 2011 3rd international conference on electronics computer technology, 2011, vol. 4, pp.1–5. IEEE.

Mehri

Heidari

Masoumi

. The analysis of EMI effects on the performance of electronic systems implemented on a PCB. In: 2016 IEEE 20th workshop on signal and power integrity (SPI), 8–11 May 2016. IEEE Publisher 2016, pp.1–4, DOI: 10.1109/SaPIW.2016.7496295.

Tong

XC.

Advanced materials and design for electromagnetic interference shielding. CRC Press, 2016.

Zhang

Wang

A survey of EMI Research in power electronics systems with wide-bandgap semiconductor devices. IEEE J Emerg Sel Top Power Electron 2020; 8(1): 626–643.

Xie

Dhinojwala

Gianneschi

, et al. Interactions of melanin with electromagnetic radiation: from Fundamentals to applications. Chem Rev 2024; 124(11): 7165–7213.

Rahimpour

Kiyani

Hodges

, et al. Deep brain stimulation and electromagnetic interference. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2021; 203: 106577.

Baikova

Valtchev

Melicio

, et al. Study of the electromagnetic interference generated by wireless power transfer systems. Int Rev Elec Eng 2016; 11(5): 526.

Hanada

Takano

Antoku

, et al. A practical procedure to prevent electromagnetic interference with electronic medical equipment. J Med Syst 2002; 26: 61–65.

10.

Kondawar

Modak

. Theory of EMI shielding. In: Joseph

Wilson

George

(eds) Materials for potential EMI shielding applications. Elsevier, 2020, pp.9–25.

11.

Chung

DDL

. Materials for electromagnetic interference shielding. Mater Chem Phys 2020; 255: 123587.

12.

Wanasinghe

Aslani

A review on recent advancement of electromagnetic interference shielding novel metallic materials and processes. Compos B Eng 2019; 176: 107207.

13.

Sambhudevan

Ferrite-based polymer nanocomposites as shielding materials: a review. Chem Pap 2021; 75(8): 3697–3710.

14.

Jiang

Murugadoss

Wang

, et al. Electromagnetic interference shielding polymers and nanocomposites-a review. Polym Rev 2019; 59(2): 280–337.

15.

Wang

Zhang

, et al. Polymer-based EMI shielding composites with 3D conductive networks: a mini-review. SusMat 2021; 1(3): 413–431.

16.

Guo

Chen

, et al. Electrospun fibrous materials and their applications for electromagnetic interference shielding: a review. Compos Part A: Appl Sci Manuf 2021; 143: 106309.

17.

Liu

You

, et al. Recent progress in morphological engineering of carbon materials for electromagnetic interference shielding. Carbon 2021; 172: 33302–33596.

18.

Jia

Shen

, et al. Evaluation, fabrication and dynamic performance regulation of green EMI-shielding materials with low reflectivity: a review. Compos B Eng 2022; 233: 109652.

19.

Maity

Chatterjee

Conductive polymer-based electro-conductive textile composites for electromagnetic interference shielding: a review. J Ind Text 2018; 47(8): 2228–2252.

20.

Kumar

Narayan Maiti

Sikdar

, et al. Recent advances in polymer and polymer composites for electromagnetic interference shielding: review and future prospects. Polym Rev 2019; 59(4): 3235–3738.

21.

Maiti

Maity

Pandit

, et al. 20 - graphene-based textiles for electromagnetic interference shielding. In: Maity

Pandit

Maiti

(eds) Advances in electrically conductive textiles. Elsevier, 2025, pp.683–701.

22.

Zhou

Cai

, et al. Smart meta-device powered by stray microwave energies: a green approach to shielding external interference and detection. Appl Energy 2025; 378: 124770.

23.

Jayaraju

Pramod Kumar

Sreenivasulu

, et al. Mobile phone and base stations radiation and its effects on human health and environment: a review. Sustain Technol Entrep 2023; 2(2): 100031.

24.

Kumar

Pathak

Effect of electromagnetic radiation from mobile phones towers on human body. 84.40. Ua; 87.50. sg, 2011.

