Focus on the Outcomes of Communication Under Six: Validation of Language Skills in the Jamaican Context

Abstract

The Focus on the Outcomes of Communication Under Six (FOCUS) is one of a few validated outcome measures related to children’s communicative participation. Additional validation of the FOCUS measure could address the paucity of validated outcomes-based measures available for assessing preschool-age children, particularly for those who are multilingual. The data collected for this study, with a representative sample of Jamaican Creole-English speaking children, extend the applicability of the FOCUS to a broader range of preschoolers and expand psychometric evidence for the FOCUS to a multilingual and understudied context.

Keywords

functional communication cultural/linguistic diversity bilingualism/dialects ESL evidence-based practice speech-language pathologists (SLPs)

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2016). Scope of practice in speech-language pathology. https://www.asha.org/policy/SP2016-00343/

American Speech-Language Hearing Association. (2017). Bilingual service delivery. https://www.asha.org/Practice-Portal/Professional-Issues/

Baron

Bedore

L. M.

Pena

E. D.

Lovgren-Uribe

S. D.

Lopez

A. A.

Villagran

(2018). Production of Spanish grammatical forms in U.S. bilingual children. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 27, 975–987. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_AJSLP-17-0074

Boerma

Leseman

Timmermeister

Wijnen

Blom

(2016). Narrative abilities of monolingual and bilingual children with and without language impairment: Implications for clinical practice. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 51(6), 626–638. https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.12234

Brown

(1973). A first language: The early stages. Harvard University Press.

Bornman

Louw

(2021). A model for cross-cultural translation and adaptation of speech-language pathology assessment measures: Application to the Focus on the Outcomes of Communication Under Six (FOCUS). International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 23(4), 382–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/17549507.2020.1831065

Castilla-Earls

Bedore

Rojas

Fabiano-Smith

Pruitt-Lord

Restrepo

M. A.

Peña

(2020). Beyond scores: Using converging evidence to determine speech and language services eligibility for Dual Language Learners. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 29(3), 1116–1132. https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_AJSLP-19-00179

Castilla-Earls

Restrepo

M. A.

Perez-Leroux

A. T.

Gray

Holmes

Gail

Chen

(2016). Interactions between bilingual effects and language impairment: Exploring grammatical markers in Spanish-speaking bilingual children. Applied Psycholinguistics, 37(5), 1147–1173. http://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716415000521

Cohen

(1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum.

10.

Craig

D. R.

(1971). Education and Creole English in the West Indies: Some sociolinguistic factors. In D.

Hymes

(Ed.), Pidginization and creolization of languages (pp. 371–392). Cambridge University Press.

11.

Cunningham

B. J.

Thomas-Stonell

Rosenbaum

(2020). Assessing communicative participation in preschool children with the Focus on the Outcomes of Communication Under Six: A scoping review. (2020). Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 63, 47–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.14665

12.

Cunningham

B. J.

Washington

K. N.

Binns

Rolfe

Robertson

Rosenbaum

(2017). Current methods of evaluating speech-language outcomes for preschoolers with communication disorders: A scoping review using the ICF-CY. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60(2), 447–464. https://doi.org/10.1044/2016_JSLHR-L-15-0329

13.

Devonish

H. S.

Carpenter

(2007). Full bilingual education in a Creole language situation: The Jamaican bilingual primary education project. Society for Caribbean Linguistics.

14.

Devonish

H. S.

Harry

O. G.

(2008). Jamaican Creole and Jamaican English: Phonology. In E. W.

Schneider

(Ed.), Varieties of English: Vol 2. The Americas and the Caribbean (pp. 256–289). Moton De Gruyter.

15.

Dodd

Hua

Crosbie

Holm

Ozanne

(2006). Diagnostic evaluation of articulation and phonology. Harcourt Assessment.

16.

Eadie

T. L.

Yorkston

K. M.

Klasner

E. R.

Dudgeon

B. J.

Deitz

J. C.

Baylor

C. R.

Amtmann

(2006). Measuring communicative participation: A review of self-report instruments in speech-language pathology. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 15(4), 307–320. https://doi.org/:10.1044/1058-0360(2006/030

17.

Ehrler

D. J.

McGhee

R. L.

(2008). Primary test of nonverbal intelligence. Pro-Ed.

18.

Fichman

Altman

Voloskovich

Armon-Lotem

Walters

(2017). Story grammar elements and casual relations in the narratives of Russian–Hebrew bilingual children with SLI and typical language. Journal of Communication Disorders, 69, 72–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2017.08.001

19.

