The purpose of this article is to present the best practices of cross-cultural training (CCT) in terms of what organizations are doing and what they should be doing. In presenting the best practices, the following questions will be investigated: (a) why is CCT an important research domain, (b) what is the general purpose of CCT, (c) how is CCT designed and delivered, (d) which CCT strategies are organizations currently implementing, (e) what guidelines can be offered to organizations offering CCT, and (f) what additional research is needed. This article contributes to existing CCT research by providing a condensed set of guidelines instructing organizations on the techniques necessary for maximizing the benefits of CCT.
Ashamalla, M. H. (1998). International human resource management practices: The challenge of expatriation. Competitiveness Review, 8, 54-65.
2.
Ashamalla, M. H., & Crocitto, M. (1997). Easing entry and beyond: Preparing expatriates and patriates for foreign assignment success. International Journal of Commerce& Management, 2, 106-114.
3.
Baldwin, T. T.,& Ford, J. K. (1988). Transfer of training: Areviewand directions for future research. Personnel Psychology, 41, 63-105.
4.
Barham, K. (1991). Developing the international manger. Journal of European Industrial Training, 15, 12-16.
5.
Baumgarten, K. (1995). Training and development of international staff. In A. W. Harzing & J. Van Ruysseveldth (Eds.), InternationalHumanResource Management(pp. 205-228). London: Sage.
6.
Befus, C. P. (1988). A multilevel treatment approach for culture shock experience by sojourners. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 12, 381-400.
7.
Bennett, J. M. (1986). Modes of cross-cultural training: Conceptualizing cross-cultural training as education. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10, 117-134.
8.
Bennett, R., Aston, A., & Colquhoun, T. (2000). Cross-cultural training: A critical step in ensuring the success of international assignments. Human Resource Management, 39, 239-250.
9.
Bhagat, R.,& Prien, K. O. (1996). Cross-cultural training in organizational contexts. In D. Landis& R. S. Bhagat (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training(2nd ed., pp. 216-230). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
10.
Bhawuk, D.P.S. (2001). Evolution of culture assimilators: Toward theory-based assimilators. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25, 141-163.
11.
Bhawuk, D.P.S.,& Brislin, R. W. (2000). Cross-cultural training: A review. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 49, 162-191.
12.
Bing, J. W., & Bing, C. W. (2001). Helping global teams compete. Training and Development, 55, 70-71.
13.
Birdseye, M. G.,& Hill, J. S. (1995). Individual, organizational/work, and environmental influences on expatriate turnover tendencies: Anempirical study. Journal of International Business Studies, 26, 787-813.
14.
Black, J. S. (1988). Work role transitions: Astudy of American expatriate mangers in Japan. Journal of International Business Studies, 19, 277-294.
15.
Black, J. S., Gregersen, H. B.,& Mendenhall, M. E. (1992). Global assignments: Successfully expatriating and repatriating international managers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
16.
Black, J. S.,& Mendenhall, M. E. (1990). Cross-cultural training effectiveness: Areviewand a theoretical framework for future research. Academy of Management Review, 15, 113-136.
17.
Black, J. S., Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (1991). Toward a comprehensive model of international adjustment: An integration of multiple theoretical perspectives. Academy of Management Review, 16, 291-317.
18.
Blassingame, K. M. (2001). ‘C' change recommended for expat management. Employee Benefit News, 15, 11-14.
19.
Brewster, C. (1995). Effective expatriate training. In J. Selmer (Ed.), Expatriate management: New ideas for international business(pp. 57-71). Westport, CT: Quorem.
20.
Brislin, R. (1999). Communicating information about culture and personality in formal crosscultural training programs. InY. T. Lee, C. R. McCauley,& J. G. Draguns (Eds.), Personality and person perception across cultures(pp. 255-277). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
21.
Brislin, R. W.,& Bhawuk, D.P.S. (1999). Cross-cultural training: Research and innovations. In J. Adamopoulos & Y. Kashima (Eds.), Social psychology and cultural context(pp. 205-216). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
22.
Burke, C. S., Hess, K., Salas, E., Priest, H., Paley, M., & Riedel, S. (in press). Preparing leaders for complex environments: The leadership of multicultural teams. In R. Hoffman (Ed.), Expertise out of context. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
23.
Burns, P. (2002). Communication training for IT interculturalwork groups: The significance of prepositions. Information Executive, 6, 4-13.
24.
Caliguiri, P. M. (2000). The big five personality characteristics as predictors of expatriate's desire to terminate the assignment and supervisor-rated performance. Personnel Psychology, 53, 67-88.
25.