25.

Bhargava

Rattanadecho

Wessapan

The effect of metal objects on the SAR and temperature increase in the human head exposed to dipole antenna (numerical analysis). Case Stud Therm Eng 2020; 22: 100789.

26.

Lai

Sun

R-J

Chen

M-Y

, et al. Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of fabrics with metallized polyester filaments. Text Res J 2007; 77(4): 242–246.

27.

Meenu

Aiswarya

Menon

. A survey on heating effects of electromagnetic radiation on human body. In: 2020 5th international conference on computing, communication and security (ICCCS), 2020, pp.1–4. IEEE.

28.

Avdeyenko

Yakornov

Omojunikanbi

AO.

A critical assessment of electromagnetic radiation from telecommunication system and the magnitude of its health related issues. Int J Res Educ Sci Technol 2021; 4: 426–427.

29.

Elhence

Chamola

Guizani

Notice of retraction: electromagnetic radiation due to cellular, Wi-fi and Bluetooth technologies: how safe are we?

IEEE Access 2020; 8: 42980–43000.

30.

Šafárová

Militký

Multifunctional metal composite textile shields against electromagnetic radiation—effect of various parameters on electromagnetic shielding effectiveness. Polym Compos 2017; 38(2): 309–323.

31.

Srivastava

Manna

Recent advancements in electromagnetic interference shielding performance of nanostructured materials and their nanocomposites: a review. J Mater Chem 2022; 10: 7431–7496.

32.

Wang

X-Y

Liao

Wan

, et al. Electromagnetic interference shielding materials: recent progress, structure design, and future perspective. J Mater Chem C 2022; 12: 8569–8569.

33.

Brzezinski

Rybicki

Malinowska

, et al. Effectiveness of shielding electromagnetic radiation, and assumptions for designing the multi-layer structures of textile shielding materials. Fibres Text East Eur 2009; 1(72): 60–65.

34.

Chung

DDL

. Materials for electromagnetic interference shielding. J Mater Eng Perform 2000; 9(3): 350–354.

35.

Motojima

Noda

Hoshiya

, et al. Electromagnetic wave absorption property of carbon microcoils in 12–110 GHz region. J Appl Phys 2003; 94(4): 2325–2330.

36.

Violette

White

Violette

. Sources of electromagnetic interference. In: Violette

White

Violette

(eds) Electromagnetic compatibility handbook. Springer, 1987, pp.13–62.

37.

Isari

Ghaffarkhah

Hashemi

, et al. Structural design for EMI shielding: from underlying mechanisms to common pitfalls. Adv Mat 2024; 36(24): 2310683.

38.

Celozzi

Lovat

Araneo

Electromagnetic shielding. Wiley Online Library, 2008.

39.

Mohan

Chopra

. Chapter 18 - biological effects of radiation. In: Dhoble

Chopra

Nayar

, et al. (eds) Radiation dosimetry phosphors. Woodhead Publishing, 2022, pp.485–508.

40.

Chen

Lee

Lin

, et al. Comparison of electromagnetic shielding effectiveness properties of diverse conductive textiles via various measurement techniques. J Mater Process Technol 2007; 192-193: 549–554.

41.

Cardillo

Carcione

Ferro

, et al. Development of a simple setup to measure shielding effectiveness at microwave frequencies. Sensors 2024; 24(12): 3741. https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/12/3741

42.

Zhang

. The key construction points of electromagnetic shielding environment in the anechoic chamber. In: 2024 IEEE 7th international electrical and energy conference (CIEEC), 10-12 May 2024 2024, pp.4100–4106. Doi:10.1109/CIEEC60922.2024.10583567

43.

Pavlik

Kolcunova

. Measuring of the shielding effectiveness of electromagnetic field of brick wall in the frequency range from 1 GHz to 9 GHz. In: Electric power engineering (EPE), proceedings of the 2014 15th international scientific conference on, 2014: IEEE, pp.261–265.

44.