Gutierrez-Clellen

Simon-Cereijido

Sweet

(2012). Predictors of second language acquisition in Latino children with specific language impairment. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 21, 64–77. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2011/10-0090

20.

Hinrichs

(2011). The sociolinguistics of diaspora: Language in the Jamaican Canadian community. In J. R.

Sullivant

(Ed.), Texas Linguistics Forum, Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Symposium About Language and Society (pp. 1–22). University of Texas at Austin.

21.

Irvine-Sobers

G. A.

(2018). The acrolect in Jamaica: The architecture of phonological variation. Language Science Press.

22.

Jamaican Language Unit. (2009). Writing Jamaican the Jamaican way. Arawak Publications.

23.

Kapantzoglou

Brown

J. E.

Cycyk

L. M.

Fergadiotis

(2021). Code-switching and language proficiency in bilingual children with and without Developmental Language Disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 64, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_JSLHR-20-00182

24.

Kapantzoglou

Fergadiotis

Restropo

(2017). Language sample analysis and elicitation technique effects in bilingual children with and without language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60, 2852–2864. https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_JSLHR-L-16-0335

25.

Law

Boyle

Harris

Harkness

Nye

(1998). Screening for speech and language delay: A systematic review of the literature. Health Technol Assessment, 2(9), 1–200.

26.

León

Washington

K. N.

Fritz

Leon

Basinger

Crowe

(2021). Intelligibility in Context Scale: Sensitivity and specificity in the Jamaican context. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 35(2), 154–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699206.2020.1766574

27.

McCormack

McLeod

Harrison

McAllister

(2010). The impact of speech impairment in early childhood: investigating parents' and speech-language pathologists' perspectives using the ICF-CY. Journal of Communication Disorders, 43(5), 378–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2010.04.009

28.

McLeod

(2020). Intelligibility in Context Scale: Cross-linguistic use, validity, and reliability. Speech, Language and Hearing, 23(1), 9–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/2050571X.2020.1718837

29.

McLeod

McCartney

McCormack

(2012). Communication (D310-D369). In A.

Majnemer

(Ed.), Measures for children with developmental disabilities: an ICF-CY approach (22 ed., pp. 321–325). Mac Keith Press.

30.

McLeod

McCormack

(2007). Application of the ICF and ICF-Children and Youth in children with speech impairment. Seminars in Speech and Language, 28(4), 254–264. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-986522

31.

McLeod

Verdon

, & International Expert Panel on Multilingual Children’s Speech. (2017). Tutorial: Speech assessment for multilingual children who do not speak the same language(s) as the speech-language pathologist. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 26(3), 691–708. https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_AJSLP-15-0161

32.

Neumann

Salm

Rietz

Stenneken

(2017). The German Focus on the Outcomes of Communication Under Six (FOCUS-G): Reliability and validity of a novel assessment of communication participation. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60(3), 675–668. https://doi.org/10.1044/2016_JSLHR-L-15-0219

33.

Oddson

Thomas-Stonell

Robertson

Rosenbaum

(2019). Validity of a streamlined version of the Focus on the Outcomes of Communication Under Six: Process and outcome. Child: Care, Health and Development, 45(4), 600–605. https://doi.org/doi:10.1111/cch.12669

34.

Paradis

(2016). The development of English as a second language with and without specific language impairment: Clinical implications. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 59(1), 171–182. https://doi.org/10.1044/2015_JSLHR-L-15-0008

35.

Paradis

Emmerzael

Duncan

(2010). Assessment of English language learners: Using parent report on first language development. Journal of Communication Disorders, 43(6), 474–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2010.01.002

36.

Paradis

Genesee

Crago

(2021). Dual language development and disorders: A handbook on bilingualism and second language learning (CLI). (3rd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company.

37.

Restrepo

M. A.

(1998). Identifiers of predominantly Spanish-speaking children with language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41(6), 1398–1411. https://doi.org/10.1044/jslhr.4106.1398

38.

Rice

M. L.

Smolik

Perpich

Thompson

Rytting

Blossom

(2010). Mean length of utterance levels in 6-month intervals for children 3 to 9 years with and without language impairments. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 53, 333–349. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0183

39.

Singer

Klatte

Welbie

Cnossen

Gerrits

(2020). A multidisciplinary Delphi Consensus study of communicative participation in young children with language disorders. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 63, 1793–1806. https://pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/2020_JSLHR-19-00326

40.