Caligiuri, P., Phillips, J., Lazarova, M., Tarique, I.,& Bürgi, P. (2001). The theory of met expectations applied to expatriate adjustment: The role of cross-cultural training. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 12, 357-372.
26.
Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Burns, J. J., Salas, E., & Pruitt, J. S. (1998). Advanced technology in scenario-based training. In J. A. Cannon-Bowers & E. Salas (Eds.), Making decisions under stress: Implications for individual and team training(pp. 365-374). Washington, DC: APA.
27.
Church, A. T. (1982). Sojourner adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 540-572.
28.
Deshpande, S. P.,& Viswesvaran, C. (1992). Is cross-cultural training of expatriate managers effective: A meta analysis. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16, 295-310.
29.
Earley, P. C.,& Peterson, R. S. (2004). The elusive cultural chameleon: Cultural intelligence as a new approach to intercultural training for the global manager. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 3, 100-115.
30.
Elashmawi, F. (2000). How to manage across cultures. People Management, 30, 52-53.
31.
Eschbach, D. M., Parker, G. E.,& Stoeberl, P. A. (2001). American repatriate employees' retrospective assessments of the effects of cross-cultural training on their adaptation to international assignments. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 12, 270-287.
32.
Estienne, M. (1997). The art of cross-cultural management: An alternative approach to training and development. Journal of European Industrial Training, 21, 14-18.
33.
Forster, N. (2000). Expatriates and the impact of cross-cultural training. Human Resource Management Journal, 10, 63-78.
34.
Fowlkes, J., Dwyer, D. J., Oser, R. L., & Salas, E. (1998). Event-based approach to training. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 8, 209-221.
35.
Garcia, K. (2003). Coaching for expats: The latest trend?Retrieved March 12, 2003, from http://www.expatica.com
36.
GMAC Global Relocation Services, National Foreign Trade Council, & SHRM Global Forum. (2003). Global relocation trends 2002 survey report. Woodridge, IL: Author.
37.
Goldstein, I. L. (1991). Training in work organizations. In M. D. Dunnette, & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 2). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
38.
Gomez-Mejia, L., & Balkin, D. B. (1987). The determinants of managerial satisfaction with the expatriation and repatriation process. Journal of Management Development, 6, 7-17.
39.
Greengard, S. (1999). Technology is changing expatriate training. Workforce, 78, 106-107.
40.
Grove, C., & Torbiörn, I. (1993). A new conceptualization of intercultural adjustment and the goals of training. In R. M. Paige, Education for the intercultural experience. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
41.
Gudykunst, W. B., Guzley, R. M., & Hammer, M. R. (1996). Designing intercultural training. In D. Landis& R. W. Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training(2nd ed., pp. 61-80). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
42.
Halcrow, A. (1999). Expats: The squandered resource. Workforce, 78, 42-48.
43.
Harrison, J. K. (2002). Developing successful expatriate managers: A framework for the structural design and strategies alignment of cross-cultural training programs. Human Resource Planning, 17, 17-35.
44.
Harrison, J. K., Chadwick, M.,& Scales, M. (1996). The relationship between cross-cultural adjustment and the personality variables of self-efficacy and self-monitoring. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20, 167-188.
45.
Hurn, B. J.,& Jenkins, M. (2000). International peer group development. Industrial and Commercial Training, 32, 128-131.
46.
Inkson, K., Arthur, M. B., Pringle, J., & Barry, S. (1997). Expatriate assignment versus overseas experience: Contrasting models of international human resource development. Journal ofWorld Business, 32, 351-368.
47.
Kealey, D. J.,& Protheroe, D. R. (1996). The effectiveness of cross-cultural training for expatriates: An assessment of the literature on the issue. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20, 141-165.
48.
Klaus, K. J. (1995). How to establish an effective expatriate program—Best practices in international assignment administration. Employment Relations Today, 22, 59-70.
49.
Kozlowski, S.W.J., & Salas, E. (1997). A multilevel organizational systems approach for the implementation and transfer of training. In J. K. Ford & Associates (Eds.), Improving training effectiveness in work organizations(pp. 247-287). Hillsdale, NJ: LEA.
50.
Landis, D., & Brislin, R. W. (Eds.). (1996). Handbook of intercultural training(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
51.
Laroche, L. (2001). Teaming up. CMA Management, 75, 22-25.
52.
Lievens, F., Harris, M. M., Van Keer, E., & Bisqueret, C. (2003). Predicting cross-cultural training performance: The validity of personality, cognitive ability, and dimensions measured by an assessment center and a behavior description interview. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 476-489.