Standard A. D4935-99, Standard test method for measuring the electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of planar materials. American Society for Testing and Materials, 1999

45.

Hong

Electromagnetic Interference Shielding Anisotropy of Unidirectional CFRP Composites. Materials. 2021; 14(8):1907

46.

Zachariah

Grohens

Kalarikkal

, et al. Hybrid materials for electromagnetic shielding: a review. Polym Compos 2022; 43(5): 2507–2544.

47.

Abou Taleb

Mowafi

El-Sayed

, et al. Facile development of electrically conductive comfortable fabrics using metal ions. J Ind Text 2022; 51(7): 1100–1120.

48.

Rubeiene

Varnaite-uravliova

EMI shielding textile materials. In: Joseph

Wilson

George

(eds) Materials for potential EMI shielding applications. Elsevier, 2020, pp.357–378.

49.

Liu

Chen

, et al. Flexible, breathable, and highly environmental-stable Ni/ppy/PET conductive fabrics for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding and wearable textile antennas. Compos B Eng 2021; 215: 108752.

50.

Uzun

Han

Strobel

, et al. Highly conductive and scalable Ti3C2Tx-coated fabrics for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding. Carbon 2021; 174: 382–389.

51.

Baymuratov

Tashpulatov

Akbarov

, et al. Development of special fabrics protecting from electromagnetic radiation. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 2018; 459(1): 012031.

52.

Glyva

Barabash

Kasatkina

, et al. Studying the shielding of an electromagnetic field by a textile material containing ferromagnetic nanostructures. Eastern European J Enterprise Technol 2020; 1(10): 26–31.

53.

Hansora

Shimpi

Mishra

Performance of hybrid nanostructured conductive cotton materials as wearable devices: an overview of materials, fabrication, properties and applications. RSC Adv 2015; 5(130): 107716–107770.

54.

Safdar

Ashraf

Javid

, et al. Polymeric textile-based electromagnetic interference shielding materials, their synthesis, mechanism and applications–a review. J Ind Text 2022; 51(5_suppl): 7293S–7358S.

55.

Srivastava

SK.

Intrinsically conducting polymer nanocomposites in shielding of electromagnetic pollution. In: Balakumar

Keller

Shankar

(eds) Nanostructured materials for environmental applications. Springer Nature, 2021, pp.167–215.

56.

Rahman

Kumar

Islam

, et al. Chapter 22 - metal and metal-coated fibres. In: Mondal

MIH

(ed.) Technical organic and inorganic fibres from natural resources. Elsevier Science Ltd, 2025, pp.625–646.

57.

Karaman

, et al. Chemical and physical modification of surfaces. In: Gürsoy

Karaman

(eds) Surface treatments for biological, chemical, and physical applications. Wiley, 2017, pp.23–66.

58.

Hang

Lei

Yinxiang

, Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness and serviceability of the multilayer structured cuprammonium fabric/polypyrrole/copper (CF/PPy/Cu) composite, Chemical Engineering Journal, Volume 297, 2016, Pages 170-179.

59.

Guo

Jiang

Yuen

CWM

, et al. Optimization of electroless nickel plating on polyester fabric. Fibers Polym 2013; 14(3): 459–464.

60.

Gan

Liu

, et al. Electroless plating of Cu–Ni–P alloy on PET fabrics and effect of plating parameters on the properties of conductive fabrics. J Alloys Comp 2008; 455(1): 308–313.

61.

Little

Cammarata

, et al. Metallization of Kevlar fibers with gold. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2011; 3(6): 1965–1973.

62.

Rahaman

Kar

KK.

Effect of coating time and temperature on electroless deposition of cobalt-phosphorous for the growth of carbon nanotubes on the surface of e-glass fibers/fabric. Fullerenes Nanotubes Carbon Nanostruct 2011; 19(5): 373–397.

63.

Mengal

Sahito

Arbab

, et al. Fabrication of a flexible and conductive lyocell fabric decorated with graphene nanosheets as a stable electrode material. Carbohydr Polym 2016; 152: 19–25.

64.