Thomas-Stonell

Oddson

Robertson

Rosenbaum

(2009). Predicted and observed outcomes in preschool children following speech and language treatment: Parent and clinician perspectives. Journal of Communication Disorders, 42(1), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2008.08.002

41.

Thomas-Stonell

Oddson

Robertson

Rosenbaum

(2010). Development of the FOCUS (Focus on the Outcomes of Communication Under Six), a communication outcome measure for preschool children. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 52, 47–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2009.03410

42.

Thomas-Stonell

Washington

Oddson

Robertson

Rosenbaum

(2013). Measuring communicative participation using the FOCUS©: (Focus on the Outcomes of Communication Under Six). Child: Care, Health Development, 39, 474–480. https://doi.org/:10.1111/cch.12049

43.

Threats

(2003). The conceptual framework of ASHA’s new scope of practice for speech-language pathology. Journal of Medical Speech-Language Pathology, 10(3), 17–20.

44.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2017). American Community Survey 1-year estimates. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-kits/2018/acs-1year.html

45.

Washington

K. N.

Fritz

Crowe

Kelly

Wright Karem

(2019). Bilingual preschoolers’ spontaneous productions: Considering Jamaican Creole and English. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 50(2), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_LSHSS-18-0072

46.

Washington

K. N.

McDonald

McLeod

Crowe

Devonish

(2017). Validation of the Intelligibility in Context Scale for Jamaican Creole-speaking preschoolers. American Journal of Speech-Language-Pathology, 26(3), 750–761. https://doi.org/10.1044/2016_AJSLP-15-0103

47.

Washington

K. N.

Oddson

Robertson

Rosenbaum

Thomas-Stonell

(2013). Reliability of the Focus on the Outcomes of Communication Under Six (FOCUS©). Journal of Clinical Practice in Speech-Language Pathology, 15(1), 25–31.

48.

Washington

Thomas-Stonell

McLeod

Warr-Leeper

(2012). Parents’ perspectives on the professional-child relationship and children’s functional communication following speech-language intervention. Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, 36(3), 220–233.

49.

Washington

K. N.

Thomas-Stonell

Oddson

McLeod

Warr-Leeper

Robertson

Rosenbaum

(2013). Construct validity of the FOCUS© (Focus on the Outcomes of Communication Under Six): A communicative participation outcome measure for preschool children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 39, 481–489. https://doi.org/:10.1111/cch.12043

50.

Washington

K. N.

Westby

Fritz

Crowe

Wright Karem

Basinger

(2021). The narrative competence of bilingual Jamaican Creole- and English-speaking preschoolers. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 52(1), 317–334. https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_LSHSS-20-00013

51.

Westby

(2007). Application of the ICF in children with language impairments. Seminars in Speech and Language, 28(4), 65–272. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-986523

52.

Westby

Washington

K. N.

(2017). Using the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health in assessment and intervention of school-aged children with language impairments. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 48(3), 137–152. https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_LSHSS-16-0037

53.

Wiig

E. H.

Secord

W. A.

Semel

(2005). Resource review: Clinical evaluation of language fundamentals preschool-2nd edition. Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, 29(4), 183–184.

54.

Wiig

E. H.

Secord

W. A.

Semel

(2006). Clinical evaluation of language fundamentals preschool (2nd ed.). Harcourt Assessment.

55.

World Health Organization. (2007). International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health—Children and Youth version.

56.

Wright Karem

Washington

K. N

. (2021). The cultural and diagnostic appropriateness of standardized assessments for dual language learners: A focus on Jamaican preschoolers. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 52(3), 807–826. https://doi.org/10.1044/2021_LSHSS-20-00106

57.

Wright Karem

Washington

K. N.

Crowe

. (2021). Cross-linguistic interactions in the spontaneous productions of preschoolers who speak Jamaican Creole and English. Speech, Language, Hearing. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/2050571X.2021.1936914

58.

Wright Karem

Washington

K. N.

Crowe

Jenkins

León

Kokotek

Raisor-Becker

Westby

. (2019). Current methods of evaluating the language abilities of multilingual preschoolers: A scoping review using the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health–Children and Youth Version. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 50(3), 434–451. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_LSHSS-18-0128

59.

Yorkston

K. M.

Baylor

Amtmann

(2014). Communicative participation restrictions in multiple sclerosis: Associated variables and correlation with social functioning. Journal of Communication Disorders, 52, 196–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2014.05.005