The ongoing conflict in Venezuela has created significant risks for women and girls. Conflict affected populations often face higher levels of vulnerability and risks of gender-based violence (GBV) at home, in transit and at destination countries. Venezuelan women face GBV at all stages of their journey. Due to their often-irregular or undocumented status in host countries, many women lack legal access to healthcare and work which leaves them vulnerable to exploitation and GBV. Using the continuum of violence model by Kelly (1988; 2012) as well as Menjívar & Walsh (2017; 2019), this work underscores the complex ways in which gender, nationality and legal status interact with each other to shape patterns of migration and settlement. Focusing on the two largest receiving countries in Latin America: Colombia and Peru, this work also outlines how the structural, symbolic and interpersonal nature of GBV crosses borders amid the challenges of conflict, displacement and xenophobia.
AlessiE. J. (2016). Resilience in sexual and gender minority forced migrants: A qualitative exploration. Traumatology, 22(3), 203–213. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000077
2.
AlexanderR. (2018). Gender, structural violence, and peace. In The Routledge handbook o gender and security (pp. 27–36). Routledge.
BeneduceR. (2015). The moral economy of lying: Subjectcraft, narrative capital, and uncertainty in the politics of asylum. Medical Anthropology, 34(6), 551–571. https://doi.org/10.1080/01459740.2015.1074576
6.
BoestenJ. (2014). Sexual violence during war and peace: Gender, power, and post-conflict justice in Peru. Palgrave MacMillan, Studies of the Americas.
7.
BonizzoniP. (2018) ‘Policing the intimate borders of the nation: A review of recent trends in family-related forms of immigration control’, In J. Mulholland, N. Montagna, & E. Sanders-McDonagh (eds) Gendering Nationalism: Intersections of Nation, Gender and Sexulaity, pp. 223–239. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
BourdieuP.WacquantL. J. (1992). An invitation to reflexive sociology. University of Chicago press.
10.
Calderón-JaramilloM.Parra-RomeroD.Forero-MartínezL. J.RoyoM.Rivillas-GarcíaJ. C. (2020). Migrant women and sexual and gender-based violence at the Colombia Venezuela border: A qualitative study. Journal of migration and health, 1–2, 100003.
11.
CockburnC. (2004). The continuum of violence: A gender perspective on war and peace. In GilesW.HyndmanJ. (Eds.), Sites of violence: Gender and conflict zones. University of California Press.
DoocyS.PageK. R.de la HozF.SpiegelP.BeyrerC. (2019). Venezuelan migration and the border health crisis in Colombia and Brazil. Journal on Migration and Human Security, 7(3), 79–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/2331502419860138
14.
DuttonM. A.GreenB. L.KaltmanS. I.RoeschD. M.ZeffiroT. A.KrauseE. D. (2006). Intimate partner violence, PTSD, and adverse health outcomes. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(7), 955–968. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260506289178
15.
FerrisE. G. (2007). Abuse of power: Sexual exploitation of refugee women and girls. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 32(3), 584–591. https://doi.org/10.1086/510338
16.
FreierL. F.PérezL. M. (2021). Nationality-based criminalisation of South-South migration: The experience of Venezuelan forced migrants in Peru. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 27(1), 113–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-020-09475-y
GraceB. L.BaisR.RothB. J. (2018). The violence of uncertainty—undermining immigrant and refugee health. New England Journal of Medicine, 379(10), 904–905. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1807424
IronsR. (2022). ‘Aquí viene una Veneca más': Venezuelan migrants and 'the sexual question' in Peru. Anthropology & Medicine, 29(3), 323–337, https://doi.org/10.1080/13648470.2022.2046700
22.
JenkinsR. (1992). Key sociologists; Pierre Bourdieu. Routledge.
KellyL. (1988). Surviving sexual violence. Polity Press.
25.
KellyL. (2012). Standing the test of time? Reflections on the Concept of the continuum of sexual violence. In JenniferBrownM.WalklateS. L. (Eds.), In Handbook on sexual violence. Routledge. xvii–xxvi.
26.
KentR. B. (1993). Geographical dimensions of the shining Path insurgency in Peru. Geographical Review, 83(4), 441–454. https://doi.org/10.2307/215825
27.
LambrightA. (2015). Andean truths: Transitional justice, ethnicity, and cultural production in post-shining path Peru. Liverpool University Press.
28.