Sahito

Sun

Arbab

, et al. Flexible and conductive cotton fabric counter electrode coated with graphene nanosheets for high efficiency dye sensitized solar cell. J Power Sources 2016; 319: 90–98.

65.

Sahito

Sun

Arbab

, et al. Integrating high electrical conductivity and photocatalytic activity in cotton fabric by cationizing for enriched coating of negatively charged graphene oxide. Carbohydr Polym 2015; 130: 299–306.

66.

Rayhan

MGS

Khan

MKH

Shoily

, et al. Conductive textiles for signal sensing and technical applications. Signals 2023; 4(1): 1–39.

67.

Ali

Zeeshan

Ahmed

, et al. Development and comfort characterization of 2D-Woven Auxetic fabric for wearable and medical textile applications. Clothing Textiles Res J 2018; 36(3): 199–214.

68.

Kaynak

Håkansson

Amiet

The influence of polymerization time and dopant concentration on the absorption of microwave radiation in conducting polypyrrole coated textiles. Synth Met 2009; 159(13): 1373–1380.

69.

Blachowicz

Wójcik

Surma

, et al. Textile fabrics as electromagnetic shielding Materials—a review of preparation and performance. Fibers 2021; 11(3): 2797. DOI: 10.3390/fib11030029

70.

Ghazal

Allam

Maraae

, et al. Conductive polymer coated textile and their applications. J Text Color Polym Sci 2024; 21(2): 313–331.

71.

Moraes

Alves

Toptan

, et al. Glycerol/PEDOT: PSS coated woven fabric as a flexible heating element on textiles. J Mater Chem C 2017; 5(15): 3807–3822.

72.

Saini

Choudhary

Vijayan

, et al. Improved electromagnetic interference shielding response of poly (aniline)-coated fabrics containing dielectric and magnetic nanoparticles. J Phys Chem C 2012; 116(24): 13403–13412.

73.

Ahirrao

Pal

Singh

, et al. Nanostructured porous polyaniline (PANI) coated carbon cloth (CC) as electrodes for flexible supercapacitor device. J Mater Sci Technol 2021; 88: 168–182.

74.

Krifa

Electrically conductive textile materials—application in flexible sensors and antennas. Textile 2021; 1(2): 239–257.

75.

Kim

J-Y

Kim

B-G

, et al. Development of cellulose-based conductive fabrics with electrical conductivity and flexibility. PLoS One 2020; 15(6): e0233952.

76.

Unnikrishnan

SK S V

Halliah

, et al. Flexible electromagnetic interference shields in S band region from textile materials. J Ind Text 2013; 43(2): 215–230.

77.

Li-Chuan

Ling

Fang

, et al. Stretchable and durable conductive fabric for ultrahigh performance electromagnetic interference shielding, Carbon, Volume 144, 2019, Pages 101-108.

78.

Shahzad

Bilal Qadir

Ali

, et al. Fabrication of low-twist and high-strength metallic fibre hybrid spun yarns. Appl Sci 2022; 12(7): 3413.

79.

Shahzad

Ahmad

Ali

, et al. Statistical analysis of yarn to metal frictional coefficient of cotton spun yarn using Taguchi design of experiment. J Strain Anal Eng Des 2018; 53(7): 485–493.

80.

Mushtaq

Ahmad

Ali

, et al. Core spun based Helical Auxetic yarn: a novel structure for wearable protective textiles. J Nat Fibers 2022; 19(16): 15058–15070.

81.

Jagatheesan

Ramasamy

Das

, et al. Study of aperture size and its aspect ratio of conductive hybrid yarn woven fabric on electromagnetic shielding effectiveness. Fibers Polym 2017; 18(7): 1382–1392.

82.

Shahzad

Jabbar

Irfan

, et al. Electrical resistive heating characterization of conductive hybrid staple spun yarns. J Text Inst 2020; 111(10): 1481–1488.

83.

Jagatheesan

Ramasamy

Das

, et al. Fabrics and their composites for electromagnetic shielding applications. Text Prog 2015; 47(2): 87–161.