53.
Mak, A. S., & Tran, C. (2001). Big five personality and cultural relocation factors in Vietnamese Australian students' intercultural social self-efficacy. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25, 181-201.
54.
Martin, J. N., & Harrell, T. (1996). Reentry training for intercultural sojourners. In D. Landis, & R. W. Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training(2nd ed., pp. 307-326). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
55.
Mendenhall, M. E., & Stahl, G. K. (2000). Expatriate training and development: Where do we go from here?Human Resource Management, 39, 251-265.
56.
Mervosh, E. M., & McCleniahan, J. S. (1997, December). The care and feeding of expats. Industry Week, 69-72.
57.
Morris, M. A.,& Robie, C. (2001). A meta-analysis of the effects of cross-cultural training on expatriate performance and adjustment. International Journal of Training and Development, 5, 112-125.
58.
Oddou, G. R. (1991). Managing your expatriates: What the successful firms do. Human Resource Planning, 14, 301-309.
59.
Oser, R. L., Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Salas, E.,& Dwyer, D. J. (1999). Enhancing human performance in technology-rich environments: Guidelines for scenario-based training. Human/Technology Interaction in Complex Systems, 9, 175-202.
60.
Oser, R. L., Gualtieri, J. W., Cannon-Bowers, J. A.,& Salas, E. (1999). Training team problem solving skills: An event-based approach. Computers in Human Behavior, 15, 441-462.
61.
Paige, R. M., Jacobs-Cassuto, M., Yershova, Y. A.,& DeJaeghere, J. (2003). Assessing intercultural sensitivity: An empirical analysis of the Hammer and Bennett Intercultural Development Inventory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 467-486.
62.
Rahim, A. (1983). A model for developing key expatriate executives. Personnel Journal, 62, 312-317.
63.
Ronen, S. (1989). Training the international assignee. In R. A. Katzell (Ed.), Training and development in organizations(pp. 417-453). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
64.
Salas, E., Burke, C. S., Fowlkes, J. E.,& Wilson, K. A. (2004). Challenges and approaches to understanding leadership efficacy in multi-cultural teams. Cultural ergonomics: Advances in human performance and cognitive engineering research, 4, 341-384.
65.
Salas, E., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. (2001). The science of training: A decade of progress. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 471-499.
66.
Salas, E., Cannon-Bowers, J. A.,& Kozlowski, S.W.J. (1997). The science and practice of training— Current trends and emerging themes. In J. K. Ford, S.W.J. Dozlowski, K. Kraiger, E. Salas,& M. S. Teachout (Eds.), Improving training effectiveness in work organizations(pp.357-367). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
67.
Salas, E., Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Rhodenizer, L.,& Bowers, C. A. (1999). Training in organizations: Myths, misconceptions, and mistaken assumptions. Personnel and Human Resources Management, 17, 123-161.
68.
Salas, E., Priest, H. A., Wilson-Donnelly, K. A., & Burke, C. S. (in press). Scenario-based training: Improving mission performance and adaptability. In T. W. Britt, A. B. Adler, & C. A. Castro (Eds.), Studies in military psychology (Vol. 4). Westport, CT: Praeger Press.
69.
Schraagen, J. M., Chipman, S. F.,& Shalin, V. L. (2000). Cognitive task analysis. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
70.
Scullion, H.,& Brewster, C. (2001). The management of expatriates: Messages from Europe?Journal of World Business, 36, 346-365.
71.
Selmer, J. (2001). The preference for predeparture or postarrival cross-cultural training: An exploratory approach. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 16, 50-58.
72.
Selmer, J., Torbiörn, I., & de Leon, C. T. (1998). Sequential cross-cultural training for expatriate business managers: Pre-departure and post-arrival. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 9, 831-840.
73.
Takeuchi, R., Tesluk, P. E., Yun, S., & Lepak, D. P. (2005). An integrative review of international experience. Academy of Management Journal, 48, 85-100.
74.
Takeuchi, R., Yun, S., & Tesluk, P. E. (2002). An examination of crossover and spillover effects of spousal and expatriate cross-cultural adjustment on expatriate outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 655-666.
75.
Tung, R. L. (1982). Selection and training procedures of U.S., European, and Japanese multinationals. California Management Review, 25, 57-71.
76.
Tung, R. L. (1987). Expatriate assignments: Enhancing success and minimizing failure. Academy of Management Executive, 1, 117-126.
77.
Wei, J.,& Salvendy, G. (2004). The cognitive task analysis methods for job and task design: Review and reappraisal. Behaviour & Information Technology, 23, 273-299.