MenjívarC. (2011). The power of the law: Central Americans’ legality and everyday life in Phoenix, Arizona. Latino Studies, 9(4), 377–395, https://doi.org/10.1057/lst.2011.43
29.
MenjívarC.PerreiraK. M. (2019). Undocumented and unaccompanied: Children of migration in the European union and the United States. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 45(2), 197–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1404255
30.
MenjívarC.WalshS. D. (2019). Gender, violence and migration. In Handbook on critical geographies of migration (pp. 45–57). Edward Elgar Publishing.
31.
MenjívarC.WalshS. D. (2017). The architecture of feminicide: The state, inequalities, and everyday gender violence in Honduras. Latin American Research Review, 52(2), 221–240. https://doi.org/10.25222/larr.73
32.
MuelleC. E.OjedaD.FleischerF. (2021). Forced displacement, migration, and (trans) national care networks: Practices of urban space production in Colombia and Spain. A feminist urban theory for our time: Rethinking social reproduction and the urban (pp. 215–235). John Wiley and Sons.
33.
ObinnaD. N. (2019). Transiciones e incertidumbres: La emigración de El Salvador, Honduras y Guatemala. Latino Studies, 17(4), 484–504. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41276-019-00209-8
34.
ObinnaD. N. (2021). Seeking sanctuary: Violence against women in El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala. Violence Against Women, 27(6-7), 806–827. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801220913633
35.
ObinnaD. N.FieldL. M. (2019). Geographic and spatial assimilation of immigrants from Central America's Northern Triangle. International Migration, 57(3), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12557
36.
OzcurumezS.AkyuzS.BradbyH. (2021). The Conceptualization problem in research and responses to sexual and gender-based violence in forced migration. Journal of Gender Studies, 30(1), 66–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2020.1730163
37.
Palma-GutierrezM. (2023). Autonomy and struggle in times of Viral borders: Venezuleans accross the South American Andes during Covid-19. Geopolitics.1–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2023.2193693
38.
PapoutsiA.PhillimoreJ.AkyüzS.BradbyH.GoodsonL.VaughanC. (2022). Geographies of shame: Diachronic and transnational shame in forced migrants with experiences of sexual and gender-based violence. Journal of Refugee Studies, 35(3), 1221–1249. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feac036
39.
PérezL. M.FreierL. F. (2022). My brother the “other”: Use of satire and boundary making by Venezuelan migrants in Peru. Social Inclusion, 10(1), 72–83. https://doi.org/10.17645/si.v10i1.4816
40.
QuinonesL. M. (2020). Sexual harassment in public transport in Bogotá. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 139, 54–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2020.06.018
41.
RaghavanC.MennerichA.SextonE.JamesS. E. (2006). Community violence and its direct, indirect, and mediating effects on intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 12(12), 1132–1149. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801206294115
42.
RichieB. E.EifeE. (2021). Black bodies at the dangerous intersection of gender violence and mass criminalization. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 30(7), 877–888. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2019.1703063
Rylko-BauerB.FarmerP. (2016). Structural violence, poverty, and social suffering. In BradyD.BurtonL.M. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of the social science of poverty (pp. 47–74). Oxford University Press.
46.
SaabB. Y.TaylorA. W. (2009). Criminality and armed groups: A comparative study of FARC and paramilitary groups in Colombia. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 32(6), 455–475. https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100902892570
47.
SchindelE. (2022). Death by ‘nature’: The European border regime and the spatial production of slow violence. Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space, 40(2), 428–446. https://doi.org/10.1177/2399654419884948
48.
SviatschiM. M.TrakoI. (2021). Gender violence, enforcement, and human capital: Evidence from women’s justice centers in Peru. In Policy research working Papers. The World Bank.
Thapar-BjörkertS.SameliusL.SangheraG. S. (2016). Exploring symbolic violence in the everyday: Misrecognition, condescension, consent and complicity. Feminist Review, 112(1), 144–162. https://doi.org/10.1057/fr.2015.53
51.
TorresJ. R.CastroJ. S. (2019). Venezuela’s migration crisis: A growing health threat to the region requiring immediate attention. Journal of Travel Medicine, 26(2), tay141. https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/tay141
YodanisC. L. (2004). Gender inequality, violence against women, and fear: A cross-national test of the feminist theory of violence against women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(6), 655–675. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260504263868
56.
ZulverJ.IdlerA. (2020). Gendering the border effect: The double impact of Colombian insecurity and the Venezuelan refugee crisis. Third World Quarterly, 41(7), 1122–1140. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2020.1744130