84.

Peng

H-K

Wang

T-T

, et al. Polysufonamide/stainless steel woven fabrics: manufacturing techniques, flame retardance and electromagnetic shielding effectiveness. Fibers Polym 2020; 21(4): 775–784.

85.

Shahzad

Rasheed

Khaliq

, et al. Processing of metallic fiber hybrid spun yarns for better electrical conductivity. Mater Manuf Process 2019; 34(9): 1008–1015.

86.

Lai

M-F

Lou

C-W

Lin

, et al. High-strength conductive yarns and fabrics: mechanical properties, electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness, and manufacturing techniques. J Text Inst 2021; 112(3): 347–357.

87.

Das

Krishnasamy

Alagirusamy

, et al. Analysis of the electromagnetic shielding behavior of stainless steel filament and PET/SS hybrid yarn incorporated conductive woven fabrics. Fibers Polym 2014; 15(11): 2423–2427.

88.

Shahzad

Ali

, et al. Development and characterization of conductive ring spun hybrid yarns. J Text Inst 2019; 110(1): 141–150.

89.

Navinbhai

AH.

Development of high functional textile fabrics for electrostatic discharge control. Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda (India), 2017.

90.

Ortlek

Saracoglu

Saritas

, et al. Electromagnetic shielding characteristics of woven fabrics made of hybrid yarns containing metal wire. Fibers Polym 2012; 13(1): 63–67.

91.

Tien-Wei

Jing-Wen

, Electromagnetic shielding mechanisms using soft magnetic stainless steel fiber enabled polyester textiles, Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 2012; 324(23): 4127–4132.

92.

Shyr

T-W

Shie

J-W.

Electromagnetic shielding mechanisms using soft magnetic stainless steel fiber enabled polyester textiles. J Magn Mater 2012; 324(23): 4127–4132.

93.

Xie

Zhao

Huang

, et al. Development of extensible, durable and linear core-spun yarn sensor for smart textile applications. Smart Mater Struct 2025; 34: 035042.

94.

Lou

C-W

Chen

A-P

Lin

C-W

, et al. Evaluation on manufacturing technique and electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of functional complex fabrics. J Electromagn Waves Appl 2014; 28(9): 1031–1043.

95.

Bedeloglu

Investigation of electrical, electromagnetic shielding, and usage properties of woven fabrics made from different hybrid yarns containing stainless steel wires. J Text Inst 2013; 104(12): 1359–1373.

96.

Gupta

Abbas

Abhyankar

AC.

Ultra-lightweight hybrid woven fabric containing stainless steel/polyester composite yarn for total EMI shielding in frequency range 8–18 GHz. J Electromagn Waves Appl 2015; 29(11): 1454–1472.

97.

Liu

Wang

Relation between shielding effectiveness and tightness of electromagnetic shielding fabric. J Ind Text 2013; 43(2): 302–316.

98.

Lou

Yang

Lin

, et al. The influence of fabric structures of the woven fabrics on electromagnetic shielding effectiveness. Adv Mater Res 2011; 239: 1994–1997.

99.

Liu

Wang

XC.

Influence of fabric weave type on the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding woven fabric. J Electromagn Waves Appl 2012; 26(14-15): 1848–1856.

100.

Hausding

Cherif

Improvements in the warp-knitting process and new patterning techniques for stitch-bonded textiles. J Text Inst 2010; 101(3): 187–196.

101.

Gokarneshan

Varadarajan

Sentil kumar

, et al. Engineering knits for versatile technical applications: some insights on recent researches. J Ind Text 2012; 42(1): 52–75.

102.

Zhao

Hou

Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness and serviceability of the multilayer structured cuprammonium fabric/polypyrrole/copper (CF/ppy/Cu) composite. Chem Eng J 2016; 297: 170–179.

103.

Pandey

Tekumalla

Gupta

. EMI shielding of metals, alloys, and composites. In: Joseph

Wilson

George

(eds) Materials for potential EMI shielding applications. Elsevier, 2020, pp.341–355.

104.

