Most studies on gender-based violence (GBV) have focused on its physical, sexual, and psychological manifestations. This paper seeks to draw attention to the types of economic violence experienced by women, and describes its consequences on health and development. Economic violence experienced included limited access to funds and credit; controlling access to health care, employment, education, including agricultural resources; excluding from financial decision making; and discriminatory traditional laws on inheritance, property rights, and use of communal land. At work women experienced receiving unequal remuneration for work done equal in value to the men's, were overworked and underpaid, and used for unpaid work outside the contractual agreement. Some experienced fraud and theft from some men, illegal confiscation of goods for sale, and unlawful closing down of worksites. At home, some were barred from working by partners; while other men totally abandoned family maintenance to the women. Unfortunately, economic violence results in deepening poverty and compromises educational attainment and developmental opportunities for women. It leads to physical violence, promotes sexual exploitation and the risk of contracting HIV infection, maternal morbidity and mortality, and trafficking of women and girls. Economic abuse may continue even after the woman has left the abusive relationship. There is need for further large-scale studies on economic violence to women. Multi-strategy interventions that promote equity between women and men, provide economic opportunities for women, inform them of their rights, reach out to men and change societal beliefs and attitudes that permit exploitative behavior are urgently required.
Abezo, B.E. (1999). Microcredit in West Africa: How can small loans make a big impact on poverty? Women and Work, 31, 13-15.
2.
Abor, J. (2006). Female-owned businesses and access to finance: Evidence from the Ghanaian nontraditional export sector. Gender and Behaviour, 4, 508-521.
3.
Ahmed, A.M., & Elmardi, A.E. (2005). A study of domestic violence among women attending a medical centre in Sudan. East Mediterranean Health Journal , 11, 164-174.
4.
Ahmed, S.M. (2005). Intimate partner violence against women: Experiences from a woman-focused development programme in Matlab, Bangladesh. Journal of Health Population and Nutrition, 23, 95-101.
5.
Antoine, P., & Nanitelamio, J. (1990). New status of women and urbanization in Africa. Genus, 46, 17-30.
6.
Anyanwu, S.O. (1995). The girl child: Problems and survival in the Nigerian context. Scandinavian Journal of Developmental Alternatives , 14, 85-105.
7.
Armstrong, S. (1994). Rape in South Africa: An invisible part of apartheid legacy. Focus on Gender, 2, 35-39.
8.
Bauer, N.S., Herrenkohl, T.I., Lozano, P., Rivara, F.P., Hill, K.G., & Hawkins, J.D. (2006). Childhood bullying involvement and exposure to intimate partner violence. Pediatrics, 118, 235-242.
9.
Bulivinic, M., Morrison, A.R., & Shifter, M. (1999). Violence in Latin America and the Caribbean: A framework for action. In A. R. Morrison & B. E. Orlando (Eds.), Too close to home: Domestic violence in the Americas (pp. 3-34). New York: International American Development Bank.
10.
Centre for Health and Gender Equity (CHANGE). ( 1999). Population reports: Ending violence against women. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University School of Public Health and Centre for Health and Gender Equity. Available at http:/www.infoforhealth.org/pr/l11/violence.pdf
11.
Centre for Women's Research. (2000). Country report on violence against women. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Author.
12.
Chen, C. (2005). Progress of the world's women 2005: Women, work and poverty. New York: United Nations Development Fund for Women.
13.
Coker, A.L., Davis, K.E., Arias, I., Desai, S., Sanderson, M., Brandt, H.M., & Smith, P.H. (2002). Physical and mental health effects of intimate partner violence for men and women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23, 260-268.
14.
Coker, A.L., & Richter, D.L. (1998). Violence against women in Sierra Leone: Frequency and correlates of intimate partner violence and forced sexual intercourse . African Journal of Reproductive Health, 2, 61-72.
15.
Commonwealth Secretariat, Social Transformation Programme Division. (2000). Gender: Combating violence to women . London: Author.
16.
Directorate General for Status and Problems of Women, Republic of Turkey. (1997). National Plan of Action for Turkey: Implementations and follow-up of the conclusions of the United Nations Fourth Conference on Women. Ankara, Turkey: Author. Available online at http://www.die.gov.tr/CIN/National-Action-Plan-of-Turkey-women.htm
17.
Drakakis-Smith, D.W. (1984). The changing economic role of women in the urbanization process: A preliminary report from Zimbabwe. International Migration Review, 4, 1278-1292.
18.
Dunkle, K.L., Jewkes, R.K., Brown, H.C., Yoshihama, M., Gray, G.E., McIntyre, J.A. & Harlow, S.D. (2004). Prevalence and patterns of GBV and revictimization among women attending antenatal clinics in Soweto, South Africa. American Journal of Epidemiology, 160, 230-239.