Kittur

Desai

Chaudhari

, et al. A comparative study of EMI shielding effectiveness of metals, metal coatings and carbon-based materials. In: IOP conference series: materials science and engineering, 2020, vol. 810, no. 1. IOP Publishing, p.012019.

105.

Özdemir

Ugurlu

Özkurt

The electromagnetic shielding of textured steel yarn based woven fabrics used for clothing. J Ind Text 2015; 45(3): 416–436.

106.

Hsinchuan

Lee

Kueichi

Lin

Jia Horng

, et al. Fabrication of conductive woven fabric and analysis of electromagnetic shielding via measurement and empirical equation, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 2007; 184(1–3): 124–130.

107.

Rajendrakumar

Thilagavathi

Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of copper/PET composite yarn fabrics. Ind J Fib Text Res 2012; 37(2): 133–137.

108.

Tunakova

Tunak

Bajzik

, et al. Hybrid knitted fabric for electromagnetic radiation shielding. J Eng Fibers Fabrics 2020; 15: 1558925020925397.

109.

Rajendrakumar

Thilagavathi

A study on the effect of construction parameters of metallic wire/core spun yarn based knitted fabrics on electromagnetic shielding. J Ind Text 2013; 42(4): 400–416.

110.

Soyaslan

Çömlekçi

Göktepe . Determination of electromagnetic shielding performance of plain knitting and 1X1 rib structures with coaxial test fixture relating to ASTM D4935. J Text Inst 2010; 101(10): 890–897.

111.

Saty

MYH

Abdalla

Sarkodie

, et al. Recent advances of preparing structure-enhanced conductive yarns to control their performance in potential applications. Text Res J 2024; 94(23-24): 2835–2862.

112.

Cheng

KB.

Production and electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of the knitted stainless steel/polyester fabrics. J Textile Eng 2000; 46(2): 42–52.

113.

Chen

H-C

Lee

K-C

Lin

J-H.

Electromagnetic and electrostatic shielding properties of co-weaving-knitting fabrics reinforced composites. Compos Part A: Appl Sci Manuf 2004; 35(11): 1249–1256.

114.

Bedeloglu

Electrical, electromagnetic shielding, and some physical properties of hybrid yarn-based knitted fabrics. J Text Inst 2013; 104(11): 1247–1257.

115.

Perumalraj

Dasaradan

Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of copper core yarn knitted fabrics. Ind J Fib Text Res 2009. 34(2): 149-154.

116.

Huang

C-H

Lin

J-H

Yang

R-B

, et al. Metal/PET composite knitted fabrics and composites: structural design and electromagnetic shielding effectiveness. J Electron Mater 2012; 41: 2267.

117.

Singh

Kuldip

Baheti

Vijay

, Electromagnetic interference shielding and ohmic heating applications of carbonized nonwoven fabrics prepared from blended fibrous wastes, Diamond and Related Materials, Volume 133, 2023,109708.

118.

Yilmaz

Sabuncuoglu

Yildirim

, et al. A brief review on the mechanical behavior of nonwoven fabrics. J Eng Fibers Fabrics 2020; 15: 1558925020970197.

119.

Tipper

Ward

. Finishing of nonwoven fabrics. In: Russell

(ed.) Handbook of nonwovens. Elsevier, 2022, pp.471–508.

120.

Tubcil

Dogan

Dizman

Nonwoven surface treatments for disposable hygiene products. Polym Eng Sci 2025; 65: 950–969.

121.

Sonehara

Sato

Takasaki

, et al. Preparation and characterization of nanofiber nonwoven textile for electromagnetic wave shielding. IEEE Trans Magn 2008; 44(11): 3107–3110.

122.

Ozen

Sancak

Beyit

, et al. Investigation of electromagnetic shielding properties of needle-punched nonwoven fabrics with stainless steel and polyester fiber. Text Res J 2013; 83(8): 849–858.

123.

Ozen

Sancak

Soin

, et al. Investigation of electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of needle punched nonwoven fabric produced from conductive silver coated staple polyamide fibre. J Text Inst 2016; 107(7): 912–922.

124.

Ozen

Sancak

Akalin

The effect of needle-punched nonwoven fabric thickness on electromagnetic shielding effectiveness. Text Res J 2015; 85(8): 804–815.

125.

Avloni

Lau

Ouyang

, et al. Polypyrrole-coated nonwovens for electromagnetic shielding. J Ind Text 2008; 38(1): 55–68.

126.

Song

W-L

Fan

L-Z

Hou

Z-L

, et al. A wearable microwave absorption cloth. J Mater Chem C 2017; 5(9): 2432–2441.

127.

Shakir

Ali

Bae

, et al. Conformal coating of ultrathin Ni (OH) 2 on ZnO nanowires grown on textile fiber for efficient flexible energy storage devices. RSC Adv 2014; 4(12): 6324–6329.

128.

Kim

Sim

Shin

, et al. Conductive functional biscrolled polymer and carbon nanotube yarns. RSC Adv 2013; 3(46): 24028–24033.

129.

Cao

M-S

Wang

X-X

Cao

W-Q

, et al. Ultrathin graphene: electrical properties and highly efficient electromagnetic interference shielding. J Mater Chem C 2015; 3(26): 6589–6599.

130.

Tiwari

Bhatia

, et al. Nanomaterials for electromagnetic interference shielding applications: a review. NANO 2022; 17(02): 2230001.

131.

Ren

Wang

, et al. Current progress on the modification of carbon nanotubes and their application in electromagnetic wave absorption. RSC Adv 2014; 4(28): 14419–14431.

132.

Gao

Zhang

Mai

, et al. Preparation of high performance conductive polymer fibres from double percolated structure. J Mater Chem 2011; 21(17): 6401–6408.

133.

Zou

Lan

Yang

, et al. The optimization of nanocomposite coating with polyaniline coated carbon nanotubes on fabrics for exceptional electromagnetic interference shielding. Diam Relat Mater 2020; 104: 107757.

134.

Arbab

Sun

Sahito

, et al. Multiwalled carbon nanotube coated polyester fabric as textile based flexible counter electrode for dye sensitized solar cell. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2015; 17(19): 12957–12969.

135.

Huang

Chen

Lin

, et al. Electrodeposition of polypyrrole on carbon nanotube-coated cotton fabrics for all-solid flexible supercapacitor electrodes. RSC Adv 2016; 6(16): 13359–13364.

136.

Shim

Chen

Doty

, et al. Smart electronic yarns and wearable fabrics for human biomonitoring made by carbon nanotube coating with polyelectrolytes. Nano Lett 2008; 8(12): 4151–4157.

137.

Bonaldi

Siores

Shah

Characterization of electromagnetic shielding fabrics obtained from carbon nanotube composite coatings. Synth Met 2014; 187: 1–8.

138.

Ganguly

Bhawal

Ravindren

, et al. Polymer nanocomposites for electromagnetic interference shielding: a review. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 2018; 18(11): 7641–7669.

139.

Liu

Sun

Lin

, et al. Scratch-resistant, highly conductive, and high-strength carbon nanotube-based composite yarns. ACS Nano 2010; 4(10): 5827–5834.

140.

Sahito

Sun

Arbab

, et al. Graphene coated cotton fabric as textile structured counter electrode for DSSC. Electrochim Acta 2015; 173: 164–171.

141.

Samad

Alhassan

, et al. Non-destroyable graphene cladding on a range of textile and other fibers and fiber mats. RSC Adv 2014; 4(33): 16935–16938.

142.

Molina

Graphene-based fabrics and their applications: a review. RSC Adv 2016; 6(72): 68261–68291.

143.

Kongahge

Foroughi

Gambhir

, et al. Fabrication of a graphene coated nonwoven textile for industrial applications. RSC Adv 2016; 6(77): 73203–73209.

144.

Nine

Cole

Tran

DNH

, et al. Graphene: a multipurpose material for protective coatings. J Mater Chem 2015; 3(24): 12580–12602.