19.
Engle, O., & Patrice, L. (2000, August). Urban women: Balancing work and childcare. 2020 focus (Brief No. 08). Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.
20.
Fang, X., & Corso, P.S. (2007). Child maltreatment, youth violence, and intimate partner violence developmental relationship. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33, 281-290.
Fawole, O.I., Aderonmu, A.L., & Fawole, A.O. (2005). Intimate partner abuse: Wife beating in civil servants in Ibadan, Nigeria. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 9, 54-64.
23.
Fawole, O.I., Ajuwon, A.J., & Osungbade, K.O. (2005). Evaluation of interventions to prevent gender-based violence among young female apprentices in Ibadan, Nigeria. Health Education, 105, 2-9.
24.
Fawole, O.I., Ajuwon, A.J., Osungbade, K.O., & Faweya, C.O. (2003). Prevalence and nature of violence to young female hawkers in motor parks in southwestern Nigeria. Health Eduation , 102, 230-238.
25.
Federal Ministry of Health and UNICEF. (2001 ). Children's and women's rights in Nigeria: A wake-up call, situation assessment and analysis. Abuja, Nigeria: Author.
26.
Fischband, R.I., & Herbert, B. (1997). Domestic violence and mental health: Correlates and conundrums within and across cultures. Social Science and Medicine, 45, 1161-1176.
27.
Fonkem, R.N. (1999, March 22). In Cameroon, a female-centered organization works to conquer the poverty of rural women. United Nations Chronicle, p. 70. Available online at http://www.un.org/Pubs/chronicle/1999/issue1/0199p70.htm
28.
Gracheva, V. (1999, October 7-8). Socio-economic roots for cases of male violence against women in Russia. Speech presented at the Council of Europe's seminar on male violence against women, Strasbourg , France. Available online at http://www.eurowrc.org/13.institutions/3.coe/en-violence-coe/10.en-coe-oct99.htmGrown, C., Gupta, G.R., & Kes , A. (2005). Taking action: Achieving gender equality and empowering women. Sterling, VA: Earthscan Press.
29.
Heise, L., Ellsberg, M., & Goheemoeller, M. (1999). Ending violence against women. Population Report Series, 1, 11.
30.
Jewkes, R., Levin, J., & Penn Kekana, L. (2002). Risk factors for domestic violence: Findings from a South African cross-sectional study. Social Science and Medicine, 55, 1603-1617.
31.
Johnson, C. (1997). Domestic violence: The cost to society, the challenge to development. Gender Action;1, 2-3.
32.
Kapur, P. (1995). Girl child abuse: Violation of her human rights . Social Change, 25(2-3), 3-18.
33.
Khan, M.R. (1999). Microfinance, wage employment and work: A gender analysis. Development Practice, 9, 424-436.
34.
Kishor, S., & Johnson, K. (2004). Profiling domestic violence: A multicountry study . Calverton, MD: ORC Macro.
35.
Lipsky, S., Caetano, R., Field, C.A., & Larkin, G.L. (2005). Is there a relationship between victim and partner alcohol use in an intimate partner violence event? Findings from an urban emergency department study of abused women. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 66, 407-412.
36.
Luke, N. (2003). Age and economic asymmetries in the sexual relationships of adolescent girls in sub-Saharan Africa. Studies in Family Planning;34, 67-86.
37.
Malcoe, L.H., Duran, B.M., & Montgomery, J.M. (2004). Socioeconomic disparities in intimate partner violence against Native American women: A cross-sectional study. BMC Medicine, 24, 2-20.
38.
Martin, S.L., Tsui, A.O., Maitra, K., & Marinshaw, R. (1999). Domestic violence in northern India. American Journal of Epidemiology, 150, 417-426.
39.
Mazza, D., Dennerstein, L., & Ryan, V. (1996). Physical, sexual and emotional violence against women: A general practice-based study. Medical Journal of Australia, 164, 14-17.
40.
McCloskey, L.A., Williams, C., & Larsen, U. (2005). Gender inequality and intimate partner violence among women in Moshi: Tanzania. International Family Planning Perspectives, 31, 124-140.
41.
Meena, R. (1992). Women and sustainable development. South Africa Economic Monitor, 5, 38-41.
42.
Ministry of Women and Children's Affairs, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. (2004). Plan of action for children and women: 2004-2009. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Author.
43.
Ministry of Women's Affairs, South Africa. ( 2007). Mlambo-Ngcuka: Launch of 365 Days national action plan against gender-based violence. Johannesburg, South Africa: Author.
44.
Mohindra, K.S., Haddad, S., & Narayan, D. (2008). Can microcredit help improve the health of poor women? Some findings from a cross-sectional study in Kerata, India. International Journal of Equity in Health, 10, 1-2.