145.

Liu

Weng

Dai

, et al. Highly conductive graphene-bonded polyimide yarns for flexible electronics. RSC Adv 2016; 6(110): 108362–108368.

146.

Yin

Guo

, et al. Dual-sensing nano-yarns for real-time pH and temperature monitoring in smart textiles. Chem Eng J 2024; 500: 157115.

147.

Guo

Wang

, et al. A flexible impact sensor of interpenetrating-phase composite architecture with high mechanical stability and energy-absorbing capability. Adv Funct Mater 2025; 35(20): 2419882.

148.

Zhao

Xing

Jin

, et al. Excellent angular and electrical performance damage tolerance of wave-absorbing laminate via gradient A-T-A design. Compos Commun 2024; 46: 101838.

149.

Zhao

Xing

, et al. Frequency insensitive electromagnetic absorption core-shell sandwich structure with excellent electromagnetic damage tolerance. Compos B Eng 202; 289: 111946.

150.

Dvurechenskaya

Bajurko

Zielinski

, et al. Measurements of shielding effectiveness of textile materials containing metal by the free-space transmission technique with data processing in the time domain. Metrol Measurement Syst 2013; 20(2): 217–228.

151.

Malaric

EMI protection for communication systems. Artech House, 2010.

152.

Chen

Ong

Neo

, et al. Microwave electronics: measurement and materials characterization. John Wiley & Sons, 2004.

153.

Han

Kim

KW.

Electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness of electroless Cu-plated PET fabrics. Synth Met 2001; 123(3): 469–476.

154.

Akbarov

Baymuratov

Akbarov

, et al. Optimizing process parameters in polyacrylonitrile production for metallization with nickel. Text Res J 2005; 75(3): 197–202.

155.

Luo

Yao

Zhang

, et al. Surface metallization of continuous carbon fiber. J Univ Nat Sci 2005; 26(9): 882.

156.

Newton

Marcus Yuen

Kan

C-W

, et al. Application of chemical silver plating on polyester and cotton blended fabric. Text Res J 2007; 77(2): 85–91.

157.

Gan

Liu

, et al. Electroless copper plating on PET fabrics using hypophosphite as reducing agent. Surf Coat Technol 2007; 201(16): 7018–7023.

158.

Wang

Jing

Intrinsically conducting polymers for electromagnetic interference shielding. Polym Adv Technol 2005; 16(4): 344–351.

159.

Håkansson

Amiet

Kaynak

Electromagnetic shielding properties of polypyrrole/polyester composites in the 1–18GHz frequency range. Synth Met 2006; 156(14): 917–925.

160.

Geetha

Satheesh Kumar

Trivedi

DC.

Polyaniline reinforced conducting E-glass fabric using 4-chloro-3-methyl phenol as secondary dopant for the control of electromagnetic radiations. Compos Sci Technol 2005; 65(6): 973–980.

161.

Lin

Lou

CW.

Electrical properties of laminates made from a new fabric with PP/stainless steel commingled yarn. Text Res J 2003; 73(4): 322–326.

Conductive textiles;an ideal solution for flexible and versatile electromagnetic interference shielding—status and prospects

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Health hazards of EM radiations

Mechanism of electromagnetic shielding

Transmission

Reflection

Multiple reflections

Absorption

Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness (EMSE)

Measurement of electromagnetic shielding effectiveness (EMSE)

Free space transmission technique

Shield box method

Shielded room method

Coaxial transmission line method

Materials and methods for shielding

Woven fabrics for electromagnetic interference shielding

Surface treatment of woven fabrics

Conductive polymers coated fabrics for EMI shielding

Woven fabrics incorporating steel fiber for EMI shielding

Woven fabrics incorporating copper fiber for EMI shielding

Knitted fabrics electromagnetic interference shielding

Nonwoven for electromagnetic interference shielding

Nanomaterial coated conductive textile substrate for EMI shielding

Summary of EMSE achieved through various kinds of techniques, material and methods

Conclusion

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Funding

Declaration of conflicting interests

References