45.
Mzungu, M. (1999). Girl domestic violence in Kenya. Links, 6, 2-9.
46.
Nangolo, H.N. (2003). Violence against women and its mental health consequences in Namibia. Gender & Behaviour, 1, 16-33.
47.
National Population Commission and ORC Macro. ( 2004). Nigerian demographic and health survey 2003. Calverton, MD: Author.
48.
Pike, I.L., & Williams, S.R. (2006). Incorporating psychosocial health into biocultural models: Preliminary findings from Turkana women of Kenya. American Journal of Human Biology, 18, 729-740.
49.
Pillay, A.L., & Schoubben-Hesk, S. (2001). Depression, anxiety and hopelessness in sexually abused adolescent girls. Psychology , 88, 727-733.
50.
Pontecorvo, C., Mejia, R., Aleman, M., Vidal, A., Majdalani, M.P., Fayanas, R., Fernandez, A., & Perez Stable, E.J. (2004). Detection of domestic violence against women: Survey in a primary health care clinic. Medicina (Buenos Aires)64, 492-496.
51.
Prince Edward Island Woman Abuse Protocols. ( 2000, November). Victim services. Prince Edward Island, Canada : Available online at http://www.isn.net/cliapei/womanabuse/victimservices.htm
52.
Rabiul Karim, K.M. (2006). Men's arrack drinking and domestic violence against women in a Bangladesh village. International Quarterly Community Health Education, 25, 367-380.
53.
Raphael, J. (2002). Keeping battered women safe during welfare reform: New challenges. Journal of the American Medical Women's Association , 57, 32-35.
54.
Reichenheim, M.E., Moares, C.L., Szklo, A., Hasselmann, M.H., de Souza, E.R., Lozana, J.A., & Figueiredo, V. (2006). The magnitude of intimate partner violence in Brazil: Portraits from 15 capital cities and the federal district. Cad Saude Publicia, 22, 425-437.
55.
Schuler, S.R., Hashemi, S.M., & Badal, S.H. (1998). Is men's violence against women in rural Bangladesh undermined or exacerbated by the microcredit programme? Development Practice, 8, 148-151.
56.
Sidley, P. (1999). Doctors demand AIDS drugs for women who have been raped. British Medical Journal, 318, 1507.
57.
Son, H.H., & Kakwani, N. (2006, June). The gender pay gap over women's working lifetime. Brasilia, Brazil: International Poverty Centre. Available online at http://www.undp-povertycentre.org/pub/IPCOnePager20.pdf
58.
Steering Committee for Equality Between Women and Men. (1998). Summary of the plan of action to combat violence against women. (S. Henderson, Preparer). Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe.
59.
Swanberg, J.E., Logan, T., & Macke, C. (2005). Intimate partner violence, employment, and the workplace: Consequences and future directions. Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 6, 286-312.
60.
Unicef. (2007). The state of the world's children 2007. Women and children-The double dividend of gender equality. New York: Author.
61.
United Nations Department of Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development. (1995). The Beijing platform of action (Annex II of the Addendum to the Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women). New York: Author. Available online at http://www.un.org/esa/gopherdata/conf/fwcw/off/a-20.en
62.
United Nations Development Programme. (2005 ). Human development report 2005. International cooperation at a cross-roads: Aid, trade and security in an unequal world. New York: Oxford University Press.
63.
United Nations Education and Scientific Organization (UNESCO). (2003). Meeting of experts on women in the informal sector-Management of social transformations, Kenya. New York: Author.
64.
United Nations Fund for Women (UNIFEM). (1999 ). A world free of violence against women (U.N. global video-conference) . New York: Author.
65.
United Nations Fund for Women (UNIFEM) and Network Women's Programme. (2000). Stop violence to women: A paper by the Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights. New York: Author.
66.
UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. (2000). Domestic violence against women and girls. Florence, Italy: Author.
67.
United Nations Population Fund. (2005). The state of the world's population 2005: The promise of equality, gender equity, reproductive health and the millennium development goals. New York: Author.
68.
United States Agency for International Development (USAID). (1997). Microcredit-An emergency to fight poverty. USAID Development, 3, 2.
69.
Weinsheimer, R.L., Schermer, C.R., Malcoe, L.H., Baldulf, L.M., & Bloomfield, L.A. (2005). Severe intimate partner violence and alcohol use among female trauma patients. Journal of Trauma, 58, 22-29.
70.
Woldie, A., & Adersua, A. (2004). Female entrepreneurs in a transitional economy: Businesswomen in Nigeria. International Journal of Social Economics, 31, 78-93.
71.
World Health Organization. (2002). World report on violence and health. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
72.
Zink, T., & Sill, M. (2004). Intimate partner violence and job security. Journal of The American Medical Women's Association, 59, 32-35.
